TRADITIONAL HINDU SOCIAL ORGANISATION

Conceptualized in terms of ‘order’ & ‘change’: Theory of society & culture

Hierarchy Cynical

Holism Continuity Dynamics

Hierarchy

Varna System

Ashrams

Purusharthas

Guna

Time

Holism: Each Hierarchy in one way or other is related to other leading to inter hierarchical

connection & dependence of value together.

Continuity: heavy of Karma - Transmigration of social, till

Mokash, through Right conduct (Dharma)

Right Knowledge (Gyan)

Right devotion (Bhakti)

Transcendence

Its sociological significance: - Not only a theoretical, philosophical or ideological modal, but has

practical behavior, and social ramifications:-

1. A systematic scheme to perform an Dharma to ____ ultimate goal of life i.e. Mokash

2. Provide for division of labor & functional specialization

3. Reinforced interdependency between individual& individual and between individual &

society.

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4. escalation of ____ wart duties and obligations _____ from him

5. Means of education & _____ _____ of traditions from one generation to another.

6. Simultaneously development & progress of individual & society

7. Harmonization & doing away of ________& _____

8. Means of social control & constraint

9. Maintain power balance in society.

10. A _____for establishing relationship bd. This _____& other ______ ________.

BASIC TENTS OF HINDUISM:

Continuity & Changes:

1. Value themes - Hierarchy Holism, Continuity, Transcendence

2. Varna system

3. Ashram system

4. Purusharthas

5. Karma & Transmigration of society

6. Dharma

7. Purity & _____

8. Sanskars

9. Idol worship

10. Theological ideas

11. Not a _______ character

12. Religious tolerance

13. Non violence

What has accrued?

Selective & segmental _____

Old traditions not completely replaced

Synthesis

Reasons for the same _________:

1. Structural conservative initial conditions __ Constitutional an____ between pd____ &

varna system------- (Eisenstadt, Leavy, Myrdol)

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2. Inter structural antimony ------- (By Y Singh, M. Sagar)

3. Contentious interaction between G & L Tra_______ ( By R. Redfill)

4. Modern innovations Hinduism facing value system of G Tan_______ ( By M N Singh)

5. Adopting of traditional ______________( By M. Singh, R D Lombart)

(I). Orthogenetic Facts:

(A).

i) Liberal religious reforms movement Called for accretion & reformation in initial

ii) Devotional liberal traditions cultural phases

(B). Break away traditions of Buddhism & Jainism -

Change in cultural shapes only not stinctunaly

Nature of changes Changes in little traditions only

Changes without implying modernity Theoretical value system

(C). Sankritisation

(II) Heterogenetic Facets:-

1. Impacts of Indian Islamisation & Sankritisation - Cultural _____ & parti_______

2. Westernization------ Nature of changes Selective & segmental

(III). Planed changes & Modernization

VARNA - ASHRAM - DHARMA

The base of Hindu social organization

Repulsions has individual & society was interactional ch____ viz Ashram & Varna system

This was possible only be carrying ___ ____ obligations & duties -Dharma

It is because of his , it is “ Dharma as a way of life”

VARNA SYSTEM:-

Essential element of Hindu social organization _ initially meant ___ to distinguish between

‘Aryas’ & Drwin’

A system of stratification based on once ‘Gunas’ (Physiological disposition) & ‘Karma’

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i. Factors

ii. Changes

iii.Syncreticism

It lead to functional division of society into four-fold groups – B K V S

It first apprised in Rig Veda X mandalam in ‘Puras s_____ hymen,

Brahmin: - Month, Knoladge & teaching, Satva, white color.

Kshatriya: - Arms, power & administration, Rajya, Red Color.

Vashnav:- Things, trade & comers, Yellow color

Shudras:- Legs, service, Tamer, black

Internally differentiae functionally interrelated i.e. Hierarchy of a unique kind of

coexistence of parts to form a whole (H______)

It was based on the principal of karma & transgression of soul i.e. Antimony.

Such was required into perform its own Dharma - duties & obligations. Thus leading it in the

social welfare & progress of the society.

K M Panikar Change it existed principal at theoretical p_____ but its significance has in the

fact that ever today Jaties & sub Jatis are seen as a part of it at own existential reality.

It significance

1. Residential dominate of Hindu social organization, society & culture.

2. A systemize scheme of performing once ‘Dharma” to ach.____ the ultimate goal of life-

Moksha

3. Provided for division of labor & functional specialization.

4. Reinforced inter dependency between individual & individual and individual & society.

5. Socialization of individual with respect to duties, obligations expected from him.

6. Means of education & cultural transfusion of tradition from one generation to another.

7. Simultaneously development & progress of human capabilities as well as that of society.

8. Harmonization & doing away of conflict & tension.

9. Means of social control & social constraint.

10. Maintains power balance in the society.

ASHRAM SYSTEM

Fundamental element of Hindu social organization.

Explain how being a member of society performs his duties and obligations (Dharma) &

family achieve the ultimate aim of life - Moksha.

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Their ithological foundations though were lead during Vedic period but at a substantive

level, it fully developed during Upnished period. ‘Jabali’ Upnished for the first time

systematically expounded the four Ashram’s of life.

For fully developing once life, it provides for four stages of life style

1. Brahmacharya - Student

2. Grhestha - Marriage & family relation

3. Vanprasth - Free from wordily desire but not relation

4. Sanyas- Complete detachment from world relations.

The Dharmshstra principal gets full humectation under the ashram system.

The four phases are

1. Dharma, Arth, Kama, Moksha. Such to be pursued chronologically at appropriate

stages.

2. Map.____ purusharth are pursued at G________ stage - Dharma, Artha, Kamas.

3. It provides for once fulent development - Mental, physical, moral & ideological.

Reach at a________ stage of life cycle.

4. Thus by performing Dharma at appropriate stages of life and by pursuing the

appropnant pursharth at each such stage one true achieve Moksha.

Significance:-

1. Interdependency between individual & society.

2. Social control & constraints and thus awards conflict.

3. Simultaneous development of individual and progress of the society

4. Cultural transmission of traditions from one generation to another

DHARMA

Control to Hindu social organization, society & culture.

At a wider place & contract, it contains one duties & obligations which one is required to

pursue in different intention & stages of life - Varna, Ashram, Purushart, Sanskar, Karma.

Generally, these reflect ideological& philosophical values, but especially it contains, A

way of life.

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Once cannot fully go to the last stage without fully completing the province stage. That shows the important of each stage of life - Hierarchy of a social kind for fully achieving Moksha.

It is because of this, we say that Indian social system is based on Dharma.

It is based on Karma. Dr. Radhkrishnan calls it a way of life. For it regulate our daily life &

social relations. Mr. P.V.Kane improved upon it behavioral dimensions says that it is

control in regulating once behavior as an individual member of society, social interaction

system developed ultimately heading to the Moksha. - Goal of life.

Thus, it regulates once behavior & development, thinking of right & wrong.

One is required to perform _____ Dharma & fulfill once duties & obligations.

It provides for the basis in which people belonging to four Varnas during their life stage

pursue appropriate Purusharth.

It provides for once fluent development in terms of duties towards the family, society,

nation & world. It provides interdependency between individual & society, reduces tension

& conflict & heads to social control.

It provides the basis for the welfare & progress of the society also.

Thus, based on once Karma and the dharma, achieve the ultimate goal of life - Mokha.

KARMA & REBARTH

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“ Traditional Social Organization: Continuity and Change”

Traditional Social Organization:

By tradition we mean value themes encompassing the entire social of Indian society. This was

conceptualized in terms of organization of order, both normative and social, based on the principal of

hierarchy (of Varna’s, gunas, purusharthas, and ashrams), the ethos of traditional social organization. The

other principal of holism, continuity, and transcendence were subsumed in the notion of hierarchy.

Initially, it provided for the functional basis of “Dharma” which was conceptualized in terms of moral

obligations to fulfill the assigned duties directed at the community at large. However, during the later-

Vedic period, through orthogenetic formulations and modifications in the times of Epics and

Dharmashastras, a functional criterion was accorded a ritual status. Caste as a cultural system based on

institutionalized inequalities emerged, thus transforming hierarchy from a functional to religious

phenomena.

Note: - A prospective for analyzing the nature of social changes which occurred in traditional

Indian society. It takes into account the histoncity of the exceptional Indian traditions. This has

real_____ for understanding the continuity of traditional reforms in a transformable manner (By Y.

Singh & M N ____)

The perspective for Analysis:

As such, we can say that Indian tradition had a unique social heritage and existential situations,

which together determined the historicity of circumstances. This was relevance for analyzing the direction,

causality and sequence of events through which modernization has made its impact on the traditional

Indian society. “Tradition” and Modernity” as heuristic concepts are easy to formulate but to separate

them at existential levels is rather difficult. As Joseph R. Gusfield has said_ “The modern comes to the

traditional society as a particular culture with its own traditions” And especially in the Indian society,

traditions and modernity are interwoven: where,

Both exist simultaneously; and

The traditional features can be found even today, though in a transformed manner.

The above view,as highlighted by y.singh is arguably supported by mckim Marriott, M.N.Srinivas.

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The Nature Of Social Change in Traditional India and Continuty: in traditional India ,there where

continual instance of social change without implying modernity. The orthogenetic changes which occurred

were basically of two types:

(a) Firstly changes through accretion and reformulation of the various ritual and cultural spheres of

Hinduism,

Through the emergence of liberal-religious reform movements, and

Growth of devotional liberal traditions.

(b) Secondly, changes through differentiation in terms of break-away traditions of Buddhism and Jainism.

These changes called for,

The introduction of more equalitarian and non-hierarchical value system, and

Liberalization of hindu tradition, through

Protests against rigid formalism tyrannical ritualism and ossification of the value-system of

hierarchy into exploitative institutions, especially those of caste and Brahmin orthodoxy.

However, these changes could not alter the social system as a whole as:

(1) They also served as a major communication-channel for interaction between little and great tradition,

thus leading to continuity of the Hindu great tradition;

and-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

(2) They preserved in one form or another hierarchical views of time and the conception of cyclical

periodicity in culture.

The process of sanskratisation and visualization, and social change and continuity:

These processes had contextual significance and were particularistic in origin. They both

represented a form of cultural response to higher status mobility as a protest against ideal-typical value

syndromes of the great tradition. These existential adaptations were contained only at the cultural level

and not at the structural level. However, it did not actually bring about an acceptance of higher status by

the upper caste Hindus (in the case of sanskratisation) and in Islam (through conversion). Moreover, in

the heterogenetic impact. Of Islam, where the coverts retained their skills and calling, a hierarchical

gradation in the ritual and social status thus crept into the social structure of Islam. As such, in both the

cases the earlier orthodoxy was retained. This also explains why the heterogenetic Islamic impact, unlike

that of the west, failed to contribute to modernization.

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The process of modernization, and social change and continuity:

The process of modernization started especially with the advent of the British rule. I led to

acculturative and innovative changes in the social and cultural structures of the Indian society. These were

not only modern but also pan-Indian in nature. Its basic tenets were based on legal-rationalism, justice,

and civil rights. As such, through its innovative changes in the fields of legal, educational, mass-media

and communication, urbanization, etc. it encouraged the values of equality, equity, and universalism and

not those of status and hierarchy. These new innovations posed a serious challenge to the two cardinal

attributes of the Indian tradition-hierarchy. It led to emergence of new middle-class professional groups

and groups of social-reformers; it led to reformatory theistic movements in Hinduism and propagated the

discontinuance of harmful social usage and customs prevalent in the contemporary Indian society. Along

with these modernizing norms, structural also took place having uniform character throughout the country.

Though the basic direction was towards, however, a variety of traditional institution also got

reinforced. There occurred a selective and segmental process of. The factor which was chiefly responsible

for this was the nature of network of relationship which was characterized by a high degree of relative-

autonomy. This inner-structural autonomy helped in selective syncretism of new cultural modes, forms of

behavior, and structure. This paved the way for adaptive transformations towards.

The above feature gets highlighted in comparative studies on which have shown that contrary to

stereotyped belief:

Old traditions are not completely displaced by modernization. What follows is an accretion and

transmutation of forms; and

Similarly, tradition does not necessarily retard the process of modernization.

Viewpoints:

Rudolph and Rudolph call this phenomenon “Modernity of Tradition” and conclude with Edward

Shils that “modernity has entered into Indian character and society, but it has done so through

assimilation and not replacement.”

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Milton singer in his book ‘when a great tradition modernizes’ opines that there occurs

traditionalisation of modernity in India, where traditional features influence modernity, as such it

leaves its mark on modernity.

Studies:

Rajni Kothari-caste association which are otherwise typical symbols of tradition, have increasingly

been found to serve tends of political modernization, where articulation of interests is done and

caste acts as a pressure group.

Richard D. Lambert- Traditional institution like joint family, Kin-based entrepreneurial function

continue to coexist with and support modern values and forms of social action. This viewpoint has

been supported by K.M. Kapadia, Milton singer, and Ramkrishana Mukherjee.

Rudolph and Rudolph, and Myron Weiner- the functioning of democracy in India has further

vindicated the extent to which it is rooted into the particularistic values represented by caste,

kinship and other parochial values.

Milton singer in ‘traditional India’ emphasizes that modern innovations in the media of

communications, which otherwise could be used for transmission of modern values tend to

reinforce the value-system of the Great Tradition.

Reason for the resilience and co-existence of tradition and modernity:

This can be traced to the historicity or the initial conditions of society, both cultural and

structural, which accordingly determines the adaptive patterns. These initial conditions of both

tradition and modernization can be conceived of as a set of ‘values and role structures’, and are

differentiated into -independent/categorical, and instrumental. They both are relatively

autonomous. As such, though in the instrumental types we find a shift from tradition to modernity,

however, at the same time, people tend to retain their categorical values of tradition instead those

of modernity. This explains the possibility of the unique combination and coexistence of

traditional values with the modern ones. Therefore, Y.Singh refers to such a process as the

‘modernization of Indian tradition’.

Factors responsible for continuity

1. Structural & normative initial condition institutional autonomy between Pd. & value system

2. Inter structural autonomy Y. Singh, M. singer.

3. Adaptability of traditional features forces of modernity -M. Singer, Lambert.

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4. Modern innovation themselves reinforced the value system of great tradition M. Singer, MN sr.

5. Continuous interaction bet. Great & little tradition took place R. Redfield.

6. People retaining the traditional categorical values though in instrumental values these are a shift

from tradition to modernity (Y. Singh.)

7. The ability of traditional values to support the process of modernity G.R. Gusfield.*

BHUDDISM: Its impact on Indian society

Around 600BC it emerged in India however it proliferated only after 40 BC, chiefly under Asoka’s

patronage.

Some of the peculiar aspects of Bhuddism.

Atheistic

Spirituality (EMP. On other world )

Salvations to problems Of this world through middle - path.

Empower. On control and not repression.

Talks of value of righteousness of action.

Three aspects emp. Are

A) Dharma - duties

B) Sangam - community

C) Buddha - phyche & philosophy.

It chiefly arose an aftermath of reaction against Brahmin orthodoxy or domination of those times.

A monastic religion similar to Christianity of western society.

It was of an organized nature, which chief proliferated under protection. As such the difference

between the king and the supreme authority of religion got blurred. This was in sharp contrast to the

Hindu religion.

It was more egalitarian in nature vis-à-vis, Hindu religion.

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Basic tenets: ------------------------------------------------------------

-----------------------------------------------

It had a far reaching impact on the Indian society.

PHILOSOPHY:

Initially began as an intellectual movement & is of teeny categorized as enlightenment, and

Provided an alternative philosophy of egalitarianism. This influenced Hindu philosophy in a very

significant way as

Four non -Vedic philosophical trends dev.- Sankhya, yoga, vaisheshika, and nyaya.

A negative fallout- in this attempt to counter the impact of Buddhism epics like dharmashashtras and

Arthashstra were written, which introduced rigidity into Hindu religion. There occurred concretization of

name and Dharma which had a functional basic was now accorded a religious sanction and a new class of

untouch ables emerged.

STATE:

It influenced the foundational structure of state and it changed the very nature of state.

Earlier was a period of domination of puests (Brahmins) over the state (kashalriya). But now since the

followers of Buddhism. Were in the ranks of middle & lower classes, they also started influencing the

nature and function of state.

This not only made the state more open in nature besides the state became more oriented towards

welfare of its people.

CIVIL SOCIETY:

Women were considered as function arise of religion at par with man. Thus more prominence to

status of women was given.

With its exclusive emp. On non- violence it transformed the very nature in which the ritual

practices were performed. Thus where status got more integrated with the day to day life of the people, a

ban on ‘bali’ was proclaimed.

It traced to mitigate the difference between the religious intelligentsia and the common people.

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Earlier only Brahmins were responsible to interpret and expound religious principal.

Buddhism made possible the teaching of religious scriptures in people’s language- prakriti.

Thus we can say that democratization took place within the dimensions of state and religion.

Besides its emp. On non- violence also led to the dev. Of economy and commerce within and outside

India.

BUDDHISM AND SOCIAL CHANGE

Y. Singh opmes that it was an imp. Orthogenetic factor of social change.

With its emp. On egalitarianism, it opposed ‘hierarchy’ the main bases of traditional Hindu social

organization.

A new cultural outlook -------------------------------------------

It was the first protest movement of an organized nature and under pol. Patronage, where it was of a

revivalist in nature, rather opposition was the moving force.

B. did not accept either philosophically or socially the hierarchy principal wrt social organization. it was

an intellectual and a religious movement. Chiefly comprising of egalitarian social forces.

We can categorize B. as a movement. Of common mass which tried to establish an appropriate place for

lower sections of the society . At times, the rise of Shudras is associated with it.

Its continued relevance: can be seen where it has re emerged in the form of new Buddhism movement.

In modern times, which shows the egalitarian vision and aspirations of the down trodden people of our

society. as such B. continues to be a dynamic mechanism of cultural movement. In India. Donald engine

smith in India as a secular state.

Why it got absorbed within the four folds of Hinduism?

It could not extricate itself from the hierarchical value systems of traditional Hinduism, and was

consequently integrated within its many fold - Michael M. Ames

The principal of hierarchy was preserved in B., where it talks of hierarchy of consecutions and

moral progression to the ideal of salvation.

It also shared with H.a devotionary view on the direction of cultural movement. This is supposed

to be finally redeemet by an ‘Avtaar’ in H. and bodhisattva in Buddhism.

The conception of ‘transmigration of soul’ in Mahayam Buddhism. was also preserved.

It also strengthened the other -world aspect of Hinduisum.

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Michael M. Ames also demonstration the existence of hierarchy not only in the role insitutionalisation of

the members in the Buddhist society, but also wrt the goal orientation as project by the Buddhist religious

world-view.

Nature of social change

The changes which occurred were confirmed to differentiation within the framework of traditional social

structure & values.

Structural changes were Very few and those which took place were limited in respect to the types of roles.

Since such a differentiation of roles was segmental, it did not alter the system as a whole.

Besides, the role differentiation also had an elitist character, as were led by members of upper caste -class.

As such none of them had a meaningful impact on the political System, the stratification system or caste

order against which they propagated.

FRAME WORK

Introduction

Basic tenets

Nature

Impact

Significance

Reason why?

Nature of social change

Its re-emergence

Its impact an Indian society

A sociological analysis

Introduction:

It had an atheistic world view

It was purely orthogenetic in nature (form within the Hindu tradition) and

Represented the formation of new antonymous tradition though differentiation change though fission -

arose as an aflirmath of reaction against Brahmin orthodoxy & domination of those times.

Basic tenets:

Its distinctive contribution

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Break awayAgainst BuddhismIndore of new cultural valueNot a v________

Rash_________Sociological

It introduced some new cultural values againt the ideal typical attributes of the Hindu great tradition

hierarchy.

Provided an alternative religious philosophy of egalitarianism

Membership open to all casts & both the sense

An appropriate place for the lower section of the population / socity .

More prominence to the states of women.

State became more oriented towards the welfare of its people

With its emp. On non-violence it changed the V. natures in which ritual practice were performed.

This also led to the dev. Of trade & commerce within & outside India .

Made possible the teching of religious scriptures in peoples language .

Thus democratization took place within the sphere of religion & state.

Its nature-

Its revolutionary contribution:

Represented the first beginning of social - cultural protest against

Rigid formalism

Tyrannical ritualism, and

Ossification of values system of hierarchy into exploitative institution especially those of caste &

Brahmin religious orthodoxy.

It undermined the significance of hierarchy the basic of jati or caste sub division .

Its Membership open to all casts & both the sense,

It had a revolutionary appeal to the masses in general

Because of his Y.Singh considers B. as an important orthogenetic factor of social change

Its nature:

Not revivalist in nature, but opposition or protest was the moving force .

Its intellectual strength where knowledge player a for important rde. Instead of coercion (as in the case of

Christianity & Islam) , and because of witch it proliferated outside India also.

How & why it got integrated within the fold of Hindu Hierarchy found in, goal mentations and role

institutionalization of the Buddhist socials---------.Could not extricate itself from the hierarchical value

system of traditional Hinduism.

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Michael M. Ames Consciousness & moral progression Devolutionary view on the direction of cultural

movement

Transiniigation of soul,

Strengthened other world aspect of Hinduism

Buddhism & nature of social change.

Renamed ideational & not existential

Rde. Differentiation renamed segmental,

Besides having elitist character

Therefore , changes chiefly renamed orthogenetic , i.e, differentiation within the traditional Hindu GT.Y.

Singh.

Its re-emergence in modern India

Donald engene Smith in India as a secular state.

As a neo. Buddhist movement

Shows the egalitarian vision & aspiration of the down trodden people of our society.

Because thus continues to be a dynamic mechanism cultured movement.

Introduction:

It is considered as an important orthogenetic factor of social change in India (Y. Singh )

It represented the formation of new antonymous tradition through different ration change through fission.

Arose as an after math of reaction against Brahmin orthodoxy & domination of those times.

With its emp. Or egalitarianism for the first time opposed hierarchy the -----of traditional Hindu social

organization .

However , it could not finally extricate itself from the hierarchical value system of traditional Hinduism &

was comeqnently interrogated within its many ford Michael M. Ames .

SANSKRITISATION:

1 INTRODUCTION

2 DEFINATION

3 CHARACTENSTIES OF SANSKRITISATION

1. As a process enhance status of a group within stratification system board on Hindu caste system.

2. Acculturation way of life high , piquantly upper caste group .

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3. These --------here them one harden of insulation (dominate cast )

4. Anticipatory socialization

5. Indicates positional & not structural change. these is change in & not of the caste system .

6. Cultural system.

7. Unit of mobility is not -------or family, but group.

Y. Singh talks of

(1) contextual specific reason for cultural iminiutation were essential.

(2) Historical connotation- change accusing within the caste .

(3) Endogenous factor of social change .

Example of sanskritisation :

1 Nonie low caste of Madhopur village in UP. -B.S.Conh

2 tribes such as Bhils ---------------KS. Singh .

3 Lohan & sonan in Mysore calming for vishavkarma Brahman caste status.

4 jatawas of agra -lynch

5 mohers of Maharashtra-A .Beteille.

Analysis-

1 nature of society.

2 the process of social change.

3 reason for continuity of tradition.

Critical evaluation

1. --------------------& bundle of concept.

2. --------------, not structional.

3. -------------------------------

4. Other ---------of social immunity ignored.

5. Non- sanskritic elements ignored.

6. Reason ------existential.

7. Contemporary aspects cannot be explained.

8. -------------------------model.

Conclusion

------------------------

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Broad framework -for westernization .

Commercial middle class.

Emp. On new education

Cultural renaissance &birth of an enlightened intelligentsia (movements, nationalism)

Socio- religious reframe movement.

Besides a politico- adm. Unification of country .

Emergence of middle class.

Growth of nationalism

Aspects of legal, education & its impact

Impact of industrialization & urbanization on city life erural material culture .

Thus attack on hierarchy holism transcendence, ritual priority & pollution , discontinuance of

harmful social usages & custom ,etc.

However , what we observe is prismatic - stage of cultural meternisation.

Framework for sanskritisation

Definition (1) contextual specific - a process of cultural imitation -------causal factor were

existential & not sacerdotal.

(2) historical- where in the process of cultural mobility , changes occurred within the status of

castes its leadership ,& in cultural patterns in different periods of history.

Analysis: nature of society

Relative closure of Hindu social system

Where status in caste being ascribed by birth &where caste with ritual superiority had dominate eco.

& pd. Position is status summation, it,

Commented the hierarchical foundation&

Negated the chases of mobility due to closure of avenues of mobility (other ------accullisation)

The resulation process of (cultural) change:

Unique historical expression of the general process of acculturation as a means of vertical mobility

of groups.

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A cultural response to a set of empirical existential socio cultural situation whore D.C served

invariably as reference models.

Thus it had a contextual significance , where the causal forces in empirical process of cultural

change were essentially existential & not sacerdotal.

As such is a disguised form of modernization.

Thus, as the most pdential endogenous source of social change, it explain the dynamic aspect of

traditional India society.

It also explain why break movement like Jainism , Buddhism& Sikhism appeared took place in

India .

The reason for the continuity of tradition:

Where though it tried to challenge typical cultural attribuites of

Traditional H. it not only tropically owed for its genesis to the orthogenetic tradition , but also

provided for the leveling of culture among the masses in general.

Limitations critical evaluation: (logically, contextually)

Logically

(1) Complete heterogeneous and a bundle of concepts . MN Shrinivas

(2) Confusion of using the concept of DC, as introduces structural elements in a cultural model ,

and contradictious in various contextual specific connotation of S.

(3) Does not to a consistent --------of social change.

Contextually -

in terms of its limited /partial applicability to explain the nature of social change in traditional &

contemporary Indian society

1. Explain only cultural and not structural change -MN. Shrinivas

2. Various other aspects avenues of social mobility & change were also prevalent Silverberg ,

Sinha Beteille

3. Often cancel forces ---------S. were existential and not sacerdotal , showing challenges & revolts

against the socio - eco. Deprivation .as such people valued high status & not hierarchy - Y.

Singh , H. Gonld .

4. A.Beteille opines that it fails to take into account the confects& lassion aspect .

5. ------fail to account for many accpect of part & contemporary India as it highest non- sanskritic

tradition -Mckim Marriott .

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6. Sanskritic influence was not conversal to all parts of India Chanana --------as -----------in the

version contextual specific cannottaion of S.

7. Fails to account for aspects of Indianisation the group ability (isolationism and natavistic

revivalism ) for e.g. --------identity tnbal identity and Muslim national identity in Kashmir .AR.

Desai .

Conclusion

1. S. is primarily a represent group behavior sa it only highlights process of social mobility and not

social change -RK. Mukharjee.

2. Only a perspective not a theory MN. Srinivas for it does not lead to a consistent theory of social

change.

Sanskritisation

Proposed by MN. Srinivas

A process of cultural immnitation

Has a local iced and specific rather than a pan-Indian char.

An endogenous sources of social change.

Unit of mobility is the group not individual.

Describes cultural mobility in traditional social structure .

A disgainst reference to protest against the basic ideal typical value syndrome of the great

-------------------------------------

In tenetform a response of India’s little tradition to modernity.

WESTERNISATION

Critical evaluation of the process of westernization: theoretical level , substantively .

1. Not a comprehensive theory , as fails to highlight the contribution of histinciaspect in social

change & sees W. as a one-way process - D. Lerner.

2. It fails to explain the process of Indianisation -Devraj Chenana

3. Explains mainly cultural & not structural process of social change - Y.Singh .

4. The contemporary processes of social change could not be explained through it - A.R. Desai ,

KM. Pannikkar.

5. The benefits of W. accrued to only chits & not people /masses in general- B. Kuppushamy .

~ 25 ~

6. A selective & segmental process of cultural change - Y. Singh.

7. The traditional social --------of organic Indian economy was -------leading to the emergence

of exploitative system DP. Mukharjee.

At best only a perspective & not a theory.

Introduction

Introduced by MN. Srinivas for changes which occurred as a resent of 150 years of

British rule in India.

An important heterogametic factor of social change. Impart dynamision to the

relatively static traditional Indian social structure.

Which posed serious challenge to the two cardinal attributes of traditional social

values - hierarchy &--------.

However in the end its impact was only selective & segmental. And laid the

foundation for culture modernization of India.

Changes under the impact of westernization:

1. Creation of such hard works of culture & social structure . which were

necessarily modern & pans-India new education & legal system , so and tech

urbanization communication - Y.Singh

2. Introduction of new values of rationalism, humanism, equality,& universalism

- Y. Singh.

3. Impact of educational & cultural renaissance. The enlightened intelligentsia

called for new religion reform movements & legal ------. Thing took the lead in

forging ahead freedom struggle - MN. Srinivas.

4. A well knit hrenohth& pan - Indian ----------------emerged ,which ------- the

way for the process of nation state &emergence of nationalism , the forernere -

of democratic ---------------.AR. Desai , DP. Mukharjee.

5. Growth & proliferation of new classes commercial & middle classes - AR.

Desai.

6. Changes in the way of living - MN. Srinivas, H.Gould.

~ 26 ~

Sociological significance:

1. Impact an -------- -family dve to feeling of --------------

2. Marriage low seen ------ as an agreement than a sacrament.

3. Provision for dunce.

4. Weakening of ideas of pollution & purity.

5. Growth & proliferation of low social classes.

6. More --------for social mobility.

7. New basic for stratification - education.

8. Social status ------------ based on achievement & not ascription.

9. Processes of indatralisation & urbanization.

10. Impact an caste system.

11. Status of women.

Critical evaluation of westernization:

1A- historical

1. One-way &-------directional

2. Ethnocentric

3. Cultural & not structural

4. selective & segmental

5. contemporary processes & highlighted

6. At best a perspective, hot a theory.

Sanskritisation & westernization:

Concept given by srinivas

Both are related to each other

However differences are there:

Sanskritisation

i. Religious values

ii. Ancient process

iii. Low caste typically Indian

~ 27 ~

iv. Indian society & culture

v. Multiple reference

vi. Localized

vii. Typically process of cultural mobility

viii. Two way process

ix. Orthogenetic factor

x. Micro-aspect

westernization:

1. secular values

2. relatively modern

3. every class

4. foreign

5. western orientation & out-look

6. single

7. pan- India

8. social change

9. one-way process

10. heterogenic

11. Micro-aspect

Nature of change:

- There occurred sycereticisim accretion & transmutation of forms.

- Tradition was not completely displaced.

- The process of change was selective & segmental.

Reasons for such a nature of change:

i. Structural & normative initial condition institutional antinomy bet. Pd.

& value system eiseustadt; G.Myrdal.

ii. Inter structural autonomy- Y.Singh .

iii. Continuous interaction themselves -------------the value system of great

tradition MN.Srinivas.

~ 28 ~

iv. People reteaming the traditional categorical values, though in

instrumental values these is a shift from tradition to indemnity

Y.Singh.

v. Adaptability of traditional values to forces to indemnity - M. Singer ,

RD. Lambert.

vi. The ability of traditional values to support the process of indemnity -

gos---- R. Gusfield

Conclusion

1. T & M coexists Rudolpho ; MN. Srinivas .

2. Modernization of Indian tradition - Y.Singh.

3. Prismatic society - prof. F.W.Riggs.

Modernization

What its means? The bases of such an ---------analytical paradigm is ;

A rational attitude towards issues

Commitment to scientific world new 7 not merely the volume of

technological advancement.

A Universal cultural phenomena.

MJ lovy :the char. Of all modern societies relict an emp. On

- meriasing emphasis on rationality

- universalism

- functional specificity

- objectivity sewlaraisatin

an important process which contributes to the growth of such

structures is that of eco. Growth of which industrialization &

urbanization are its conconpmltants .

~ 29 ~

modernization is a process where scientific knowledge is introduced

into the society , which is based on rational & an experimental

approach .

Ruston &ward opine that the basic process in modernization is the

application of modern science to human affairs - a temper of science

reason & rationalism , & secularism.

Indicators / measures of modernization: ( rustow & ward )

1. Adoption of scientific technology

2. High proportion of working force employed in secondary & tertiary instead of primary occupation.

3. Increasing differentiation of structure .

4. Increasing industrialization & urbanization.

5. Transition from ascribed to achieve status.

6. Marked increased in geographical & social mobility.

7. Installation of democratic & populist pd. Institution.

8. Spread of scientific secular & technical education.

9. Expansion of the media of communication.

10. A new cultural outlook 7 important on progress & improvement.

Modernization: refers to an analytical paradigm providing an explanation for the process of transition of

a relatively traditional society towards modernity industrial with increasing social & structural

differentiation.

It’s various dimension are:

1. Political M. - development of institution which support participation decision-making,

bureaucratic adm. Parts & pressure groups, free press & judiciary.

2. Cultural - secularization, institutionalization of values attitude of openers & apathy, or outlook of

progress &dev. Achievement orientation.

3. Economic - associated with profound eco. Changes, urbanization, market eco. , industrialization,

use of set opportunities of work &employment generation.

4. Social - increasing literacy quality of life slandered of life scientific & technical knowledge a

venues for mobility achieved status.

~ 30 ~

Pre-requisites for modernization:

1. Structural differentiation - Eisenstaedt.

2. Capacity for internal transformation - structures capable of adopting to continuously

changing situation - MJ. Levy , James o’ connell.

3. Motivation structure for which karl deutsch used the term social mobilization.

4. Opportunity structure - Myran Weiner.

India’s instruments of development strategy - modernization : planned social change.

1. Parliamentary form of gont.

2. Socialistic pattern of economy.

3. Legal reform -equality before law & equal opportunities of work.

4. Cdp, land reforms green revolution new agricultural policy , new eco. Policy ,

WTO.

5. Democratization of polity & power structure -prls.

6. Policy of protection discrimination & fundamental rights - equal opportunities

work.

7. Secularism.

8. Adul suffrage.

A comprehensive strategy which seeks to abolish discontinuity bet:

1. Macro & micro structure.

2. Little & great tradition.

However, such a comprehensive process of modernization has necessitated adaptive

changes in the tradition culture values & norms, which however, has lagged behind leading

to what ogburn, called cultural lag (bottomox) . this has generated inter structural conflicts

& tension bet. Tradition (past & contemporary). Future course of modernization in India

would depend much on the manner in which these tensions are resolved as modernization

galhirs momentum. The pertinent question is will the Indian society be able to avoid

structural breakdown & progress towards smooth institutionalization of modernity.

~ 31 ~

Assessing the process of modernization in India :

The above analysis can be had on the basic of the following changes in cultural spheres.

Points:

1. The trends of socio cultural changes.

Changes in structural spheres

Contradiction have emerged

Structural in conoestancis

2. Impediments a modernization

3. Chances of institutional breakdown are --------------, despite

contradiction & kin ions

4. An important conditional assumption.

A constant coordination of mobilization which conciliation

Simultaneously reinforcing democratic values and

institution.

- In Indian renaissance (socio religious reform movements) there was a

limited effort to synthetics religious with modern western values, its

impact renamed elitist & not mass based.

- The Indian process of modernization after independence was sudden

& not gradual, where.

- Macro structure was created & initialed from above without

concomitant changes in tradition.

- As, such tradition renamained intact as M. was occomodated &

assimilated within it.

Difference -modernization & westernization

Modernization

A deliberate strategy of development.

Takes into account the peculiarities & specificities of each &

every society.

Value free.

Changes result in both structure & culture.

~ 32 ~

A two way process.

Implicit scientific outlook & rationality of goals.

Westernization

A process of acculturation ------ British contact

It refer to behind imitation

Value loaded

Changes only at cultural level

A unidirectional approach

What is unmitated many not necessarily be rational.

Impediments to modernization:

1. The growth of institutions supporting democracy has not taken place.

2. Leadership inhibited from going at the root of the prob. Leading to populism & soft state.

3. System of imbalanced polity centimes to prevail gap between old & new pd. Elites on one

hand & between pd. & permanent elites on the other.

4. Planned economic growth has not trickled down to the masses in general & the drive towards

market economy & liberalization has further accentuated inequalities.

5. Association, institution, mobilization & identity formation continues to take place in

traditional norms & values.

6. Continuous neglect of the social aspect of economic development.

7. Rise in aspiration without significant increase in institutional framework of opportunities &

resources.

8. Verbalization of welfare idedogy without its diffusion in social structure & its

implementation as a social policy.

9. Over-urbanization without industrialization, besides industrialization at the cost of rural

economy.

Chance of breakdown are minimal - some positive trends

1. Democratic values have been fairly institutionalized.

2. There is broad consensus on the ideology of modernization.

~ 33 ~

3. There have been some positive development - 73&74 acts, SHGs, NGOs,

organization such as SAHMAT, PUCR, AIDWA, besides NC for women SC, ST,

OBC.

4. Traditional institution has shown tremendous adaptability in promoting eco.

Development & modernization.

5. Judicial activism & PIL.

6. There has been gradual have towards strengthening curl society -women

empowerment right to imp. Citizen character, CVE, & Lokpal, etc.

7. New eco policy has been ushered - new agricultural policy, new exam policy,

disinterment, WTO, etc. with the implicit ideology of promoting growth with equity

- social welfare. the social obj. of the approach paper pr. 10 FYP. The recent UPA

gonts has called for reforms’ with human face.

Problems of modernization: structural contradiction & breakdown of modernization

In Indian renaissance (socio-religions reform mov.) there where limited effort to synthesize

religion with modern me stern tradition.

Its impact was elitist & not mass-based.

The Indian process of modernization after independence was not gradual.

Macro structures were created & initiated from above without the concomitant changes in the

tradition.

Tradition renamed intact a modernization was accommodated & assimilated within it.

Effective interlink ages bet. Macro-micro structures could not be forged.

Democracy without secularization has taken place, where diversities which is primordial &

partivenlanstic has weekend the process of nation state building.

Institutions for furthering democracy have not worked properly.

Caste based politics along with politics of opportunism & expediency.

Leaders were not trained in democratic ethos; binds parliamentary ethics & commotion were

absent.

As culturally homogeneous back ground of elite has later termed hits political fragmentation ,

consensus has broken down.

This has lid it populism & soft state region.

~ 34 ~

Democracy is being used as an active agent of industrialization & development but instead of

rational measures, populist measures are being implemented.

Process of liberalization & market economy drive has accentuated iniquities, leading to

fragmentation, conflates & separation.

We have ignored rural industrialization ie, industrialization at the cost of rural economy.

There has been over urbanization without industrialization leading to urban decay.

Gap between over urbanization of welfare ideology without its implementation leading to over

expectation & frustration among people.

A general absence of participative culture.

Expansion of growth opportunities have not matched peoples expectation.

Gap in orientation between political & permanent executives.

Thus, all these lead to unevenness in the process of modernization & the resultant contradiction.

CULTURAL AND STRUCTURAL VIEW OF CASTE

CULTURAL VIEW-

A cognitive historical approach, which emphasis a set of values beliefs & practice.

It is based in the ideology of purity & pollution of L. Dumont.

Primary focus is on the changes in the basic themes of the Indian cultural structure.

A relatively static crew of society, which emphasized upon:

1. Hierarchy & quality rather than on performance.

2. Logistics view which conceived ‘dharma’ as a moral under.

However, it is not averse to social change, as

- Nations of hierarchy were predominant even in pre-modern western tradition.

- Traditional Indian social system did recognize the legitimacy of cultural & social innovation through

institutionalized role of sanyasis.

- But, the nature of change was only cultural & not structural.

~ 35 ~

- Such a nature of change was evident under the impact of sanskritisation, westernization, & Islam.

- This shows its utility for both synchronic & diachronic type of studies.

- This can be done through formulation of a series of abstraction on cultural theams for

comparative study (ideal types) for studying historical stages.

- Through which cultural changes have occurred in India.

Such a conception of caste inherently posits that caste in future would change &

finally whiter away

Its criticism

1. Helpful in understanding cultural & not structural aspect of caste- A.

Beteille.

2. Therefore limited in scope & applicability.

3. A brahamanical model which, may not be acceptable to all &

applicable to all parts of the comlry - K. Ishawaran , Danel & Lynch.

4. It is highly abstract & different to operationaitlise- Y. Singh.

Structural view-

Focuses on the nature of social relationship, interaction & role performance in terms of:

1. Hierarchy

2. Hereditary specialization

3. Repulsion & social distance(bougle)

Accordingly , it analyses caste in terms of:

1. Organic reality &

2. Segmental reality (F.G. Bailey)

It chiefly analyses society in terms of prevalence of statues summation-A.Betalle.

It example the existential reality aspect of caste.

~ 36 ~

It proposes that these will be change in such structural relationship; however, caste as such is not going

to wither away.

R.D. Lambert emphasizes its direct relevance for the processes of modernization.

1. Statuses to contract

2. From primary group production processes to more complstursion labour.

3. Ascribed to achieved statuses.

4. Statuses immobility to mobility.

5. Organic to segmental reality.

VARNA SYSTEMS:

DEFINEING VARNA-

Varna was the division of Hindu society into four classes

1. Brahmin - priests -white

2. Kshatriyas - warriors- red

3. Vaishyas - traders- yellow

4. Shudras - service - black

Varna system also provided a system of social stratification.

Each Varna was placed in the system at a particular position in the hierarchical order and

was assigned specific tasks & duties.

Varna organization refers to the work one would ---------------- in the society according

to his nature, tendivices & disposition.

The division of society into four Varna’s was based on the division of labour where

each group had to different objects according to its occupational role.

Later on however, the four Varnas come to be arranged hierarchically, with the

Brahmins at the top & the Shudras at the bottom.

How Varna come to be associated with caste?

During the times of epics. & dharmashastras functional spescalisation & hierarchical

order in terms of the functions performed petrified in the shape of rigid tattoos . nation

~ 37 ~

of pollution & purity emerged. The hierarchical order because more rigid & non-

equalitarian sanctions emerged, whereby functional criteria were accorded a ritual

sanction or complesion. Thus, hierarchy which was a functional principle became a

religious phenomenon. This led to emergence of caste accordingly; hierarchy & mobility

in the Varna system came largely to be associated with castes.

Differences between Varna and caste:

1. Varna represuits an all India category whereas caste varies from region to region.

2. Varna can be placed in a strick jank order, which may not be possible with castes.

3. Varna is more like a nation or a model rather thau a social practice whereas caste is more of a

social practice & an institutional mechanism in real life situations.

4. Varna exists more in lernis of theoretical ------------------whereas caste has a existential reality.

5. Varna division of society is macro-structural in nature, whereas caste exists as a macro-structural

rality.

6. Basic to the Varna concept the idea of gunas, dharma, karma, whereas basic to the caste concept

is the idea of pollution & purity.

In sociological analysis why do we prefer caste analysis to Varna analysis?

Varna is some sort of a nation, which is empirically non existence but caste besides

being a nation is also a reality at different levels, though not of a inform nature.

Aspect of mobility can be better analyzed in terms of caste as it is quite difficult to

place the mobile community in a Varna hierarchy.

Clavus and cometer claimes and ---------------& unflicts regarding status

evaluation have been found -----------the caste

No village or town can be understood in terms of the Varna frame of reference

because a single village has number of castes & sub castes.

Caste ranking also various forms region to region, because the same caste is not

dominant in different regions

However , during the tunes of pics. & dharmashastras functional specialization & hierarchical order

in terms of the functions performed in the shape of rigid taboos. the hierarchical order became more

~ 38 ~

rigid & non-eqnelitarion sanctions emerged whereby functional criteria was a functional principle

became a religious phenomenon . This led to the emergence of castes.

Thus the hierarchy of the castes and the mobility of a caste come to be stated in Varna system.

The importance of Varna system: faraichesan all India frame into which the jaties occupying the

lower rungs, have throughout tried to raise their status by taking over the costumes & rituals of the

top jaties. This has helped the spread of a uniform culture throughout the Hindu society.

Caste is tied to locality but vernal function on an all India basis.

Varna is more conceptual scheme for the Hindu society as a whole, while caste is a description of a

real situation in the Hindu society.

Caste and tribe -differences:

1. Religion: of tribal people is animism & that of caste people is Hinduism.

2. Geographical isolation: tribes live in geographically isolated region (we hills and mountain)

whereas caste people live in plain region.

3. Language: each tribe has its own language whereas caste people can speak or knows a number of

languages at the same time.

4. Economic back wondness: tribes are relatnchy more economically backhand, as they have how

income use primitive methods of agriculture & income cases still use buster system of exchange.

5. Organization of societal leving: tribes are organized on a segmentary system larger propertun of

pupu have direct access to land. Whereas, caste people are organized around organic system -

hierarchically organized group through is interdependent relationship.

Caste and class - difference

They both are status group. A status group is a collection of indiovdnals who share a distractive style

of life & a certain consciousness of a kind.

1. Castes are perceived as hereditary groups with a fixed ritual status, while classes are defined in

terms of the relation of production.

2. Caste is an endogenous group but class is not.

3. Caste is a unique phenomenon but class is univocal.

4. Caste works as are active political force but class does not.

5. Caste has an organic character but class has a segmentary character.

~ 39 ~

6. In caste there is cooperation and economic interdependence, but in class system there is

competition.

7. In caste system status is determined by rilialistic ligitimatim of -------------traditional belief &

astrictive norms, whereas status in class system is determined by economic & political privileges

i.e., achievement norms.

8. Caste is static whereas class is dynamic.

9. Caste occupations are traditional whereas class occupations are optional.

10. Caste is religious whereas class is secular.

11. Social mobility is not possible in caste system, but in the class system change of status is

possible.

CASTE - HIERARCHY OR SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

Social inequality is found in each & every society in various forms- gender, age, caste, class, authority, etc.

this can be explained through the concepts of social stratification and hierarchy.

Social stratification implies ranking of people (or groups) on the basis of differential distribution of goods

& service, right and obligation, power & status. As such society is durded in terms of unequal distribution of

economic, political & social condition of existence. It is basically a horizontal decision of society into

unequal status groups where people have freedom to more from one stratum to another depending upon their

possession, quality & performance. It is chiefly referred to as class basis of stratification, & a secular feature

of modern society which is based on income, education, knowledge, occupation, etc.

Hierarchy implies an elaborate and rigid form of vertical division of society based on the religious principle

of purity & pollution. It decides the ranking of people in different status groups in a hierarchical order. A

caste based stratification system, in which hierarchical division based on ritual superiority is suigenaris. It

implies Bharamins, kshastriyas, vaishyas, as twice born and -------are pure, whereas non ------or shudras are

impure. It accordingly also provides for the occupational division of labour of various groups. Besides, there

is ritual superiority of Brahamins (status) over kshastriyas (power). It chiefly posits a society which has a

relatively closed system of social stratification, where people have less chance of social nobility & status is

ascribed (based on birth). Such a society is visualized as being based on reciprocity & cooperation, called

organic reality of caste by F.G. Baily.

~ 40 ~

When we consider caste as a hierarchy, it chiefly explains only one of its dimensions of ritual (cultural)

aspect. Though it tries to highlight the essence & the basis of caste and explains why caste is regarded as

unique Indian Hindu phenomena. However, it explains only the partial reality of caste. The obvious

limitation of such an approach is as follows:

1. The brahaminicaly cultural view point is unduly emphasized - parrathamna.

2. Such an approach ignores the application of socio-economic categories to the study of verna & caste

& emphasis only upon religious conceptions-A. Betailly

3. It fails to account for the tension & conflicts aspects of caste- A. Betailly.

4. Based on limited sources & is a historical - TN. Madan.

5. It fails to recognize the existential & operational reality of caste- Y.Singh.

6. The dynamic reality of caste mobility cannot be evaluated from such a framework - MN. Srinivas.

7. Superiority of status to power is not always right. The caste ranking various from rigion to region

because the same caste is not dominates in different region - marrwtt, chenana.

8. Such a framework posits a self - sufficient & a static village, which is divorced from the existential

reality of village- A.R.Desai, K.Davis.

The economic & political aspects of caste can only be understood when we consider caste as a system

of social stratification. It facilitates in understanding.

1. The inherent dynamic reality of mobility & conflicts taking place from historical ancient to

contemporary times - Romila Thapar; KM. Pannikar; A.Betille.

2. F.G. Baily calls it the segmental reality of caste.

3. It facilitates in the understanding of the emerging contemporary reality of caste such as caste

association, caste & democracy, caste & politics, caste as a source of gaining power & social

mobility emergence of various caste-class conflicts, backward class movements etc.-

Rudolphs; AN Das; R. Kothari; G.Shah.

4. It explains why caste in a transformed from, will continue to existent future - MN. Shrinivas;

Rudolphs.

The two approaches are essentially supplementary & complementary to each other; for its

highlight that:

~ 41 ~

There is closed link between Caste link & class link feature & not that caste is

transforming into class.

To understand the dynamic Indian social reality, instead of caste. Alone or class

alone approach, a class caste-class nexus framework should be adopted -

K.L.Sharma; Y.Singh.

Y.Singh opines that it is only then we can understand why tradition modernity

coexists in India leading to what prof. F.W.Riggs calls a prismatic society, having

features of both fused (traditional) & diffracted (modern) society.

CASTE: Dimension of regional variations

As an existential reality, the in numerable variation of caste is found in India. The caste structural has

several variations functioning in different region in India. In reality, great diversity exists between region

as well as within region. However, for analytical purpose, its regional variations can be studied along

there dimensions - Kinship, occupation, & power.

(A) Caste structure and kinship

The sole reason for this relationship lies in the endogamous nature of caste system, because of which a

person marries within one’s own caste or sub caste. However various variations in this pattern are found

in India;

1. North India-

A person marries outside the village, called ‘the rule of -----------------.’

Hyper gamy is practiced , which specially widens the range of ties

Patriarchal, patrilocal & patrilineal

The four - clam rule of marriage is followed.

A person awards marriage with kind who are related to him or her five generation

from the mothers side & seven generations in the fathers side ideally.

2. Central India -

Caste endogamy

Hypergamy

Village exogamy

~ 42 ~

Among some caste communities, cross - cousin marriages are being practiced, of

marrying mothers, brothers, daughter, but marrying fathers, sisters, daughter is a

taboo.

3. Southern region-

Basically preferential rules of marriage

Village intermarriages takes place

Chiefly matrilineal matrilocal & matriarchal.

Nayar matrilineal house is called ‘tharavad’.

(B) Caste structure & occupation

Traditionally, there was an association of caste with an occupation which determined its rank in the local

caste hierarchy. ( Mckin Marriott) this was reflected in the jajmani system of framework. In any such

framework, the congruence between high caste status & land ownership was an important feature

(A.Beteille). This was reflected in the study of K.Gough of tanifourdistt, where the Brahmins were the

land owners & adi shudras worked as landless agricultural labourers. However, Bailey’s study of

Bissipara village in Orissa had worrier caste owning most of the land whereas other castes including the

Brahmin were in a position of economic dependence & political subordination to them.

(C) Caste structure and power

The control of land & economic resources along with political, numerical & ritual preponderance made a

caste dominant. This led to status summation (A.Beteille). This was found by I Karve in her study of

Malabar caste, where the order of dominance among caste parallels the order of caste rank. Thus where

caste & power hierarchy overlap, there is a definite concentration of power, wealth & land invested with

high ranking caste groups. However, lack of clarity in caste ranking result in a diffused power structure,

with no single caste groups wielding economic, political & ritual ----------. For eg. Coromandal region of

south caste coastal India. Similarly, in Punjab, Haryana & N.W. parts of UP. Middle ranking caste such

as jats, ahir, kwmi, etc. waild substantial amount of power & position of dominance, besides being

numerically pond rent in some regions.

L.DUMONT’S analysis of caste in India

Introduction:

~ 43 ~

L. Dumont’s a French scholar & an expert in sociology, anthropology & ideology, wrote magmim-opus

‘hono- hierarchy’. He provided a new prospective for the study of caste system & its implication for the

understanding of the Indian, Hindu society. He emphasized the importance of the search for latent &

underlining structure ‘hierarchy’, the opposite of equality. We can understand his theory on the basic of

the perspective provided for by Y.Singh, who terms Dumont’s views on caste as cultural -partienlaristic.

Y. Singh perspective for the analysis of L. Dumont’s views:

Y. Singh highlights four parts of his theory:

1. Ideology - Hindu social organization & caste is based in the overriding principle of

‘hierarchy’, where;

Elements are ranked in relation to whole

Nature of relationship is which encompasses & that which is incompossed

A holistic view

2. Dialectics-

The most important distention with in overall principle of hierarchy is that

between “purity & pollution”.

The relationship between these binary opposites is not that of fundamental

opposition, rather it is dialectical, found upon the necessary consistence of the

two.

Thus, we can song that this dialectics is of a complementary nature, where.

The opposition is w.r.t. values or is ideational.

An organic model where the whole is founded upon the necessary &

hierarchical coexistence of two opposites.

3. Trance formational relationship-

The principle of hierarchy as manifested in purity & pollution proviedsfor the

diversion of labor in society.

The opposition between pure & impure gets reflected in Varna & jati, which are

immutrally interdependent.

This distinction leads to the division in terms of during & a_ ______jaties.

Within the Durg jaties, who pursue economic activities are more impure in

comparison to those who perform religious activities.

~ 44 ~

It also provides for the distinction between status & power, where status(of

Brahmins as related to intellectual field) is more pure than power (of king &

kshatriyas)

L. Dumont’s accordingly presented a model to make his agreements more

explicit;

Brahmins

kshatriyas

vaishyas

shudras

N.A.

L. Dumont’s further proposed that the Varna system based on the distinction

between purity & pollution later led to the proliferation of various castes, sub-

castes, kinship groups, gotra, etc.

The nature of changes taking place in the caste system acc. to L. Dumont is

that the changes are ‘in’ & not ‘of’ the caste system. More specifically, the

traditional interdependence of caste is being replaced by competition among

the caste, called substantialisation of caste by Dumont.

4. Comparisons - L. Dumont proposed his theory to compare the nature of equality found

in the west to that of inequality as was found in India. He however argned that the

opposites of equality is not inequality. The inequality as found in India is of a special kind

which precisely gets manifested in the principal of hierarchy. Accordingly, he proposed

distinction between:

(a) Oxidental tradition - homo equal is, based on equality as found in the west, &

(b) Oriental tradition - homo-hierarchical, based on hierarchy as found in India.

In Indian society collectivity aspect of social lik is more important than the

individual phenomena of the west.

However he equated individualism of west to renunciation as found in the Indian

society.

~ 45 ~

critical evaluation:

1. Y. Singh considers his analysis as highly abstract to operationalise & is not empirically

applicable.

2. T.N. Madan & Barreman argue for limited nature of ethnographic evidence together with

the neglect of political - economic dimension of Indian reality. As such, it is a historical.

3. M.N. Srinivas opines that he fails to distinguish between Varna & jati. Where his

conception that jaties emerged from Varna is not true.

4. A. Betailly argues that his organic model failed to account for the tensions and conflicts

aspect of caste. similarly, Dipankar gupta opines that Dumont fails to pay attention to the

principle of differences in the caste system, because of which the Hindu caste system is

presented as one without internal dynamisan & tent ion

5. G. Omvedt provides for an ideological antique by arguing that Dumont has tried to accord

an ideological superiority to the Brahamanical model- parvathamma.

6. Barreman opines for the following:

(1) The correspondent between purity (ritual) & high status (of Brahmins) was not always

true as power (of kings) also determined high status. As such, the status- power

dichotomization based on the principle of hierarchy is incomplete until we consider it

along with dominance an empirical reality of Indian caste system.

(2) Moreover if we look at castes dozily we find that each maintains its own tradition &

costumes zealously clearly distinguishes itself from others accompanying by a unique

hierarchical or doing of castes, leading to multiple hierarchies, opposite of true hierarchy

of Dumont. This is in consonance with the reality that there are also varying models of

emulation which castes employ for purpose of upward mobility. This leads to caste -

conflict.

Conclusion:

L. Dumont provides an alternative view of caste to understand the Indian social reality.

Accordingly, he proposed that caste in not only unique Indian phenomena, both cultural &

structural, but it also a unique Hindu phenomena, this view has been supported by leach,

Bailey, O. Lewis, M.N. Shrinivas, Hulton & Bougle. This shows the utility of L.

Dumont’s emalyas of caste.

~ 46 ~

CASTE: UNIQUE INDIAN PHENOMENA

The different dimensions of caste as unique Indian phenomena-

1. Srinivas- because of its religious significance.

2. L. Dumont- because it is based on the most crucial theological idea of purity & pollution. as such, it is

also a unique Hindu phenomena.

R.K. Mukherjee contradicts this by arguing that caste system is a typical Indian institution rather than

being a peculiarity of any religious group; there are groups in Muslim (Shias & Sunnis) & Christian

(catholic & protestant). But these groups are not based upon any theological ideas as in the case of Hindu

religion.

.

3. Bougle- because castes system permeates Hindu society to a level unknown elsewhere.

4. Hutton- because of its complex origin, it must be confused to a single are - India moreover castes attempts to

integral Indian society & a unique phenomena.

5. H. Gould- castes system in its fullest sense is an exclusively Indian phenomenon.

The above views are proposed by the scholars who chiefly view caste as an ethnographic category & in this

from it refers exclusively to a system of social organization peculiar to Hindu India

Leach & Dumont argue that both as cultural & structural phenomena, castes denote a particular species with

pan-Indian cirtisation.

However there are scholars who regard caste as a sociological category denotes almost any kind of class

structure of exceptional rigidity. These scholars are chiefly G.S. Hurye & Fredrick Barth as such, caste is not a

unique Indian phenomena. G. Hurye analyzed the elements of caste outside India by reviewing Egypt, loestern

Asia, China, Japan, Rome, & Tribal Europe.

He founds elements of caste in well marked status group of this society. Here we many refer to the analyses of

Cooley who opined that when status in a class is somewhat strictly hereditary, we may call it caste. Such

status-groups and condition were prevalent in other civilization also. the same condition were found by F.

Barth in his study of social stratification system of Muslims in swat, North Pakistan even Risley’s Racial

theory posits that caste system should not be confined to India but it should be found in all those societies

~ 47 ~

which have faced the conquests by other racial groups. Kroeber opines that castes are special forms of social

classes which in tendency, at least, are present in every society. The above instances are however cases where

caste exists, to some extent, only as a structural phenomena, & not as cultural reality. Leach & Dumont opines

that caste exists in Indian both as a cultural & structural social reality, indissolubly linked with pen- India

civilization.

“Social stratification, mobility, & change.”

Social mobility is directly linked with the system of social stratification .

The structural differentiation & mobility results from urges for social mobility.

The above is determined by the structural constraints w.r.t. the closure of openness of the

stratification system.

The closure of caste-stratification is associated with the principal of status summation.

Mobility in stratification is also related to the possibility of structural changes. as related to;

Frustration either objectively or subjectively existing.

The nature of the communication system.

The opportunity structure.

Historically, it is doubtful to maintain that tension & conflicts did not exist in traditional India. such a

conflict did exist & often on a large scale ( in the form of social movement)

As such, we can say that social mobility reflects the direction in which structural changes in the

society are taking place.

“Nature of mobility in traditional India”

It was contended that in the social system of traditional India

mobility was absent,

having a closed system of stratification

This was chiefly because of.

The tradition- modern dichotomy in the studies of status mobility in India.

~ 48 ~

The misplaced conception & ideology of the classical literature which over-emphasized the element of

continuity.

An ideological bias of a moral sense of superiority felt by most western scholars over the Indian society &

culture. and

Besides, in the single-village studies of the social anthropologists in the framework of functional theory.

integration and no conflict was the focus of study, and

The jajmani system within the caste framework led them to over emphasis the element of reciprocity &

underplays the inherent tension in the system.

M.N. Srinivas correct this perspective by arguing that while traditional India was somewhat stationary in

character, it did not preclude upward or downward mobility of individual castes in the local hierarchy., The

caste system did offer, though in limited & exceptional cases only chance for status mobility.

the position of caste in the system of ranking was itself subject to changes due to external or internal

forces operating in the social system(Silverberg : barber)

Besides, it may be difficult to establish historically that the caste system of ranking. Where the closure of

caste stratification is associated with the principal of “status summation”, was ever fully closed. Indeed they

were exceptional, but in social relevance were quite significant. Besides, wide divergences in the status

ranking of families within the same caste on the basis of sub-caste division. Occupational sub-specialization

& accumulation of wealth.

There is substantial evidence to suggest that even in the past the caste system was not absolutely closed.

the avenues for mobility in traditional India were:

(a) Though conquests & accumulation of power & wealth (orans;sinha)

(b) Vast tracts of land available for settlement & enterprising families could move from one region to

another & settle down as rajas or feudal lords & establish peasant settlements.

(c) Mobility through promotion to higher positions of office or patronage during the Mughal & British

period.

(d) Mobility through accidental factors, such as, famines or good harvests.

(e) ) Mobility through renunciation or by becoming sanyasis, an institutionalized scheme meant only for the

twice born castes, through in practice member of the lower caste also become sadhus or sanyasis, both in the

village & towns (Dumont; Harper; Stein).

~ 49 ~

(f) Among the internal structural forces was fluctuation in population. Accumulation of property &

technological changes leading to emergence of new occupational groups (Barber).

However, Silverberg opines that it is doubtful to maintain that such forces & processes accounted for a

significant degree of social mobility.

“Mobility and conflict in traditional India”

structurally, the caste system simultaneously manifests two tendencies or realities:

(A) Segmental- where each caste or: sub-caste tends to articulate mutual repulsion, social distance & social

inequality. Here the social segments interact through competition. Bailey refers to this as the class principle of

‘segmentary stratification’; &

(B) Organic- where the caste segments are mutually interlinked by principle of reciprocity, through the jajmani

system Bailey named this caste principle of stratification as ‘closed organic system’. (F.G. Bailey)

the thesis that the caste system being closed or harmonic is probably overdrawn chiefly because of the

following factors;

(a) The tradition-modern dichotomy in the studies of status mobility in India.

(b) The misplaced conception & ideology of the classical literature which over-emphasized the elements of

continuity.

(c) An ideological bias of a moral sense of superiority felt by most western scholars over the Indian society &

culture. &

(d) besides, in the single-village studies of the social anthropologists in the framework of functional theory:

integration and not conflict was the focus of study,&

The jajmani system within the caste framework led them to over-emphasize the element of reciprocity

& underplay the inherent tensions in the system.

Historically, it is doubtful to maintain that tensions & conflicts did not exist between castes in traditional India.

such conflicts did occur and often on a large scale in the form of:

Large scale social movements.

~ 50 ~

where sanskritisation can be seen at least in principle violating the basic tenet of accepting the principle of

hierarchy, therefore, many sociologist have seen in the process of sanskritisation a latent form of class

conflict, which results because of the peculiar structural constraints of the Indian society (Gould: Leach).

sanskritisation & westernization can be viewed from a reference group theoretical perspective to explain

& analyses the structural aspect of mobility in the stratification system, by focusing upon

(a) The motivational structure- the aspirations the members to move wards,

(b) The opportunity structure- the eligibility or ineligibility of the members to move in the desired

direction & finally

(c) The communication structure- the extent of relative deprivation influencing people’s motivation for

social mobility.

As, such the system of stratification is expected to generate tensions & conflicts if its reference group

context is such that the aspiration levels ( i.e., the motivation) & communication structures are highly

active but the opportunity structure remains closed & shows dire inequalities. The social development in

India corresponds more or less to this situation.

besides, the three levels in the ranking system related to the Indian mobility pattern are based

on the distinction between:

(a) Rural from metropolitan types of ranking system.

(b) Individual or groups from corporate units of ranking. &

(c) A series of successively wider zones of reference for the unites in any local system, the several

units being characterized by distinctive values. The zones are- village, linguistic region & the

whole civilization.

The conflicts in the system of stratification emerge from the frames of reference in the ranking of

castes from one level of category to another. But this process has also contributed to the dynamics

of the stratification system.

“Social stratification and mobility in modern times”

The term ‘castes & classes’ are used as conceptual dichotomies for the analysis of change.

Social mobility as a process has become more active in recent time.

~ 51 ~

It has resulted from sets of endogenous and exogenous factors that have loosened the summation status

principle which the traditional caste stratification represented.

The congruence of ritual, economic, and power status as in traditional caste stratification is withering

away under the impact of - social legislation, education, democratization, as a consequence of increased

social mobility.

Mobility thus causes ‘status-in congruency’ or inconsistency (Barber; Bailey; Beteille; Leach).

as a result of this growth of autonomy and divergence among the determinants of traditional system of

caste hierarchy:

Caste is getting more rationally organized into caste association and federations & assuming to itself

the function of rational corporate groups.

M.N. Srinivas highlights the new role of castes in India by concluding that the contemporary

processes in the structure of caste is that of fusion in contrast to the past trends which were in the

direction of continued fission.

However, fission & fusion are also taking place in the caste organization in different parts of the

country (R. Kothary; Rudolph; H.Gould).

Some have even speculated about the transformation of caste system into the class system of social

stratification (Davis; Desai).

Social mobility in Indian society

It refers to the change in the status of indi’s or groups in relation to a given system of social stratification. it can

be either;

(a) Vertical or structural - Marriott, Silverberg, srinivas.

(b) Horizontal or positional - Bhadra, Breman, Harris, Omvedt, Singh.

major sources of SM are:

-policy of protective & is crimination

-land rectomes & GR

-adult franchise

- panchayati raj & ULB.

-education

-urbainsation & industrialization

major trends of change:

~ 52 ~

-displacement of old political-leadership by a new set of leaders drowns from the advanced rural segments’.

Chiefly possible due to political consciousness & democratization of politics. ( A.R. Kamet; Sharma)KG.

Sharma talks of the process of down ward social mobility.

Caste based mobilization by the middle caste in favor of policy of reservation of jobs has sharpened &

intensified class contradiction.

-A. Beteille talks of emergence of new status groups taking precedence over traditional upper &middle caste.

-S.M. is evident in the ever increasing violation of traditional criteria of status namely hereditary occupation,

jajmani obligation reacceptance of modern seen occupations, education, position of power is formal political

bodies.

-the most important testimony of SM can be found in the challenge thrown by SC, ST, OBC to the dominance

of upper caste & classes particularly after independence.

new patterns of social stratification have emerged (Bose,Shah, Singh) structural , cultural & social

transformation have occurred among ST’S

-out grown of various organization & groups leading to various social movements ( Sharma, Weiner, Sengupta,

Sachchidananda) initially lower castes uninitiated higher caste in non- eco. Spheres of social life. following

considerable degree of socio-political awareness, it non symbolizes aspiration for higher status as well as

desire to over throw the existing system ( Omvedt, Srinivas).

-the growth of literary & emergence of small structure of educated elite is a testining of SM among SC,s ST,s

(Sachchidananda; Ramas wanny).

- Several studies indicate limited & uneven impact of the various state radiated schemes of social

transformation (Mahar, M. Offat, Narayan, and N. Ram).

- Since the late 1970s, OBC, s have become a political force which in political party could afford to undermine.

- The movements for political antinomy agrasion & forest based movement & cultural movement based on

script and language has immushy contributed to SG. & SM. among tribes in middle India. (Singh, Ras, Shah).

- Through class has lost its, haziness, it learn on caste to further its interests for mobilization. Thus, caste is

becoming work & strong simultaneously. Bremen opines that a new form of casteism has emerged due to such

a process of change.

- New forms of inequality have emerged along with new bases of stratification.

“The historicity of social change”

~ 53 ~

Social change processes even though structurally similar assume historically different shapes & positions in each

society due to its pre-existing systems of social institution & ideologies.

as such, what matter most in formulating conceptual categories for the study of changes is that:

native ‘initial condition’ or ‘historicity’ of social processes must not be overlooked, &

The researcher should try to observe the dialectical relationship between the system interaction & social

change (Eisenstaedt, Beteille,Y. Singh, Bendix, Ishwaran).

“The Inter-Sub- Structural Autonomy of the Traditional Indian Social Structure”

An important historical element in traditional Indian social structure was that of inter sub-structural

autonomy. such as, the autonomy between polity & stratification. Stratification & culture and polity, etc.

(Eisenstaedt, Y. Singh).

This resulted in the acceptance of much social & cultural innovation at one level of the sub-system

without affecting the other.

The nature of this process was segmental.

“The Contemporary Processes of Social Change”

The Contemporary Processes of Social Change have now ceased to be segmentary they have become organic.

This is because:

The structural autonomy of the social sub-system is gradually breaking down with the erosion of traditional

structural insularity.

This takes place following various institutional changes in the society which affect all other systems and

activate most of its segment for participation in a wider national scene.

The mechanisms for such mobilization are economic or existential. The urge for equality, mobility& economic

security.

No wonder of the caste, class and communal identities are inadvertently reinforced. But the quality the

consciousness in these identities is not the same as existed in traditional society with its autonomy of sub-

system.

~ 54 ~

Now all social segments tend to be activated because of the constraint towards organic social growth. This

growth is symbolized by the emergence of Indian nationhood. The caste association, faction, fission & fusion

& structural entities manifest the diverse ramifications of this process.

Change and persistence in caste

It is a perspective for the analysis of the nature of change taking place in the contemporary Indian society. the

changes are occurring through role differentiation and functional diversification. Such changes have been so

fundamental that is of only debated if the new emergent phenomena are indeed manifestation of caste or class

properties. However, caste has evolved adaptive mechanisms for assimilation of and coexistence with many

structural changes.

Force of change-

federal parliamentary democracy based on universal adult franchise

socialistic planning

policy of protective discrimination

social legislation

urbanization & industrialization

education

Land reforms & green revolution, & panchayati raj institutions.

Various rural development & poverty reduction programmers.

Fusion and instances of change:

1. Weakening of the norms of pollution and purity - MN. Srinivas, GS. Ghurye.

2. a significant break in the traditional hierarchical structure of caste ;

caste no longer determine occupation

occupational mobility cut across class lines

occupational diversification has taken place

Greater avenues for social mobility.

3. Changes have occurred in the traditional mode of interrelationship, esp. jajmani system- FG. Bailey.

~ 55 ~

4. Traditional interdependence replaced by competition, ie. A shift from organic to segmental reality, called

substantialisation of caste by L. Dumont for eg. Conflict in Bihar - AN. Das.

5. Changes have occurred in status summation, through fundamental democratization of caste- K. Marline;

A. Beteille.

6. Instead of ritual aspects, economic & political features have became more important - Raghav Raj & Laidi.

7. Contradiction and conflicts on a scale which never existed before- AN. Das DN. Dhanger.

8. Changes in traditional power structure & leadership patterns.

9. Emergence of Dalit consciousness.

Fusion and persistence of caste-

-caste association

-caste clustering’s

-political mobilization of caste

-politicization of caste

-sharpening of caste identities

-backward class movements

-communal tensions

- Caste endogamy

caste associations, emphasizing horizontal solidarity, show fusion of caste, thus assuming class like

forms, providing:

(a) Opportunities for power &

(b) Social mobility feasible (Rudolph’s, Lynch, Bailey, S. Patwardhan)

2. Caste - clustering is still a predominant feature:

(a) Lower caste classes are still wesking as agricultural menial labouress- Breman, Baviskar, Lerches,

Thorat, and Das.

(b) Upper & middle caste dominate elite position in country’s administrative as well as modern

profession Navlakha; JP. Singh.

(c) Social background of industrial entrepreneur’s reveals that most of them hail from trading &

business castes & communities - Singer; Panimi; Gadgil.

~ 56 ~

(d) Unorganized sector chiefly comprises of under privileged low castes - John Harris; Lerches;

MSA. Row ; K.Gough.

(3) Politicization of caste, where caste is used as a means of political mobilization at all levels - R.

Kothari; T.K. Omvedt P.Brass.

(4) Anti Brahmin movements in the south - M.N. Srinivas.

Reasons for the same-

-slow pace of industrialization & economic stagnation

-socialistic planning strategy

- Unequal socio-economic development

-politicization of caste

- Formation of sizeable middle class

- Backward class movements

1. Slow pace of industrialization & economic stagnation. because of this, people sought to cling to whatever

economic opportunity they initially had, chiefly through caste & kinship ties- G. Omvedt; Holmstrom.

2. The socialist planning strategy with the government regime of economic regulation & control. It constrained

the free flow of resource & into as such, particularistic linkages of kinship affinity and caste proved vital in

gaining business contract, access to officials in various governmental agencies and in labour recruitment -

Rudolph; G. Omvedt; A. Kohli; G.Myrdal.

3. the above to factors together led to highly differentiated & unequal socio-economic development thus,

providing the basis for politicization of caste, which sharpened caste identities at the national level- Panini; Y.

Singh; MN. Srinivas.

Social consequences-

- Politicization of castes

- sharpening of caste identities

- Intensification of conflicts

- Growth of middle class of bourgeoisiefication

- conimmual tensions

- Rise of backward class movements.

~ 57 ~

1. Formation of a sizeable middle class where its consumerist 7 instrumentalist has become a model of emulation

by the upwardly mobile sections of industrial workers, rural peasant castes & lower classes in the society.

Paradoxically bourgeoisiefication has dual aspect:

(A) Religious & political support to various party & organization which fan communal emboss- T.K. Ommen;

P.F. Brass; Engineer; &

(B) Also support economics liberalization by extending & deepening the market for consumer goods- S.L Rao;

Panini; Gadgil.

2. Emergence of backward class movements, which set in process of political polarization at the national level,

with sharpening caste identities-

implicit refection of achievement orientation on one hand

Equality & social justice are translated in terms of getting secular status.

consideration of equality gam precedence over efficiency,

Thus, reinventing caste movement.

The future course-

With govt’s decision for job reservation, for the upper caste & professional liberalization has become more

attractive proposition.

But, asmarket forces are friendly to those who are endowed with skill & resources, there will be

considerable resistance & backward class movements.

this will have dual impact;

- adversely affect the poor & underprivileged, &

- Thrawt the process of rapid economic development.

As such, there is every possibility of intensification of conflicts in the near future- Y. Singh; T.K. Oonimen;

P. Brass; K. Deitsch; Das.

Conclusion-

Economic liberalization in the long run is likely to weaken the hold of caste over economy, & present the

only alternative & possibility of annihilating caste, & doing away with what Deepak Lal calls ‘Hindu

Equilibrium’ or Raj Krishana’s ‘Hindu Rate Of Growth’.

The reasons for continued existence of caste in the future -

~ 58 ~

1. Provides opportunities for power

2. Makes social mobility feasible

3. Evolved adaptive mechanisms’ with the forces of modernity.

Aspects of change/fission in caste

The nation of hierarchical gradation of caste groups drawing legitimacy from the

concept of purity & pollution has changed. This ideology of caste has become less

pervasive (M.N. Srinivas).

The ritual aspect of caste is confused to personal affairs only. (H. Gould).

The traditional caste ordering of occupation broke down ie. jajmani system. (F.G.

Bailay)

Taking benefits from land reforms, middle caste peasants emerged as dominant &

heralded green revolution. They have emerged as potential political force.

The traditional dominance of Brahamin’s in Tanjore village broke down. (K. Gough)

The traditional caste panchayats & caste councils have lost their significance. (Y. Singh)

Instead of earlier vertical mobilization. (M.N. Srinivas; Rodolphs)

The traditional status summation of caste has broken down, leading to new avenues for

social mobility & new source of social honors & prestige. (A. Beteille)

Mobility has occurred among SCs & Dalits, leading to the emergence of Dalit

consciousness & ‘Dalit literature’. (G. Omvedt)

A. Beteille considers changes in the traditional power as the most radical change in the

traditional social structure.

Traditional interdependence of caste organic being replaced by competition segmental

leading to intensification of conflicts. (FG. Bailay; AR. Desai; PK. Boss; AN. Das)

The wcakers sections (Woman, SCs, STs, Dalits) have increasingly made their presence

in new self-governing institutions of PRLS.

ASPECTS OF CONTINUTY/FUSION IN CAST

~ 59 ~

Caste & kinship and marriage links yet survives. (P. Kolenda)

The forces of modernity have benefitted the wealthy upper castes. (R. Kothari)

The great business houses belong to the traditional commercial upper castes.

Caste alliances are being formed for political games, material welfare & social status (B.S. Cohn).

This shows the political mobilization of caste groups.

H. Gould’s study of rishawallas of Lucknow shows that in workplace the caste norms are set aside, but

in personal life the caste norms exerts itself.

Caste has come to term with the democratic political process.

Even Supreme Court recognizes caste & communities as the basis of reservations - politics, education,

jobs, & promotions.

Increased competition among communities to get themselves listed as “backward”.

The beginning of political consciousness on caste lines gets reflected in caste association (Rudolph’s;

MN. Srinivas).

Candidates are being selected for political parties in the basis of caste. (R. Kothari)

Rudolph’s arrange that caste in its transformed form has helped the Indian masses (of which 70% live

in the village) make a success of representative democracy.

The coming of modern means of communication has increased the ‘horizontal stretch’ of caste. (MN.

Srinivas).

Conclusion: it is clear that caste as a dynamic reality of Indian society has accompanied changes in the past.

However, because of its characteristic of adaptability to force of change, it centimes to exists as a dynamic

reality even today. In the final analysis, caste is losing the functions, norms & structures it once had &

acquiring new ones to suit the new demands & conditions of the people. It is obvious that eradication of caste

is a distant reality, despite the indication to the country.

Present times:

-caste association

-Caste-class clustering

-caste & politics

-backward class movement

-intensification of conflict, exp. of Bihar

~ 60 ~

-emergence of Dalit consciousness

-reservations for equality

-equality of middle caste peasants as upper classes

-shift towards horizontal mobilization

-Indi & family mobility

-no inform pattern of caste crke class, throughout India

-economic & political aspect becoming more prominent in comparison to ritual dimension.

CASTE AND CLASS NEXUS

In India, caste and class are organically related. “Caste incorporates class & class incorporates caste in the Indian

contest”. Neither does caste refer to the totality of social formation nor is class the polar opposite of caste. Neither

the caste alone view nor the class-alone perspective can help in a proper and fuller understanding of Indian

society. Such confusion stems from the fact that western scholars looked at the caste system in India from the

viewpoint of the class in the western societies. Though at an ideal typical level & for analytical purposes we can

differentiate between caste & class based stratification system. However, the understanding of existential

operational & substantial dynamic Indian social reality calls for a close nexus between caste & class. this can be

seen in the following points:

1. These was never a perfect congruence between caste, class & power (Stein, Pannikar, & Others)

2. Even in ancient Indian these were classes.

3. Aspects of mobility & migration were quite normal.

4. Material & cultural traditions existed with a sort of congruity. This can see wrt new kingdoms, settled

agriculture, cities, and banking & guild operations.

5. caste based division of labor explains the economic dimension of the caste.

6. Had caste been merely a ritualistic phenomenon it would have crimpled language because of its amber some

nature.

7. Nexus can be seen when economic and political dimension are taken into consideration.

8. Religions also includes power

9. Hyper gamy explains the role of status & wealth within the caste system.

10. The process of sanskritisation also includes the phenomena of power & domination.

11. The concept of jajmani & dominant caste are explaining the same.

~ 61 ~

12. The process of westernization & sanskritisation want on simultaneously moreover, westernization did not

retard the process of sanskritisation rather it accelerated the same.

13. There were instances of conflicts & tensions in the institution of caste system even in traditional India.

14. Family position is marked as a class within a particular caste.

Some of the relatively recent phenomena:

1. The activisation of caste association for non-caste like functions. (Roudlph)

2. The nature of economic deprivation & exploitation of the various weaker sections.

3. The increasing conflicts between the high caste & lower caste groups ( Harigens, Dalits, SCs, STs

etc.) & increasing conflicts within the lower caste groups speaks of the rising aspirations of

equality. ( T.K. Oommen; DN. Dhangre)

4. The increasing nature of conflict of Behar. ( AN. Das; PK. Bose)

5. The increasing shift from vertical to horizontal mobilization of various groups in modern day

polity. ( Roudlph)

6. Role of caste & class in present day elections. ( R. Kothari)

7. Greater attention to mobility at the level of family & individual. (KL. Sharma)

8. Lower-middle caste peasants taking benefits from LREGR have become upper class groups. (PC.

Joshi)

9. a better comprehension of the term & simultaneous aspects of mobility upward & downward. (KL.

Sharma)

10. The seemingly caste conflicts in Bihar are essentially class conflicts.

11. There is no uniform pattern of caste structure throughout India, like class.

12. K. Gough’s analysis of mode of production as a social formation having interconnections of caste,

kinship, marriage & family with farces of production & production relations.

13. The Mandal commission of backward class considered caste as the basics for determining

backwardness of members of group in a society.

THE FRAMEWORK:

The caste & class are two principles of social starts faction which have persisted in the Indian social system in

a dialectical relationship.

~ 62 ~

The structural aspects of caste (economic & political dimensions) remained underestimated whereas the cultural

aspects (purity & pollution) have been over emphasized.

a whole some treatment of both these aspects of social stratification could provide a deeper understanding of

India’s social formation.

Moreover, we should also remember that caste simultaneously manifests tendencies - (F.G. Bailey).

1. organic: caste principle of stratification, based on cooperation & inter-dependence;&

2. Segmental: class principle of stratification, based on competition.

What is required is that dominant & not so dominant elements of a given situation should be discerned.

Dipankar Gupta argues that the essence of dynamic Indian social reality can be had by considering;

1. Caste as a basis of social stratification, whereas

2. Class provides the basis of mode of production. (A.R. Desai, K. Davis)

K.L. Sharma opines that for understanding of caste & class as dimensions of Indian social formation demands

& approach whereby the theory, structure & process have a combination of:

1. Dialectics: the contradictory relations between unequal segments.

2. History: provides the substantial account of the conditions of human existence.

3. culture: defines the nature of relations &

4. Structure: is seen as a formation of the product of dialectics, history and culture.

Y. Singh rightly comments that the situation corresponds to a “prismatic” model of change, where

‘traditional’ sentiments of caste & kinship under adaptive transformations without completely being

diffracted into classes or corporate groups.

As such, caste & class represent to a large extant the same structural reality, where both are organically related

in the system of Indian social stratification.

However, Nexus should mean close link between the two and not that caste is changing to class.

CASTE AND DEMOCRACY

A perspective for the analysis of nature of changes taking place in the contemporary Indian society. More

specifically in the sphere of caste, the changes have been occurring through role differentiation & functional

diversification under the impact of democratization. The changes have been so fundamental that it has often

been debated if the in argent phenomena are indeed manifestations of caste or class like features. However,

caste has evolved adaptive mechanisms for assimilation of and coexistence with the many structural changes &

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the force of modernity-democracy. Therefore, it is argued that through caste and democracy are fundamentally

opposed to each other; however, India presents a unique case of largest caste-based democracy in the world.

on an ideal typical level, if we place democracy & caste along two opposite indo of a continuation, we

can assume that democracy essentially entails fen times of a modern society, based on universalism,

equality, achievement, orientation, rule of low, fundamental rights, civil society, etc. whereas, caste

based society essentially entails features of particularize, inequality based on purity & pollution,

ascriptive norms, status-summation, repulsion, hieratical organization & hereditary occupation.

Therefore, the changes of social mobility are either absent or relatively less in a traditional-caste based

society as a purely democratic modern society.

India, which is chiefly regarded as a traditional caste based society, on achieving independence, undertook

various measures to usher democratic modernization of the country. These measures were:

Federal parliamentary democracy based on universal adult franchise.

social legislations

Land reforms, green revolution & prls.

socialist planning

policy of protective discrimination & reservations

industrialization & urbanization

Thus, efforts were mode to bring about changes at the national regional & local level, some of the

“positive impacts” of democratization in especially caste were as follows:

1. weakening of the norms of pollution & purity- M.N. Srinivas; G.S. Ghurye

2. a significant break in the traditional hierarchical aspect of caste;

-caste in longer determines occupation

- Occupational mobility cuts across class lines

- Occupational diversification has taken place

- Greater avenues for social mobility.

3. Changes in the traditional mode of inter relationship (jajmani)-F.G. Bailay

4. Changes in the status-summation, called ‘fundamental democratization’ of caste by K. Mannheim; A. Beteille.

5. under the impact of LR. & GR, various middle caste peasants have become dominant in various parts of the

country, thus altering the traditional power structure. - PC. Joshi, Y. Singh, B.S. Cohn.

6. Led to political empowerment of the Dalits in terms of crystallization of Dalits consciousness- G. Omvedt.

7. Growth & proliferation of various political parties. TK. Oommen

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8. Considerable social mobility has occurred among SCs, STs, OBCs & women, who now make their presence

felt in PRLs.

9. Instead of earlier attempts of vertical mobilization, the attempts are now for horizontal mobilization -

Roudlphs; MN. Srinivas.

However, some of the “negative impacts” of the process of democratization on caste have also been observed:

1. intensification of conflicts among caste - AN. Das; Dhanagare

2. Sharpening of caste identities, chiefly because of the emergence of backward class movements, which set

in process of political polarization at the national level.

3. Increasing claims for being labeled as “backward class”.

4. Politicization of caste & use of primordial loyalties for political mobilization.

5. Class clustering is still a predominant feature.

On the basis of the impact of the various efforts at democratization of the country, the following trends of

the dynamic interplay between caste & democracy can be seen:

1. MN. Srinivas in a review of emerging caste consciousness & its new organization & functions in

Gujarat, Orissa, UP., and Behar & Andhra Pradesh opines that the forces of caste instead of

weakening are further strengthened. The power & activities of caste has increased in proposition of

the political power passed on the people.

2. Increasing importance of caste association in the political process especially in elections it

legislative assembles & diott. Bodies- Roudlph; K. Mannheim.

3. Roudlph characterize ‘caste association’ as having the hired attributes of both ascriptive &

voluntary groups, leading to what he calls a “shadow society” which has modernizing impact

without overly replacing traditional institutional of caste.

4. matching caste by caste has been a common policy of political parties in general election of India,

which shows that castes not only unite on political front, but also have a tendency to sub-divide &

from faction TK. Oommen; PI. Brass; AC. Nayor; O. Levis.

5. New feeling of self identity of increased horizontal caste solidarity, which challenged the position

of upper caste as reference groups. This is reflected in the unity Brahmin movement in the south &

SCs & STs in the eastern region. MN. Srinivas.

6. Government has given preference in services & educational institutional to the OBCs, STs, STs,

in pursuance of the decision of the Supreme Court. Further, we now have reservations in

promotions too.

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7. Now we have reservation in promotions too (77th constitutional amendment act).

8. Provision for reservation in local bodies (73rd & 74th CAA) (9) talks of reservation in private sector

In such in emergent dynamic interplay between caste & democracy, “caste is not going to wither away”.

This is because of the limitation of impact of democracy of caste, which is as follows:

1. Caste association & political mobilization is essentially a micro-reality.

2. Though in political & economic realms hierarchy has been replaced by competitive ideology, but in

ritual spheres hierarchy still purists.

3. The existential situation homogeneity & uniformity of groups determines the extend & level of

mobilization.

4. The caste association & political mobilization are still based a primordial loyalties.

5. Sharpening of caste identities & intensification of caste conflicts.

6. Increasing tendency of the groups to claim ‘backward statuses’.

7. Caste alone in India provided an unmediated & pre-existing structural framework for diffusing &

mobilizing of new role structure.

8. New modern means of communication are being used to propagate ascriptive norms.

9. The spill over effect of caste and the political economy on the future process of economic

liberalization.

10. Absence of other fully differentiated voluntary structures & organization.

thus, we can say that the structural chancing occurring in the caste system under the impact of

democracy, which imply role differentiation & functional diversification, may not be essential to

caste per send to some extant are assuming class-like forms. However, caste has shown continued

resistance by evolving adaptive mechanisms for assimilation of & coexistent with many structural

changes. For a long times to come, caste will continue to provide an institutional foundation for the

operation of modernizing social structure in the realms of politics, economy & culture. Rudolphs

opines that such emergent relationship between caste & democracy implies that modernity has

interned into Indian character & society through assimilation & not replacement, which fusion and

fission takes place simultaneously. it in this context that K.M. Pannikar in ‘caste and democracy’

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argues that to regards democracy as ushering equality and uniformity is the grossest of fallacies,

for it negates peculiarities & historicity of a given society-CASTE.

“ISSUES OF EQUALITY AND SOCIAL JUSTICE”

The principle of equality implies that all citizens should be treated as equals without any discrimination. But due

to the past historical social condition of existence there exists a considerable difference regarding the capability

of competing with success between the groups, especially w.r.t. the vast majority of people living in the rural

areas and those belonging to the lower castes. They have to be given special support to enable them to take

rightful place as citizens of the country. This involves the principle of social justice. The sociological analysis of

the issue of equality and social justice requires an analysis of the difference in life changes caused by traditional

values, social practices, and social restriction imposed by the caste system.

The special claims of the backward classes arise out of the conditions under which they have been

constrained to live from ancient times. The defining feature of their condition was that they were in many

important regards placed outside the bounds of the larger society, mainly on account of the segregation

imposed on them by the rules of pollution and purity. As such, they require special facilities to be

brought in. special care has to be taken to ensure that they are able to exercise their rights as full citizens

in the new legal-social order.

We have to critically assess the extent of realization of equality and social justice, as we are experiencing today.

Nobody denies the value-consensus of today’s society that:

each citizen enjoys equal protection of low, and

The acceptances of the principle that no individual should be permitted to live below human level.

The controversy arises regarding achieving the two value consensus as fast as possible. However the

achievement of the same can never be achieved overnight, rather it would lead to a number of structural &

institutional changes. Such changes can only be brought about over a period of time. For the same, the

directed social changes as envisaged by the government clearly aim at the quicker realization of these two

values. As such, the area that needs to be debated is the correctness or otherwise of the means adopted for

realizing these values one of them happens to be reservation. The direction of the policy of reservation

cannot be questioned in fairness. The only thing that needs to be debated is whether the policy of reservation

is:

leading to creation of new vested interests,

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perpetuation of the caste system itself,

dismemberment of society, &

Efficiency is really on decline in services and professions only because of these reservations.

Each of them is a very complex phenomenon and has to be examined in depth.

We can highlight the following points in our analysis of the issue of equality and social justice:

Is that the reason why caste is taken as a criterion for equalization in order to bring about equality

between individuals, we should first bring about equality between groups. Now, there is a basic

difficulty in this approach. All the members of a caste are not equal-they are not homogeneous

groups. The assumption of a perfect congruence between the collective ritual status of a caste and

the actual material condition of its individual members does not hold good today, and probably

never held good in the majority of the cases even in the past. Various forces are at work today

which increases the dissociation between caste and income, occupation, and education.

They compel us to take more & more account of the needs of the individual irrespective of his

caste, for his caste tells us less & less about the total range of his deprivation. The new legal order

must provision for the individual to bring his needs to the attention of the state in his own right,

without the mediation of his caste.

Moreover, the rigidities of caste are no longer as severe as they were even a decade ago.

However, the above situation is not applicable in the case of poverty. The economic forces that

push people below the line of poverty do not pay much regard to the finer points of traditional

distinction of status. Are we in that case not doing injustice to the individual by seeking to do

justice to caste & communities? The ends of justice are hardly met if our vain endeavor to bring

about equality between castes leads only to the increase of inequality among the individual

members of every caste.

Moreover, it is fallacious to argue that the equalization of caste can only be achieved by means of

job reservations in the government jobs. Such jobs are too few in numbers to materially alter the

condition of any caste as a whole.

Besides, the prospects of material advancement through job reservation have led to a kind of

competition for backwardness among castes. This kind of competition creates a vested interest as it

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stifles the possibility of creating equality between individuals and it obstructs the natural process

through which barriers between castes and communities can be affected.

The society made a terrible mistake in the past in believing that merit was an attribute of individual

but of groups, that being born a Brahmin was in itself a merit. We shall be making the same kind

of mistake if we act on the belief that needs to be always, and not just in special castes, an attribute

of group rather than of individuals.

As such, the situation gets compounded due to the fact that the provision for social justice on the basis of caste

and community inevitably strengthens the divisive forces and weakness the sense of belongingness to the

nation. The attempts to remove social inequlities on caste, class or community basis creates frustration among

some caste and communities resulting into various agitation and violent actions. This has an important

ramification for the Indian society, which is not only pluralistic in nature, but also where caste and jatis are

divided into a number of endogamous groups at the regional or local level because of their rank differentiation.

Emergence and Growth of Dalit Consciousness

The term DC is chiefly a socio-psychological phenomenon of the consciousness of collectivity among the

depressed and weaker sections of the society, of reflecting on their conditions at other higher castes. This

gets reflected in their social, economic, political, and structural aspect of social reality. Through the traces

of the emergence of DC can be found in Buddhism, Sufism and Sikhism. However, the interjection of

modern democratic values and ideas and variety of innovative changes as a result of the heterogeneous

contact with the modern west provided for fresh opportunities for status ascendancy in the body polity of

the closed inscriptive traditional Indian society. Especially, it made the SCs conscious of their long

standing exploitation and the urge for separate identity. The do sure of the caste stratification and the

entrenched position of the caste Hindus had been challenged.

The Various Stages of Dalit Movement:

1. The heterogametic contact with the west and various socio-religious reform movements. The advent of

colonial rule and the process of westernization played on important role. it led to the beginning of various socio-

religious reform movements, which started articulating consciousness of exportation and urge for separate

identity among the Dalits. The Satya Shodhak Samaj of joytiba phule played a pioneering role. Initially it was

only a socio-religious reform movement and was not economic & political in nature. It called for reforms within

the Dalit community for doing away with their various orthodox traditions. It was only later in 1917 under the

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leadership of Shahuji Maharaj of Kolhapur that it called for their political rights and demanded for reservation in

jobs. He also demanded for a separate constituency under the act of 1919 which however, was passed only in the

act of 1935. By this time, the Dalit movement had also become anti-Brahministic in nature. This aspect of DM

had to origin in SNDP movement of Kerala. It not only called for socio-religious unpliftmeof the Dalits but it

also increasingly protested against the Brahminical value system of hierarchy and pollution & purity. Thus,

aspect of Dalit movement was radicalized by the justice party movement and later the DMK movement. It was

chiefly anti Brahmanical, called for political rights of reservation in government jobs and was founded upon the

Aryan-Dravidian ideological conflict. It not only radicalized the Dalit movement, but also got proliferated before

and after independence.

2. The census operations- provided fresh opportunities to the Dalits for articulation of urge for separate identity.

They tried to get the under listed as upper castes by changing their names and claiming upper caste status. Such

instances were reposted from various parts of the country where delegations were sent to British officials and

census officers.

3. Movement against untouched ability especially by Gandhi ji & Ambedkar.

4. Constitutional safeguards after independence and the policy of protective discrimination. This was essentially

a cumulative outcome of the various forces and dimension of Dalit movement before independence. After

independence, it led to the crystallization of DC in an express way. It was chiefly responsible for the emergence

of Dalits as a distinct political entity for the future times.

5. Republican Party of India and conversion to Buddhism was the first manifestation of the emergence of Dalit

as a distinct political entity. In this contest, Ambedkar important upon the importance of constitutional

guarantees, political power and education along with conversion of the Mahars of Maharashtra. Following these

untouchables in other parts of India (jatavs of Agra) also converted to Buddhism. It led to a great psychological

release raising their self image. Its political importance ides in its articulation as a symbol of identity formation.

Its greatest impact has been on confronting,

Challenging and some extent raising their own self-image.

6. Dalit partners & new Dalit movement was a defining moment & a new symbol of revolt taking the ideology

for beyond. It took multifarious expression where of economic, anti-caste & gender was interwoven. Especially,

the challenge to caste and rise of low caste was sought to be put firmly on India’s political agenda.

7. dalit literature- generally it was an outcome of the effort of republic party of India and conversion to

Buddhism. S. Patwardhan and Zilliot opine that the aspect of identity was reflected in the literature of Buddhists,

their literatures and songs. However, Gail Omvedt in dalit vision opines that it was the creative and

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transformatory potential of dalit panthers and new dalit movement. Which actually led to the beginning of

powerful poetry of protests in the form of dalit voice as dalit literature? Nandu Ram in beyond Ambedkar opines

for dalit literature by dalit people.

8. The rise of BSP and BRP: the jati identity politics - shows that they have tried to become ruling community by

breaking its tag of being only dalit movement. They apparently tried to give dalit leadership to all oppressed.

Their achievement in parliamentary election let to the first dalit CM (UP) in India. They have in a position of

bargaining with larger political parties

9. dalits and ethnic identity - more recently, RK. Jain on the basis of his study in UP has raised the issue that on

the basis of the developments and emergent dimensions of dalit identity formation can use argue that “are dalits

an ethnic identity”.

Positive outcomes of dalit movement:

1. the conscious attempts of dalits for status mobility- G. Omvedt

2. It has challenged the closure of the caste stratification and the entrenched position of the caste Hindu- A.

Beteille.

3. It encouraged the process of horizontal caste mobilization and consolidation, where the urge for solidarity

replaced the urge for sanskritisation (Rudolph’s; MN. Srinivas).

4. putting pressuse on the national leadership before independence for taking measures to do away wih the social

disabilities of the dalits ( AR. Desai).

5. constitutional safeguards and policy of protective discrincivation ( Y. Singh)

6. emergency of dalits as a distinct political identity after independence TK. Oommen; PF. Brass; G. Omvedt

7. growth & proliferation of dalit political parties- republican party of India, dalit panthers, BSP& BRP- G. Shah;

M. Maher

8. a great psychological release saising their self image -S. Patwardhan

9. emergency of dalits literature G. Omvedt, Nandu Ram

10. Emergency of dalits as Ethnic groups- RK. Jain

11. Emergency of dalits as aggressive interest groups- P. Kolenda

Limitation of dalits movement:

1. it has come under eclipse bud is flowering without a total Irion

2. gains have accursed only to few leading to emergence of alights within them

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3. limited to only specific jails among dalits and could not effectively articulate the demands of other oppressed sections of

the society

4. it has failed to elaborate a constrictive socio economic program of social transformation

5. it has in able to became a decisive political force & there political assertions have been highly to ambivalent & fragile

6. it has filled to give legitimate voice to its most pressing contemporary uses specially the women, who though remained

active from the very begning

7. the movement drifted away from what ambedker emphasized upon importance of secular forces are education and polity

for improving their status and position

8. in the end proving to be a movement of dalits though changing some of the deepest aspects of oppression & exploitation

but failing to show the way to transformation

Backward class movements

Backward classes refer to shudras in traditional caste parlance and other backward classes (OBCs) in today’s

language.MSA. RAO defines BCM as organized efforts for social mobility by communities which are over

whelmingly backward in the access to sources of power goods and services.

Its chief features-

1. a narrow social base - led by elite organization of rajas zamindars etc. it was initially led by members

of upper castes - VELLALAS, VELAMAS , KAMMARS and reddis nairs.

Demand -

1. protecting the interest of non Brahmins in the spheres of education , employment , services etc.

2. Benefits covered by few forwards communities.

3. Separate representation and exclusive reservation.

Motto-

Equal opportunities to all and injustices to none

Ideology- founded upon the conjecture about the non Brahmin Hindus as Dravidians and the Brahmins as

the avyans and the loss of the glory of the former due to the invasion by the latter

Organization of parties- justice party, vanniyakula kshatriya mahasangam, madras, 1888, madras

provincial backward classes league, 1935.

Significance of BCM

1. emerged as potential threat to hierarchical aspect of society, along with changes in traditional inter

caste relationships (jajmani), whose caste no longer determines occupation.

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2. Considerably weakened the past status summation.

3. An important components of social mobility in contemporary India and a pointer of changing

sources of social honour, power of prestige.

4. It led to the much needed adoption of reservation policy and appointment of backward classes

commission by the government after independence.

5.

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