Sociology 2: Class 18: Globalization, Culture, Identity 2
Copyright 2014 by Evan Schofer Do not copy or distribute without
permission
Slide 2
Announcements Final exam review sheet: on website Final exam
coming up Format similar to midterm Topics: All course material but
primary emphasis on material covered in weeks 5-10 Todays Class:
Globalization & Culture Is culture/ethnicity/religion/identity
a source of conflict?
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Review: Perspectives on Culture Sociological theories applied
to culture: Modernization theory: Expects societies to become
similar as they modernize traditional beliefs/religion/culture will
vanish over time as everyone becomes modern World-system theory
(& Marxism): Global capitalism will spread a common culture
Cultural imperialism perpetuates the economic advantages of wealthy
countries World society theory: World society has a common culture
that diffuses Government policies will become more similar.
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Review: Homogenization/Hybridity Most theories predict
homogenization of culture due to globalization Homogenization:
Becoming similar or uniform BUT: Anthropological observe that the
world is more complex; cultures mix Hybrid: A new breed created by
joining two or more varieties (e.g., of plant) Hybridization refers
to the mixing or blending of cultures Martells conclusion:
Homogenization thesis is too simple but it needs to be revised
rather than rejected (p. 90) Homogenization & hybridization
occur together!
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Cultural identity and conflict Issue: Is conflict inevitable
when globalization brings cultures into contact with each other?
Does globalization of Western culture generate conflict?
Huntington: Clash of Civilizations And, more generally: Can ideas
like culture, ethnicity, and identity explain conflict Ex: Genocide
in Balkans, Rwanda Ex: Conflict between radical Islamic groups and
Western/Christian/capitalist societies Answer: It depend on what
cultural identity is
Slide 6
Perspectives on cultural identity Two views of
identity/ethnicity/culture: 1. Primordial view
Culture/ethnicity/identity is primordial. It is deeply rooted,
fundamental, and enduring Consequently, cultural differences are
difficult to overcome Conflict often results This view is common in
media, popular culture.
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Perspectives on identity/culture 2. The social constructionist
view: culture/ethnicity/identity are malleable Identities change
over time and with social context People shift among identities At
different times of life, or depending on social situation
Identities disappear and return (or are re-invented) Ex: Quebecois
in Canada Cultural identity is often the product (not cause) of
political struggle.
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Cultural identity: evidence Evidence: Strongly supports the
social constructionist perspective 1. Culture/ethnicity/identity is
very malleable A. Individual identity shift over time &
situation Religious & cultural beliefs change a lot over time
Collective activities, rituals, and hazing can produce strong
commitments to groups Identity is real but may vanish/fade in other
contexts Context matters: If you are surrounded by a particularly
type of identity, you are likely to adopt it Ex: Republican /
Democrat; Religion Ex: US conflict w/ Soviet Union/Russia Strong
hatreds (like post-9/11); but they faded in 1990s
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Cultural identity: evidence Evidence: Strongly supports the
social constructionist perspective B. Entire ethnic identities
expand, fade, and even can be reinvented Not as stable as we often
assume Ex: Quebecois (French) in Canada French-speaking people
moved to Canada. 18 th, 19 th c. The French-speaking identity faded
as people assimilated In 1960s/70s the Quebecois identity was
revitalized people began speaking French again Problem: Not many
French speakers left. Thousands of French teachers were brought
over from France to teach in the schools.
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Cultural identity: evidence 2. Identity/ethnicity is often the
consequence of political struggles Political leaders routinely
invoke nationalism and ethnicity to gain followers Also, leaders
build support by invoking polarizing identities, or demonizing
scapegoats Us versus them mentality Nazis: consolidated power by
blaming problems on Jews Osama Bin Laden: gathers followers by
blaming problems on Westerners / Americans Definition: Demagoguery:
Political leaders who exploit emotion, prejudice, and fear to gain
power Issue: this can actually create hostilities; strengthen
ethnic, religious, and cultural identities.
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Huntington: Clash of Civilizations Samuel Huntington: Clash of
Civilizations An argument related to the primordial view A. There
are distinct civilizations in the world, with different histories,
beliefs, and cultures Ex: Western, Confucian, Islamic, Hindu, Latin
American B. These will become the main fault lines of conflict in
the future Replacing the Cold War battles over ideologies.
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Huntington: Clash of Civilizations Why will there be conflict
among civilizations? 1. Differences in civilizations are
fundamental Different language, history, religion, beliefs about
individuals, families, and groups These differences are more
fundamental than beliefs about political ideologies and political
regimes. (Reader, p. 28) 2. Globalization: The world gets smaller
Globalization increases and intensifies interactions among
civilizations.
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Huntington: Clash of Civilizations 3. Economic modernization is
separating people from local identities (p. 28) Local identities
are dying out, allowing groups to organize under broad
civilizations For him, civilizations are primordial more so than
local identities Example: There are many Islamic sects (often in
conflict with each other); If those sects unite under Islam, the
potential for conflict increases Result: There is greater
civilization consciousness.
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Huntington: Clash of Civilizations Huntingtons prediction:
These cultural differences will lead to greater global conflict: A
clash of civilizations Either among civilizations or the West
versus the rest Issue: Sociologists have been very critical of this
view: Sociologists criticize the general idea of coherent
civilizations no such thing. And, they criticize the primordial
view of culture
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Bowen: Myth of ethnic conflict Bowen: The Myth of Global Ethnic
Conflict Argues against Huntington (But focuses on civil war, not
global conflict) Issue: There are many bloody conflicts raging in
developing countries Westerners often attribute them to enduring
ethnic hatreds Treat them as sad but inevitable And, many fear
Huntington-like conflict of West vs. the Rest
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Bowen: Myth of ethnic conflict Bowen: The Myth of Global Ethnic
Conflict The very phrase ethnic conflict misguides us. It has
become a shorthand way to speak about any and all violent
confrontations between groups of people living in the same country.
Some of these conflicts involve ethnicity or cultural identity, but
most are about getting more power, land, or other resources.
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Bowen: Myth of ethnic conflict Bowen: 3 mistaken assumptions:
1. Ethnic identities are ancient and unchanging The primordial view
of ethnicity is widely refuted by sociological research Instead
ethnicity is the product of modern politics Example: Serbs and
Croats in the Balkans Example: Hutus and Tutsis in Rwanda.
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Bowen: Myth of ethnic conflict Bowen: 3 mistaken assumptions:
2. Ethnic identities motivate people to persecute and kill Answer:
Less than we usually think, and when they do, it is only after long
periods of being prepared, pushed, and threatened by leaders who
control the army and the airwaves. It is fear and hate generated
from the top, and not ethnic differences, that finally push people
to commit acts of violence.
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Bowen: Myth of ethnic conflict Bowen: 3 mistaken assumptions:
3. Ethnic diversity inevitably leads to violence In fact, most
extremely diverse societies peaceful And, huge conflicts result
across groups that are culturally quite similar Somalia Rather, the
issue is often the relationship between ethnic groups and those in
power
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Example: Former Yugoslavia a
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Example: Balkans 1991-2 Ethnic Cleansing in the
Balkans/Yugoslavia Conflict between Serbs, Bosnians, Croats
Primordialist claim: Hatred is centuries old: There will always be
blood on the Balkan soil BUT: Surveys suggest that trust and
intermarriage were very high in 1980s, before political conflict
began People lived peacefully in same neighborhoods for decades
Balkan political leaders strategically invoked ethnicity, stoked
hatreds to gain support Inflammatory speech about external threat =
a powerful frame to garner social/political support Invoking
hatreds and committing atrocities helps consolidate allies and
eliminate political rivals Several leaders stood trial for war
crimes at the Hague
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Rwanda 1994 a
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Example: Rwanda 1994 The Rwandan Genocide (1994) Approx.
800,000 people killed Primordialist claim: Ethnic hatreds led to
conflict Hutus vs. Tutsis Evidence: Killings were politically
motivated Very complex situation. In a nutshell: Ethnic identities
were first polarized by colonial policies Recently, one of the Hutu
political parties attempted to consolidate power by attacking and
demonizing opponents While it was supposedly an ethnic conflict,
many victims were Hutus (political enemies of the attackers) Not
simply Hutu vs. Hutsis
Slide 24
Example: Congo 1960 Example: Katangan revolt in the Congo
Typical account: war is result of tribalism and ethnicity (p. 131,
citing Young) Actually, Katangans arent a tribe or ethnic group!
Katanga is a province (like a US state) filled with many different
ethnic groups Often, the provincial borders split ethnic groups
which fought on opposite sides The war was rooted in economics and
politics For instance: Katanga was wealthy; they wanted to stop
people from migrating, taking jobs.
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Example: Congo 1960 Issue: Katangan war did help solidify the
Katangan cultural identity People began to be willing to die for
Katanga But, it would be a mistake to assume that conflict was
caused by strong cultural identities Even strong identities can
dissolve quickly; Or, be replaced by others.
Slide 26
Construction of ethnic polarization Example: Polarized
identities in US after 9/11 Issue: Who attacked the United States?
Saudis? (Most attackers were from Saudi Arabia) A rich oil baron? A
crazy person? (Bin Laden) Muslim extremists? Questions: Did US
leaders seek to polarize identities after 9/11? Either to
consolidate support in US or to build momentum for war? Could
leaders have channeled animosity in a different direction? Focused
on political grievances rather than religion? Why muslim extremists
rather than other options?
Slide 27
Local Reactions to Globalization So, if globalization and
cultural differences dont inevitably lead to ethnic conflict How do
we make sense of Al Qaeda? The general issue: How can we understand
Anti- Western or Anti-US sentiment?
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Local Responses to Globalization Local reactions against
Western culture, imperialism: 1. Opt out. Ignore or shun the
external culture Examples: Many indigenous groups, the Amish
Historically most common. Arguably the most authentically
traditional response to outsiders Typical outcome: children abandon
traditional culture; traditional groups shrink or disintegrate Many
traditional societies do not have strong institutions of social
control cant compete with Western education, media, labor
market.
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Local Responses to Globalization Reactions against Western
culture: 2. Reactionary movements: Social movements that attack the
system, offer an alternative Examples: French social movement
against American food, popular culture; Some Islamic
fundamentalists. Note: Some movements attack a specific (or
symbolic) part of the dominant culture. Others are total rejections
of it. Examples from readings, personal experience?
Slide 30
Local Responses to Globalization Kurzman reading: Bin Laden and
other Thoroughly Modern Muslims Argument: There are two kinds of
reactionary movements: Traditional and Modern Traditional
Reactionary Movements: Ex: The Taliban in Afghanistan Mostly fight
to get outsiders to leave Usually organized by actual indigenous
people Participants are usually local Not very common
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Local Responses to Globalization Kurzman reading: (contd)
Modern Reactionary Movements: Ex: Bin Laden & Al Qaeda
Typically organized by highly educated people More like a social
movement Sophisticated use of media, etc Not really a very local
response at all Argument: These are modern social movements.
Slide 32
Modern Anti-Western Movements Modern anti-Western movements are
just like other social movements. Grievances arent sufficient to
explain them They rely on: Resource mobilization: resources,
organizational capacity Political opportunity structure: allies,
lapses in repression Framing: Use of symbols, imagery (often
religious).
Slide 33
Anti-Western Movements Example: Radical Islamic fundamentalist
groups Resource mobilization: Leaders are highly educated Some even
have degrees from American universities Weapons & resources
from US & USSR (cold war) were critical to the formation of
many groups Al Qaeda, for example Oil rich countries have
tremendous resources It is easy to find donors for any pro-Islamic
cause.
Slide 34
Anti-Western Movements Ex: Radical Islamic fundamentalist
groups Political opportunity structure Radical groups clearly took
advantage of friendly regimes (e.g., the Taliban) to train, build
capacity Relative lack of repression in US is an opportunity Note:
Increased security after 9/11 means fewer opportunities for
protest/attacks Note: These groups also attack pro-US regimes like
Egypt but repression is much greater. Weak unstable countries
provide opportunities Currently: Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq.
Slide 35
Anti-Western Movements Ex: Radical Islamic fundamentalist
groups Framing: Use of symbols, imagery Religion provides a
powerful set of images Enemy isnt just bad, but evil & satanic
Another frame: attacking imperialism, the system Standing up for
the little guy, fighting the bully Reactionary movements always
claim to authentically represent locals; that they arent part of
the system Ex: Leaders dont emphasize educational degrees or
wealth; They emphasize the small village they came from.
Slide 36
Anti-Western Movements Issue for reflection: How would
strategies for dealing with Al Qaeda differ if we think of it as a
modern social movement? Rather than a traditional reactionary
movement
Slide 37
The War in Afghanistan Question: What drives insurgencies, like
the kind in Afghanistan? Taliban insurgents seek to overthrow
US-supported regime of Hamid Karzai Again, popular accounts &
media emphasize grievances and ethnicity/religion But, research by
political scientists and sociologists suggests that we should be
skeptical of this Ethnic/religious identities are socially
constructed Social movements dynamics (resources/political
opportunities) are most important.
Slide 38
The War in Afghanistan What drives insurgencies (e.g.,
Afghanistan)? Resources The Taliban have historically gotten
resources Political opportunities Weak government in Afghanistan:
cant stop insurgency ALSO: weakness in Pakistan creates a safe
haven Many similar dynamics in Iraq Money & weapons coming
from: Iran, Saudi Arabia, etc. etc., etc. Unstable govt creates
opportunities
Slide 39
Weak States & Conflict Video: Return of the Taliban
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/taliban/ Chapters 1-3 (19
min), 6-7 (15 min) Chapters 4-5 (21 min) if time allows