16
249 Soil Genesis and Classification, Sixth Edition. S. W. Buol, R. J. Southard, R. C. Graham and P. A. McDaniel. © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Andisols: Soils with Andic Soil Properties Andisols are soils with properties dominated by short-range-order compounds such as aluminosilicates, ferrihydrite, and organometallic complexes. The vast majority of Andisols formed from volcanic tephra (ash, pumice, cinders) and related volcanic parent materials, although a few have formed from nonvolcanic materials. Formally adopted as the 11th soil order in 1990 (Soil Survey Staff, 1990), Andisols represent many soils known by other names, including Ando soils, Kurobokudo, Andosols, and Volcanic Ash Soils. Although the definition does not precisely match the definitions of these other groups of soils, Andisols are closely related to Andosols, one of the 32 reference soil groups in the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (IUSS Working Group WRB 2006). In the first edition of Soil Taxonomy, Andisols were mostly identified as Andepts and Andaquepts (Inceptisols), a placement that recognized the properties resulting from minimal crystallization and redistribution of weathering products. Setting The primary control of Andisol characteristics is volcanic parent material, especially ash. Volcanic ash refers to the <2-mm-diameter material that is blown out of a volcano during an eruption. Thus, the geographic distribution of active volcanoes and those that have been active during the Holocene and, in some cases, Late Pleistocene is the major determinant of Andisol distribution. Soils formed on volcanic deposits older than these generally have mineral suites dominated by crystalline aluminosilicates. Parent materials of Andisols encompass a wide range of chemical composition and mineralogy, and include lava flows, tephras, pyroclastic flows, lahar deposits, volcanic alluvium, and volcanic loess, but generally exclude ultramafic volcanic material (Neall 1985). It is estimated that Andisols only occupy approximately 0.7 of the earth’s ice-free land surface, or just under 963,000 km 2 , making it the least extensive of any of the soil orders (Soil Survey Staff 1999). Major areas occur from Iceland in the Northern Hemisphere to southern Chile in the southern hemisphere (Leamy et al. 1980). Extensive “belts” are found around the “ring of fire” in the Pacific including the Andes of South America, the Central America cordillera, Alaska, Japan, Philippines, Indonesia, New Zealand, and the Pacific Northwest of the United States 9

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249

Soil Genesis and Classification, Sixth Edition. S. W. Buol, R. J. Southard, R. C. Graham and P. A. McDaniel.© 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Andisols: Soils with Andic Soil Properties

Andisols are soils with properties dominated by short-range-order compounds such as aluminosilicates, ferrihydrite, and organometallic complexes. The vast majority of Andisols formed from volcanic tephra (ash, pumice, cinders) and related volcanic parent materials, although a few have formed from nonvolcanic materials. Formally adopted as the 11th soil order in 1990 (Soil Survey Staff, 1990), Andisols represent many soils known by other names, including Ando soils, Kurobokudo, Andosols, and Volcanic Ash Soils. Although the definition does not precisely match the definitions of these other groups of soils, Andisols are closely related to Andosols, one of the 32 reference soil groups in the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (IUSS Working Group WRB 2006). In the first edition of Soil Taxonomy, Andisols were mostly identified as Andepts and Andaquepts (Inceptisols), a placement that recognized the properties resulting from minimal crystallization and redistribution of weathering products.

SettingThe primary control of Andisol characteristics is volcanic parent material, especially ash. Volcanic ash refers to the <2-mm-diameter material that is blown out of a volcano during an eruption. Thus, the geographic distribution of active volcanoes and those that have been active during the Holocene and, in some cases, Late Pleistocene is the major determinant of Andisol distribution. Soils formed on volcanic deposits older than these generally have mineral suites dominated by crystalline aluminosilicates. Parent materials of Andisols encompass a wide range of chemical composition and mineralogy, and include lava flows, tephras, pyroclastic flows, lahar deposits, volcanic alluvium, and volcanic loess, but generally exclude ultramafic volcanic material (Neall 1985). It is estimated that Andisols only occupy approximately 0.7 of the earth’s ice-free land surface, or just under 963,000 km2, making it the least extensive of any of the soil orders (Soil Survey Staff 1999). Major areas occur from Iceland in the Northern Hemisphere to southern Chile in the southern hemisphere (Leamy et al. 1980). Extensive “belts” are found around the “ring of fire” in the Pacific including the Andes of South America, the Central America cordillera, Alaska, Japan, Philippines, Indonesia, New Zealand, and the Pacific Northwest of the United States

9

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(McDaniel et al. 2010). Small areas of The Rift Valley of Africa, as well as Italy, France, Spain, and Romania also have important areas of Andisols.

All soil moisture regimes and all soil temperature regimes are found in Andisols. However, limited water for hydrolytic reactions in extremely arid regions prevents the weathering of volcanic ash, and hence the formation of Andisols. Vegetation is also very diverse, ranging from desert shrubs in arid regions, to dense coniferous forests in humid regions, to tundra in cold regions of higher latitudes and elevations. The asso-ciation of Andisols with volcanic activity also dictates that they are frequently on steep mountain slopes at higher elevations. However, forming from airborne material, they can be found on any terrain, including floodplains where the volcanic material is water deposited.

Pedogenic ProcessesMany of our usual concepts of soil formation have to be modified somewhat when considering the genesis of Andisols. The most noticeable difference is that the youngest and sometimes least-weathered part of the soil is the surface layer or horizon. Many Andisols are formed in unconsolidated volcanic ejecta originating from sequential eruptions of one or more volcanoes. The result is a distinctly layered soil profile with buried soil horizons (Figure 9.1). In quiet periods between eruptions, weathering and other soil-forming processes proceed in a top-down manner, giving rise to a sequence of soil horizons. A subsequent eruption can then cover the land surface with fresh tephra. In cases where tephra accumulates rapidly, existing soil horizons may be deeply buried and effectively isolated from further pedogenesis as soil formation resumes at the new land surface. This scenario is known as retardant upbuilding (Schaetzl and Anderson 2005) and gives rise to soils such as the one shown in Figure 9.1. Alternatively, if subsequent eruptions produce relatively thin additions of new tephra and accumulation rates are low, developmental upbuilding continues (Schaetzl and Anderson 2005). As new tephra is added to the soil profile, it is exposed to pedogenesis before burial. This results in the intermixed tephra deposits having a soil fabric inherited from when the tephra was part of the A or B horizon (McDaniel et  al. 2010). In short, understanding Andisol genesis in many instances requires a stratigraphic approach in combination with an appreciation of buried soil horizons and polygenesis.

The nature of ash falls varies greatly both in time and space. Volcanic events can be of short duration or persist as a continuous eruption over several years. The size of particles deposited at a site may one day be coarse and the next fine, depend-ing upon the direction and speed of the wind. Some eruptions completely bury both soil and vegetation, whereas many and perhaps most ash falls only partially bury the vegetation, which continues to grow as the ash accumulates. Materials of contrasting composition are common from the same volcano, even during a single eruption.

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Volcanic ash is mineralogically different from most other parent materials. Rapid cooling of the molten materials upon ejection prevents crystallization of min-erals with long-range atomic order, and the resulting product is known as volcanic glass or vitric material (Figure 9.2). Although the bulk chemical composition may be similar to that of other rocks with well-defined mineral constituents (e.g., rhyolitic, andesitic, basaltic), discrete minerals do not exist. As a result, volcanic glass is more weatherable than crystalline materials with the same bulk composition. Volcanic eruptions that produce significant amounts of ash are usually explosive due to the high silica content of the magma and a large component of gases (water, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide). The explosive eruptions consist not only of glass formed by the cooling of magma, but also of fragments of rocks, often hydrothermally altered, from the throat of the volcano. Many of these lithic fragments may be coated by glass. The resulting ash fall, often called tephra deposits or pyroclastic material (approximate synonyms), therefore may be a mixture of crystalline minerals and volcanic glass.

The glassy materials that dominate the coarser fractions of many Andisols weather relatively rapidly to form colloidal materials that possess short-range order. Once

Figure 9.1. Typic Udivitrand from central North Island of New Zealand. Exposure shows sequence of buried soil horizons formed in multiple tephra deposits. Stratigraphy, tephra unit ages (left side of figure), and horizon designations are from Lowe (2008). Scale divisions = 10 cm.

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252 Soil Genesis and Classification

thought to be amorphous, these materials comprise very small but structured nanominerals (Hochella 2008). The predominant weathering products include allophane, imogolite, ferrihydrite, and metal-humus complexes. These minerals differ markedly from those of most other mineral soils and confer the unique properties associated with Andisols. Even a fundamental soil property such as texture takes on a new meaning, as many of the weathering products, especially in moister environments, tend to exist as gels rather than discrete clay-size particles. This, coupled with high variable charge, makes complete dispersion of these materials difficult. Not surprising is the fact that laboratory particle-size analyses generally indicate less clay-size material than do field estimates (Ping et al. 1989).

The suite of weathering products found in Andisols depends to a large extent on the leaching regime, the acidity of the weathering environment, the supply of organic acids, and the presence of 2:1 layer silicates. Shoji et al. (1993) and Dahlgren et al. (2004) provide extensive discussions of the weathering environments and processes. Brief descriptions of two of the most common weathering scenarios are presented here.

As glass and other minerals weather via dissolution and hydrolysis by carbonic acid, aluminum and silicon are released. Under conditions where soil pH ∼>5 or when organic matter production is relatively low, aluminum and silicon polymerize and precipitate to form the short-range-order aluminosilicates allophane and imogolite in  surface horizons. Iron may also precipitate as ferrihydrite, a short-range-order oxyhydroxide (Bigham et al. 2002). These weathering products are characteristic of allophanic Andisols (Figure 9.3).

10mm

Figure 9.2. Scanning electron micrograph of a glass shard from the eruption of Mount Mazama (now Crater Lake, OR) approximately 7,700 years ago. The vesicles seen in the glass indicate a highly explosive eruption of viscous magma. Today, this glass blankets most of the forested regions of the Pacific Northwest. (Image courtesy of University of Idaho.)

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Although once considered amorphous, allophane consists of hollow spheres with diameters of 3.5–5 nm (Parfitt 2009) (Figure 9.4A). Imogolite has a somewhat simi-lar chemical composition but appears as long thread-like tubes with inner and outer diameters of 1 and 2 nm, respectively (Churchman 2000) (Figure 9.4B). In some cases, poorly crystalline smectites appear to be the initial weathering products, which subsequently are desilicated to form allophane and imogolite (Southard and Southard 1989). Over time, dehydration and structural rearrangement of allophane and imogolite may lead to halloysite formation, especially if desilication is not too severe. Halloysite formation is favored under conditions of lower rainfall, Si-rich parent materials, and restricted drainage (Lowe 1986; Churchman 2000). Progressive desil-ication may ultimately produce gibbsite in some Andisols, although the horizons that contain gibbsite may not have andic properties. Seasonal dryness, as in ustic and xeric soil moisture regimes, seems to speed the formation of the crystalline clays, while perudic soil moisture regimes favor the persistence of the short-range-order compounds.

A second mineral weathering scenario occurs under more acidic conditions when soil pH is ∼<5 and organic matter is relatively abundant. Organic acids produced by the decomposition of plant materials compete with silica for the binding of aluminum (and iron). Metal-humus complexes, especially those with aluminum, are preferentially formed. These complexes tend to precipitate in the surface horizons rather than be translocated from A horizons (Dahlgren et al. 1991). The aluminum is toxic to many microorganisms, protecting the organic fraction from microbial decomposition, and

Figure 9.3. Alfic Udivitrand from northern Idaho. Soil has formed in 7,700-year-old ash from the cataclysmic eruption of Mount Mazama (now Crater Lake, Oregon). Volcanic ash mantle extends to a depth of ∼40 cm. Scale divisions are decimeters. For color detail, please see color plate section.

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254 Soil Genesis and Classification

the aluminum-humus complexes accumulate in surface horizons. Note the similarity of this process to that discussed in Chapter 17 regarding Spodosols. These Andisols are referred to as nonallophanic because they are dominated by organic rather than inorganic short-range-order compounds (Figure 9.5). If 2:1 layer silicate minerals are present in the parent material, the aluminum may also precipitate as hydroxy- interlayer islands. Under these conditions, desilication is a dominant process in the surface and upper subsurface horizons. Opaline silica accumulations are common, especially in semiarid climates.

Andisols generally have higher organic matter contents than do other mineral soils in similar environments. Many researchers have demonstrated positive correla-tions between organic matter and allophane, imogolite, and ferrihydrite. Interactions between these components appear to result in organic matter stabilization (Dahlgren et al. 2004). Organic matter may sorb to these short-range-order minerals, thereby decreasing mineralization rates. Iron and aluminum are also able to bind with humic substances, creating complexes that are very resistant to degradation and leaching (Hiradate 2004). Active aluminum associated with Al-humus complexes can be toxic to many microorganisms, thereby inhibiting decomposition and increasing the residence time of the organic fraction.

10 nm

10 nm

(A)

(B)

Figure 9.4. Micrographs of (A) allophane spherules and (B) imogolite threads from an Icelandic Andisol (Haplocryand). (Courtesy Geoderma and modified from Wada et al. 1992, Clay minerals of four soils formed in eolian and tephra materials in Iceland, Geoderma 52, p. 359, with permission from Elsevier)

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Andisols may be pedogenically linked with soils of other orders. Soils formed in fresh, unweathered volcanic ejecta have not undergone sufficient weathering to develop andic properties and are classified as Entisols. Dahlgren et al. (1997) estimated that approximately 200–300 years of weathering are required for silicic tephra to attain andic soil properties under cryic-udic conditions. Other pedogenic linkages may also occur. In cool, moist environments, Fe and Al derived from weathering of volcanic ash can form organometallic complexes that may then be translocated to form spodic horizons. Spodosols in tephra deposits have been reported in Japan (Shoji et al. 1988), New Zealand (Parfitt and Saigusa 1985), the Pacific Northwest region of the United States (Dahlgren and Ugolini 1991; McDaniel et al. 1993), and Alaska (Ping et al. 1989). Under warm, moist conditions and with-out significant additions of fresh volcanic ejecta, Andisols may eventually develop into soils of other orders as meta-stable weathering products are transformed into crystalline minerals. As an example, both Ultisols and Oxisols have formed from Andisols under humid, tropical conditions in Costa Rica (Martini 1976; Nieuwenhuyse et al. 2000) and Hawaii (Chadwick et al. 1999). Transformation of Andisols to Inceptisols and Alfisols has also been reported in the literature (Dahlgren et al. 2004).

Selected properties of representative Andisols are presented in Table 9.1. The Typic Vitrixerand has formed in 7,700-year-old tephra under xeric/frigid regimes, and represents a relatively early stage of Andisol development. In contrast, the Acrudoxic

Figure 9.5. Melanudand from Costa Rica. Soil has a melanic epipedon and is an example of a nonallophanic Andisol in which organo-metal compounds dominate the colloidal fraction. Scale divisions are decimeters. For color detail, please see color plate section.

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256

Tabl

e 9.

1. S

elec

ted

prop

ertie

s of

And

isol

s. D

ata

for

the

Bon

ner

seri

es (

Pedo

n no

. 78P

0553

) an

d K

aiw

iki s

erie

s (P

edon

no.

07N

0375

) ar

e fr

om th

e U

SDA

-NR

CS

Nat

iona

l Coo

pera

tive

Soil

Surv

ey S

oil C

hara

cter

izat

ion

Dat

abas

e (S

oil S

urve

y St

aff

2010

b). B

onne

r so

ils h

ave

a xe

ric

soil

moi

stur

e an

d fr

igid

soi

l tem

pera

ture

reg

ime;

Kai

wik

i soi

ls a

re u

dic

and

isom

esic

Bul

k de

nsity

1,50

0 kP

a H

2O

rete

ntio

nA

l +

1/2

Fe b

New

Z

eala

nd P

re

tent

ion

CE

C

pH7

EC

EC

cD

epth

moi

st

oven

dry

Sand

Si

lt

Cla

ym

oist

ai

r dr

ypH

C

Hor

izon

cm

g

cm−

3

%

%

H2O

N

aF

–——

——

—–%

——

——

––

—cm

ol(+

) kg

−1 —

Bon

ner

seri

es (

Typi

c V

itrix

eran

d)—

Idah

oA

0–4

0.68

0.75

30.6

63.8

5.6

−a

20.3

−9.

513

.49

1.14

3836

.9−

Bw

14–

20−

−38

.158

.03.

9−

10.0

6.0

10.6

2.54

2.31

6618

.9−

Bw

220

–48

0.94

0.96

39.3

59.0

1.7

−9.

96.

110

.61.

342.

3258

13.4

−B

w3

48–6

9−

−52

.644

.13.

3−

6.8

6.1

10.4

0.63

1.61

429.

6−

Bw

469

–89

0.80

0.80

52.7

44.8

2.5

−6.

86.

210

.30.

591.

2437

9.4

−2C

89–1

52−

−86

.69.

81.

6−

2.2

6.0

7.6

0.08

0.16

304.

1−

Kai

wik

i ser

ies

(Acr

udox

ic H

ydru

dand

)—H

awai

iA

0–16

0.78

1.09

15.3

33.5

51.2

68.1

36.2

5.2

9.3

11.6

86.

1270

46.8

4.3

Bw

116

–46

0.69

1.03

13.0

37.9

49.1

176.

827

.45.

610

.49.

0510

.38

9250

.70.

9B

w2

46–8

50.

761.

0711

.042

.946

.114

9.5

24.2

5.5

10.6

6.68

8.09

9240

.71.

0B

w3

85

–120

0.

71

0.99

10

.6

33.7

55

.7

251.

6

27.5

5.

6

10.8

8.

36

9.13

94

50

.4

a not

det

erm

ined

.b e

xtra

cted

usi

ng a

cid

amm

oniu

m o

xala

te.

c eff

ectiv

e ca

tion

exch

ange

cap

acity

= b

ases

+ A

l.

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Hydrudand has weathered extensively under udic/isomesic regimes as evidenced by the higher measured clay contents and 1,500 kPa water retention.

It is important to recognize that not all Andisols form from volcanic parent materials. The nonvolcanic Andisols generally occur under cool, humid climates, wherein rapid mineral weathering produces abundant aluminum, which forms complexes with large amounts of organic matter in surface horizons. The Lytell series in coastal mountains of Washington state is an example of an Andisol that has formed in siltstone or fine-grained sandstone dominated by quartz, feldspar, mica, and phyllosilicate clays rather than volcanic materials (Hunter et al. 1987). High rainfall (∼2,500 mm of annual precipitation), an isomesic soil temperature regime, and abundant organic acids result in the formation of Al- and Fe-humus complexes and hydrous Fe oxides of varying crystallinity (Hunter et al. 1987); this mineralogical suite is responsible for the observed andic soil properties and classification as a Typic Fulvudand (Soil Survey Division 2010).

Uses of AndisolsThe uses of Andisols are limited by extremely cold conditions on high volcanic peaks and at high latitudes and by dryness in arid regions. Most Andisols are on steep slopes, thus limiting the use of much mechanization in farming operations. Many Andisols in cool, mountainous terrain support commercial timber harvest operations. Andisols of the inland mountainous areas of Washington, Idaho, and Oregon support the most productive forests found within the region (Kimsey et al. 2008). Much of this productivity is attributable to increased water-holding capacity associated with tephra mantles in these seasonally dry landscapes (McDaniel et al. 2005).

Where climatic conditions are favorable, Andisols support dense human populations. Despite having the least areal extent of the 12 soil orders, Andisols are estimated to support as much as 10% of the earth’s population (Ping 2000). Most notable among these areas are parts of the Rift valley in east Africa, the Andean chain in South America, Central America, Japan, and the island of Java in Indonesia. Andisols generally have low bulk density and are easy to till. Being composed of relatively unweathered materials, they can be very fertile, with the fertility being related to the chemistry of the volcanic ejecta. Coolness, related to altitude, favors a low rate of disease and in the free-draining Andisols, there is little stagnant water to promote insect reproduction. Alluvial valleys in Andisol areas are often very fertile, although the soils may be mixed with other material and not classified as Andisols.

There can also be significant limitations to plant growth in Andisols. Siliceous tephras in combination with high rainfall and leaching, as on the North Island of New  Zealand, give rise to low-fertility Andisols (Lowe and Palmer 2005). Most Andisols are acid, and in cases of very high acidity, high levels of exchangeable Al can inhibit plant growth. This problem is most common in nonallophanic Andisols (Dahlgren et al. 2004) but can be mitigated with additions of lime (Takahashi et al.

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258 Soil Genesis and Classification

2006). Allophanic Andisols are converted to nonallophanic Andisols in as little as 30 years with the establishment of bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) vegetation on clear-cut sites in northern Idaho (Johnson-Maynard et al. 1997). This shift is brought about by a substantial increase in belowground organic carbon and an accompanying increase in active aluminum associated with Al-humus complexes; the increase in active aluminum appears to be associated with poor timber regeneration.

A major limitation to improvement of Andisols for agricultural use is their tendency to strongly sorb or “fix” phosphate in a plant-unavailable form (Fox 1980). Phosphate retention results in very low soil-solution concentrations of phosphate (Figure 9.6). The phosphate appears to bind to Al-OH and Fe-OH groups via ligand exchange (Harsh et al. 2002; Schwertmann and Taylor 1989).

Because it is such an important characteristic of Andisols, high-phosphate retention is used as a criterion for defining andic soil properties in Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff 2010a). The highest P fixation is found in those soils that are fine grained and have relatively high Al:Si ratios. Soil material with the greatest potential to fix P can be identified by pH value >10.6 in 1N NaF (Alvarado and Buol 1985). Because large quantities of aluminum are present in both the organometallic and aluminosilicate short-range-order compounds in many Andisols, it is often not practical to overcome the fixation capacity by fertilizer application. Unique methods of P fertilization, such as adding large pellets of superphosphate to the soil or soaking potato tubers in phosphate solution have been known to work in such soils.

800

Andicmaterials

Non-andicmaterials

700

600

500

P s

orbe

d (p

pm)

400

300

200

100

00.01 0.1 1 10 100

Soil-solution P (ppm)

Figure 9.6. Relationship between sorbed P and soil-solution P in andic and non-andic materials in a soil profile from northern Idaho. Data points for each curve represent additions of 5, 25, 50, and 75 ppm of P. Andic materials fix virtually all of the added P and are able to maintain only low concentrations of P in soil solution. (Data from Jones et al. 1979)

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Most Andisols are stable and resist water erosion because of rapid infiltration and  relatively high permeability. However, physical disturbance of Andisols may significantly reduce permeability and increase susceptibility to water erosion. Timber-harvesting traffic on skid trails in western Montana reduced infiltration by as much as 81% in volcanic ash-mantled soils (Cullen et al. 1991). When dry, Andisols are susceptible to wind erosion (Warkentin and Maeda 1980) and are often very dusty when trafficked for agriculture, forestry, or recreation. Work by Arnalds et al. (2001) has shown that andic materials are susceptible to wind erosion at relatively low wind velocities that are frequently exceeded in Iceland, contributing to extensive degradation of the country’s highlands.

Low bulk density, poor compactability, and large changes in cohesion and fric-tion angle on drying of Andisols require careful consideration for engineering pro-jects (Warkentin 1985). Engineering uses of some Andisols may also be limited by a property known as thixotropy. Thixotropy refers to a reversible gel-sol transformation in which applied pressure causes the soil to suddenly liquify and flow (Nanzyo et al. 1993; Neall 2006). Upon release of pressure, the soil reverts to a solid state. This property is more pronounced in hydrous families of Andisols that contain large quantities of poorly crystalline weathering products, such as the Hydrudand for which data are presented in Table 9.1. The 1,500 kPa water retention for the B horizons ranges from 149 to more than 250% on undried samples. Such Andisols should be dried prior to use for many engineering purposes, because this will result in irreversible collapse of allophane spherules and greater strength (Neall 2006). Note that 1,500 kPa water retention values in Table 9.1 are substantially less for air-dried samples than for moist samples.

Classification of AndisolsThe basic concept of Andisols centers on soils formed from volcanic materials that have weathered enough to produce short-range-order aluminosilicate and organome-tallic compounds by in situ transformation but that have not weathered to the point where crystalline materials predominate or where significant illuviation has occurred. Acid-oxalate-extractable aluminum and iron are used to estimate the quantities of short-range-order compounds that have formed from the weathering of volcanic glass, and this serves as a quantitative basis for defining andic soil properties in Soil Taxonomy (See Chapter 2.) Andic soil properties can be qualitatively identified using an NaF field test (Fieldes and Perrott 1966). Soil-NaF pH values in excess of 9.4–9.5 indicate the presence of allophane and/or metal-humus complexes (Soil Survey Staff 1996; IUSS Working Group WRB 2006).

In the key to soil orders in Soil Taxonomy, Andisols follow Histosols, which specifically exclude soils with andic properties, and Spodosols, which exclude soils with andic properties unless they have an albic horizon. Andisols have andic soil properties in 60% or more of the thickness of soil material within 60 cm of the min-eral soil surface, or of the top of an organic layer with andic properties. The andic soil

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property definition includes essentially all volcanic materials ranging from slightly altered cinders or pumice deposits to extremely fine amorphous gels of allophane and/or imogolite (Parfitt 1985; Uehara 1985).

Suborders of Andisols are defined by soil moisture and temperature regimes, and by water retention characteristics as shown in Figure 9.7 and Table 9.2.

Aquands have a histic epipedon, or have aquic conditions in a layer at a depth of 40–50 cm below the mineral soil surface or from the top of an organic layer with andic properties, and have redoximorphic features in that layer. Aquands occur locally under a wide array of climatic conditions in depressions and along floodplains where water tables are at or near the soil surface for at least part of the year.

Gelands are very cold Andisols that have a gelic soil temperature regime (mean annual soil temperature <0°C at a depth of 50 cm). However, Gelands differ from Gelisols in that they do not contain permafrost within 2 meters of the soil surface. Relatively little is known about the distribution of these soils, and it is estimated that they occupy almost 62,000 km2 of the global land area (USDA-NRCS database). They likely occur in Alaska and the Yukon in Canada, Iceland, the Kamchatka Peninsula of Russia, and possibly high-elevation parts of southern Patagonia and the Andes along the Chile-Argentina border.

Cryands are defined as Andisols with cryic soil temperature regimes (0°C < mean annual soil temperature <8°C, with cool summers). These soils are the Andisols of high latitude (Iceland, Alaska, Kamchatka Peninsula of Russia) and high altitude (northern Cascade Range and high Sierra Nevada in the United States and the Andes in South America). Vegetation is subalpine forest or alpine shrub-tundra.

Wet

Aquands

Udands

Ustands

Xerands

Torrands

Vitrands

Cryands

Gelands

Cold DryGlassy

Gla

ssy

Figure 9.7. Diagram showing some relationships among suborders of Andisols.

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Table 9.2. Suborders and Great Groups in the Andisols order

Suborder Great Group

Aquands Gelaquands have a gelic soil temperature regime.  Cryaquands have a cryic soil temperature regime.

Placaquands have, in 50% or more of the pedon, a placic horizon within 100 cm of the mineral soil surface or the top of an organic layer with andic properties.

Duraquands have, in 75% or more of each pedon, a cemented layer that does not slake after air-drying within 100 cm of the mineral soil surface or the top of an organic layer with andic properties.

Vitraquands have 100 kPa water retention <15% on air-dried samples and <30% on undried samples dominant in the upper 60 cm.

Melanaquands have a melanic epipedon.Epiaquands have episaturation.Endoaquands—other Aquands (have endosaturation).

Gelands Vitrigelands—currently includes all Gelands.Cryands Duricryands have the upper surface of a cemented horizon within 100 cm

of the surface in 75% or more of the pedon.Hydrocryands have 1,500 kPa water retention <15% on air-dried samples of

100% or more throughout a total thickness of 35 cm in the upper 100 cm.Melanocryands have a melanic epipedon.Fulvicryands have an epipedon with chroma and moist value of 3 or less that

meets depth, thickness, and organic carbon requirements for a melanic epipedon.

Vitricryands have 100 kPa water retention of <15% on air-dried samples and <30% on undried samples dominant in the upper 60 cm.

Haplocryands—other Cryands.Torrands Duritorrands have the upper surface of a cemented horizon within 100 cm

of the surface in 75% or more of the pedon.Vitritorrands have 100 kPa water retention of <15% on air-dried samples

and <30% on undried samples dominant in the upper 60 cm.Haplotorrands—other Torrands.

Xerands Vitrixerands have 100 kPa water retention <15% on air-dried samples and <30% on undried samples dominant in the upper 60 cm.

Melanoxerands have a melanic epipedon.Haploxerands—other Xerands.

Vitrands Ustivitrands have an ustic soil moisture regime.Udivitrands have a udic soil moisture regime.

Ustands Durustands have the upper surface of a cemented horizon within 100 cm of the surface in 75% or more of the pedon.

Haplustands—other Ustands.Udands Placudands have, in 50% or more of the pedon, a placic horizon within 100 cm

of the mineral soil surface or the top of an organic layer with andic properties.

Durudands have the upper surface of a cemented horizon within 100 cm of the surface in 75% or more of the pedon.

Melanudands have a melanic epipedon.continues

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Torrands have aridic soil moisture regimes. These soils are of limited extent globally and occur in parts of the western United States, and in the Cape Verde, Canary, and Hawaiian islands. Most are vegetated by desert shrubs. Torrands are the least extensive of the Andisol suborders, accounting for only ∼1,500 km2 of the earth’s ice-free land area (USDA-NRCS database).

Xerands have xeric soil moisture regimes. These soils occur mostly in the western United States under coniferous forest in Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and California. They also are found in southern Europe, the Canary Islands, Argentina (Broquen et al. 2005), and South Australia (Lowe and Palmer 2005).

Vitrands are defined in terms of water retention characteristics rather than by moisture or temperature regime. These Andisols have 1,500-kPa water retention of less than 15% on air-dried samples and of less than 30% on undried samples, throughout at least 60% of the thickness of soil within 60 cm of the mineral soil surface or of the top of an organic layer with andic soil properties (Figure 9.5). Put in a more general way, these are glassy and ashy Andisols that have relatively low water- holding capacity. By their placement in the key of Andisol suborders, Vitrands are restricted to ustic and udic soil moisture regimes, and support a wide variety of vegetation. By recent USDA-NRCS estimates, they are the most extensive of the Andisol suborders (USDA-NRCS database). Vitrands are extensive on the North Island of New Zealand. In the United States, they occur mostly in Holocene deposits in Oregon, Washington, and Idaho. Forest canopy and litter accumulation have helped protect the mantle of volcanic ash mantle from erosion, thereby maintaining a sufficient thickness of andic materials to meet requirements of Andisols (McDaniel et al. 2005; Soil Survey Staff 2010a). Data for an example of a Vitrand from this region are presented in Table 9.1.

Ustands have ustic soil moisture regimes. Most Ustands are in intertropical regions and present on the lee side of many of the volcanic islands in the Pacific, in Central America, South America, and Africa. These soils are cultivated to a wide array of crops, most notably coffee.

Udands have udic soil moisture regimes. These soils are almost as extensive as the Vitrands and are certainly the most studied, particularly in Japan and New Zealand. This suborder represents the classic dark-colored volcanic soils with low bulk density, high phosphate-fixing capacity, and abundant aluminum and iron in short-range-order

Table 9.2. Concluded.

Suborder Great Group

Hydrudands have 1,500-kPa water retention of <15% on air-dried samples of 100% or more throughout a total thickness of 35 cm in the upper 100 cm.

Fulvudands have a layer that meets the depth, thickness, and organic-carbon requirements of a melanic epipedon.

Hapludands—other Udands.

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organic and inorganic compounds. In the United States, Udands occur in Hawaii (as shown in Table 9.1), and on the west side of the Cascade Range in Washington and Oregon.

Great groups are identified on the basis of a number of properties, including placic horizons, cemented layers, water retention characteristics, and characteristics of the epipedon. (See Table 9.2.) Especially noteworthy is the melanic epipedon, which is identified in great groups of the Aquands, Cryands, Xerands, and Udands. This epipedon is dominated by black Type-A humic acids that commonly are derived from graminoid roots (Figure 9.5). The melanic epipedon has a thickness of <30 cm, andic soil properties throughout, a chroma and moist value of 2 or less, at least 6% organic carbon as a weighted average and at least 4% organic carbon in all layers, and a melanic index of 1.70 or less. (See Chapter 2.) The melanic index measures the ratio of Type A humic acid to other humic acids (Leamy 1988). The melanic epipedon originally was thought to form only under grass vegetation. Subsequently, it has been shown to also occur under coniferous forest (Southard and Southard 1989) where fire may play an important role in its formation (Takahashi et al. 1994).

Subgroups of Andisols are recognized by a number of soil properties, including exchangeable aluminum, base saturation, cation exchange capacity, and presence or absence of other diagnostic surface and subsurface horizons. The relatively small number of subgroups that currently exist for Andisols will undoubtedly increase as these soils and their classification in Soil Taxonomy receive more attention. The pres-ence of thin near-surface horizons with andic soil properties is a criterion for the identification of subgroups (e.g., Andic, Vitrandic) of several other orders that inter-grade to the Andisols. These intergrades include soils in which surficial processes have mixed and diluted volcanic ash with other non-ash material in such a way that the resulting admixture does not exhibit sufficient andic properties to qualify as an Andisol (McDaniel and Hipple 2010).

The presence in Andisols of short-range-order compounds and glass instead of distinct clay-sized particles or silicate minerals renders conventional particle-size and mineralogy criteria essentially useless as morphological or classification criteria at the family level. Substitute names for particle-size classes are based on size and com-position of volcanic fragments (e.g., pumiceous and cindery) and on water-retention characteristics (e.g., ashy, medial, and hydrous). Family mineralogy of Andisols is typically one of four classes (amorphic, ferrihydritic, glassy, and mixed) that focus on the properties of the short-range-order compounds and volcanic glass. See Chapter 7 for a more detailed discussion of family criteria.

PerspectiveSoils formed in volcanic ejecta share many features that distinguish them from most  other soils (Arnold 1985). Their geographic distribution is linked closely to Holocene  volcanism. Andisols are dominated by short-range-order inorganic and organic compounds, and are distinguished from Spodosols, which share many similar

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properties, by the processes of in situ mineral and organic transformations and lack of extensive illuviation of these compounds. These soils are used extensively for agricultural production in warmer, more humid climates. Andisols are generally characterized by a combination of low bulk density, high phosphate sorption capacity, relatively high amounts of aluminum and iron that can be extracted from short-range-order or nanominerals, and volcanic glass—collectively referred to as andic soil properties. Suborders, great groups, and families are identified largely based on soil moisture and temperature regimes, water retention characteristics, and characteristics of the epipedon. The establishment of the Andisol order in 1990 reflects the continued growth of soil science and demonstrates the ability of Soil Taxonomy to change as we learn more about soils.

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