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Research ArticleSociocultural and Ecological Dynamics of Green Spaces inBrazzaville (Congo)

Victor Kimpouni 12 Jean De Dieu Nzila 12 Noel Watha-Ndoudy23

Elodie Charleine Kokolo Bilongo1 Salisou Yallo Mouhamed2 Jean-Pierre Kampe2

and Dieudonne Louembe2

1Ecole Normale Superieure Universite Marien Ngouabi BP 237 Brazzaville Congo2Institut National de Recherche Forestiere (IRF) BP 177 Brazzaville Congo3Faculte des Sciences et Techniques (FST) BP 69 Brazzaville Congo

Correspondence should be addressed to Victor Kimpouni vkimpouniyahoocom and Jean De Dieu Nzila jddnzilayahoofr

Received 19 July 2019 Accepted 9 November 2019 Published 13 February 2020

Academic Editor Bela Tothmeresz

Copyright copy 2020 Victor Kimpouni et al-is is an open access article distributed under the Creative CommonsAttribution Licensewhich permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properly cited

-e study was conducted in Brazzaville and data collection covers the period fromMay to June 2017-emethodology is based onliterature review and floristic and equipment inventory Nine green spaces spread over two out of nine townships in the capitalcity Four are located in Bacongo and five in Poto-Poto According to the classification standards 5 squares and 4 gardens werestudied Except for one square all the others including the gardens are planted with trees -e equipment inventory lists 183benches including 6383 permanently andor partially in the sun 4 playgrounds no games for children and 3 culturalmonuments -e flora and health of the trees stands shows 186 trees and 279 shrubs all corresponding to 26 species Anexamination of the health status reveals that 57 of trees show anthropogenic injuries Floral analysis shows that exotic plants(7692) predominate over local plants (2307) -e average basal area of trees in all green spaces is 195m2middothaminus 1 -e diametricstructure is erratic within all green spaces with a dominance of large diameter subjects -is leads to poor natural regeneration ofwoody plants -e green spaces in Brazzaville which are very unevenly distributed within the urban fabric do not meet theinternational standards disseminated by the World Health Organization (WHO) and do not fully play their biodiversityconservation and recreational and ecological functions History of green spaces in Brazzaville states that no creation was born afterindependence -e existing land has been reduced in size and the new land has been used for other purposes

1 Introduction

-e term green space is not new and Choay and Merlin [1]report that this term first appeared in 1925 coined byForestier park curator Paris garden It spread in the 1950swhen it designated open and unpaved areas [2]

-e green space designates commonly in an urban orsuburban area an area with vegetation ranging from asimple square to a large park through road plantationsGreen spaces embellish the environment of cities accordingto several modes such as social as a place of rest and walkwithin everyonersquos reach biological for the production ofoxygen by trees and their contribution to the mitigation ofseveral nuisances related to climate and human health and

economic benefits [3ndash6] It should be noted that thesedesignations meet criteria inherent to the area covered [7]

Areas of natural urban and periurban forests around theworld are shrinking dramatically and with them biodiversityis eroding [8] Green spaces would be one of the ideal so-lutions to this phenomenon [9 10] In addition to bio-diversity conservation they would as in other countries beappropriate environments for environmental educationintroducing the scientific popularization of ecologicalphenomena in which the tree interacts closely with itsnatural environment [11 12] Although they are vectors ofpollution the services rendered by trees through direct andindirect benefits are no longer to be demonstrated -easpects cited as examples are air purification dust retention

HindawiInternational Journal of EcologyVolume 2020 Article ID 3719267 12 pageshttpsdoiorg10115520203719267

chemical air cleaners noise pollution soil protectionthermoregulation climate regulation and bio-geochemicalcycle [4 9 13ndash16] In the role of air pollution control andthermoregulator Vergriete and Labrecque [17] show thatplants andor frequenting green spaces reduce the risks ofcertain ailments such as stress respiratory infections andmigraines [18ndash23]

With the promulgation of the World Health Organi-zation (WHO) Healthy Cities Programme [24 25] theenvironment is considered a determining factor for thecomfort well being and health of all More andmore we arebecoming aware of the fact that the environment in whichthe population lives is preponderant for its physical andmoral balance Among the means of improving thisframework green space is a very important component [26]Indeed green space is greatly valued for its contribution tothe quality of life in the urban environment Efforts toimprove urban centres in developed countries have almostall been accompanied by attention to the creation devel-opment and use of green space [27]

In Africa and more particularly in Congo the place ofthe green space has never been the subject of real attentionGreen spaces are unevenly distributed in the urban area andpostcolonial neighbourhoods are generally the mostneglected [28] -ere is also very little natural regenerationof these trees most of which are senescent Most species areornamental and exotic [29] Today these nonfunctional andconstantly degrading green spaces do not fulfil their primaryvocation (ecological biodiversity conservation social andrecreational) and play only a derisory role [12]

More than half a century since the Congo gained in-dependence the urban plan of the city of Brazzaville hasremained static on the development offer of green spaces andon the quality of life -e colonial period was marked by thecreation of green spaces for an attractive green and relaxingurban living environment -is embellishment is based onthe exploitation of the virtues of native and nonnative treespecies [28 29]

In the city of Brazzaville the areas and facilities devoted torecreational green spaces are clearly insufficient and inadequateor even unsuitable for some Since the 1960s there has been agrowing public interest in recreation and leisure Rest after aworking day and during holidays has become a necessity-usoffering the citizen an adequate framework for relaxationshould be a permanent feature in any urban development plan

-e involvement of green spaces in the well being of theurban community of Brazzaville and the mitigation of theharmful effects of global climate change are the foundationsof this study-emain objective of this study is to review themanagement of green spaces in Congo and particularly inBrazzaville given that green spaces play an important rec-ognized role in the conservation of biodiversity in generaland plant diversity in particular and in the provision ofgoods and services to the population

2 Materials and Method

21 Study Environment Created in 1884 the city of Braz-zaville the capital of the Republic of Congo is located on the

banks of the Congo River (Figure 1) in the south of thecountry between 04deg04primeS and 15deg02primeE [30] covering an areaof 32640 km2 with an estimated population of 1373382[31 32] Administratively the Brazzaville autonomous de-partment has 9 townships

-e climate in Brazzaville is humid tropical with a rainyseason from October to May a dry season from June toSeptember (Figure 2(a)) an average annual temperature ofabout 25degC and an average annual rainfall of 1400mm[33 34] March April and November are the rainiestmonths and June July August and September are the driest(Figure 2(a)) Relative humidity is particularly high alwaysabove 70 (Figure 2(b)) with an absolute minimum inAugust and September and a relative minimum in Februaryand March -e minimum varies between 50 and 60 themaximum vary from 88 to 94 Evaporation (Figure 2(b))shows a relative maximum from February to March and anabsolute maximum in August and September [35] -eaverage annual sunstroke varies between 1700 and 2000hours -e insolation curve has two maxima from March toMay and in November and minima from June to August(Figure 2(c))

22 Material

221 Study Material -e study material consists mainly oftrees shrubs grasses rest facilities leisure facilities andcultural monuments-e trees and shrubs were counted andidentified while the herbs were simply identified -emeasurement of woody trees including the diameter atbreast height (DBH) ge10 cm at 130m height is systemati-cally carried out It is noted concomitantly that the in-dividuals present signs of anthropic aggression (removingthe bark of the trees) In addition all cultural facilities andmonuments have been identified Finally the area of eachgreen space is evaluated

222 Classification and Nomenclature of Green SpacesIn urban or periurban areas green spaces are vegetated areaswhose typology is based on precise criteria based on the areacovered [7 36ndash38] -us we distinguish the followingdifferent types of spaces

(i) Square area less than 1 ha(ii) Proximity garden area between 1 and 4 ha(iii) Urban park area greater than 5 ha(iv) Periurban park area greater than 100 ha

Parks often offer water supply points afforestation bedsand ornamental trees but also created spaces such as lawns-eir location shows a recreational sports or relaxationvocation with the presence of playgrounds sports equip-ment and benches However a public garden and a squareare small spaces -e public garden is designed as a place torelax and a square is seen as a meeting place According toWHO at least 10m2 of green space in urban centres and25m2 in periurban areas are recommended per inhabitant[38 39]

2 International Journal of Ecology

According to this nomenclature the city of Brazzavillehas 5 squares (Faculty of Science and Technology (FST)Rotary Club Square (PR) Ministry of Mines (MM) HumanRights (DH) and Blanche Gomez (BG)) and 4 gardens(Pierre Savorgnon de Brazza (PSB) Prefecture Hotel (HP)Saint-Anne (SA) and Marien Ngouabi Museum (MMN))

23 Study Method -e study method is based on literaturedata and inventory data from the various green spaces -eliterature data made it possible to take stock of green spacesin particular their characteristics and their standard

-e floristic inventory is based on the identification of allspecies in the green space the counting and measurement ofwoody DBH (DBH ge 10 cm) -e parameters monitored arefrequency density (number of individuals per unit area) DBH(diameter at breast height) basal area (ST) and anthropogeniceffects

-e inventory of facilities concerns those intended forrest leisure historical andor cultural monuments presentin each green space-e location of the benches in relation tothe vegetation cover (under shade andor exposed to thesun) was also taken into account

24 Expression of Phytoecological Results

(i) Frequency number of surveys where the taxon ispresent relative to the total number of surveys

(ii) Shannon diversity index Hprime minus 1113936Si1pi middot ln pi

with pi nin (ni number of individuals of speciesldquoirdquo n total number of individuals of all species)

(iii) Maximum diversity index Hprimemax ln(S)

with S total species(iv) Equitability andor regularity index (from Pielou)

Eq HprimeHmaxprime

(v) Jaccard similarity coefficient () 100times (nc(na+nb minus nc)) with na number of specimens fromsurvey a nb number of specimens from survey b andnc number of specimens common to both surveys

3 Results

31 Location and Status of Green Spaces in BrazzavilleGreen spaces currently cover a very small total area of almost13 ha or 004 of the urban area of Brazzaville (Table 1)-ere were 9 green spaces located exclusively in twotownships (Bacongo and Poto-Poto) while the city ofBrazzaville comprises 9 townships -ese green spaces aredivided according to the floristic facies into 2 types greenareas with trees and green areas without trees (Table 1)

32 Floristic Diversity

321 Floral Composition -e inventory reveals 465woody individuals corresponding to 22 species -ey are

1525012 1525283 1525553 1525823 1526093 1526364 1526634 1526904 1527174 1527445 1527715 1527985 1528255

1525012 1525283 1525553 1525823 1526093 1526364 1526634 1526904 1527174 1527445 1527715 1527985 1528255

ndash426450

ndash426720

ndash426990

ndash427261

ndash427531

ndash427801

ndash428071

ndash428341

ndash428612

ndash426450

ndash426720

ndash426990

ndash427261

ndash427531

ndash427801

ndash428071

ndash428341

ndash428612FST Square

LSB Garden

Rotary club square

Ministry_of_Mine Square

Blanche Gomes Square

Prefecture Garden St Anne Garden

Marien Ngouabi Museum Garden

Human Rights Square

Scale 1150000 150 300 m

Figure 1 Location of green spaces within the Brazzaville urban area

International Journal of Ecology 3

divided into 142 trees representing 305 of the in-ventory or an average of 16 plusmn 37 trees per green space Asfor the 323 shrubs they account for 695 of all woodytrees -is floral procession is composed of 6 native

species (273) and 12 nonnatives (727) -e centresof origin are Asia (3636) Africa and America with2273 each and Australia and Madagascar with 909per entity (Table 2)

0

25

50

75

100

125

150

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

J F M A M J J A S O N D

Tem

pera

ture

(degC)

Prec

ipita

tion

(mm

)

Month

Precipitation (mm)Temperature degC

(a)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

0102030405060708090

Evap

orat

ion

(mm

)

Rela

tive h

umid

ity (

)

Month

HumidityEvaporation

Janu

ary

Febr

uary

Mar

ch

Apr

il

May

June July

Aug

ust

Sept

embe

r

Oct

ober

Nov

embe

r

Dec

embe

r

(b)

20406080

100120140160180200

Inso

latio

n (k

wh

m2 )

Month

Janu

ary

Febr

uary

Mar

ch

Apr

il

May

June July

Aug

ust

Sept

embe

r

Oct

ober

Nov

embe

r

Dec

embe

r

(c)

Figure 2 Climate parameter data for the Brazzaville area (source ANAC 2017) Ombrothermic curve (a) relative humidity andevaporation (b) insolation (c)

Table 1 General data on Brazzaville green spaces and location

Green spaces Trees number Hprime Hmaxprime Eq Aire (ha) Status Townships

ArborerSavorgnan de Brazza (PSB) 48 150 179 083 395 Garden

BacongoFaculty of Science and Technology (FST) 25 059 069 085 065 SquareRotary club (PR) 13 099 138 071 027 SquareMinistry of Mines (MM) 4 021 160 013 019 Square

Poto-potoPrefecture hotel (HP) 7 084 109 077 105 GardenSainte-Anne (SA) 5 080 103 077 160 GardenMarien Ngouabi Museum (MMN) 24 194 239 084 410 GardenHuman rights (DH) 16 126 194 064 090 Square

NonarborerBlanche Gomez (BG) 0 053 138 038 021 Square

Total area (ha) 1292Hprime Shannon index Hmaxprime maximum diversity Eq equitability


322 Bioecological Indices -e similarity coefficient ofJaccard and woody flora between green spaces varies from0 to 4166 -is data reveals that the floristic compo-sition is very heterogeneous from one medium to another(Table 1) It would be the corollary of the invasion of theallochthonous flora in the urban arboriculture inBrazzaville

-e average Shannon biodiversity index for the 9 greenspaces is 096plusmn 014 (Table 1) -e values range from 021 to194-emaximum diversity achieved by these formations is148plusmn 013 on average for an average range of 103 to 230-e Pielou index is 066plusmn 006 on average with a range ofnumbers oscillating from 013 to 085 On the whole thesedata mark the paucispecific and paucifloristic characters ofthe mentioned green spaces

33 Stand Structure Parameters

331 Frequency Taxon frequencies vary from 1 to 8 Exceptfor herbaceous plants such as Cynodon dactylon (667) andPaspalum notatum (889) which are almost omnipresentwoody plants remain discreet (Table 2) -e species mostrepresented in green spaces are Ficus benghalensis (778)and Terminalia mantaly (444) It is interesting to note the

Table 2 Synopsis of the flora of Brazzaville green spaces

Species Origin Freq ()Density

SB PR FST HP SA MM BG MMN DHMillettia laurentii De Wild Central Africa 3333 53 11lowast minus minus minus minus minus 07 minus

Ficus benghalensis L Asia 7778 10 minus 18lowast 95 63 minus 59lowast 24 40lowastLagestroemia speciosa Persoon Asia 1111 24 minus minus minus minus minus minus minus minus

Cocos nucifera L Pacific 2222 33 minus minus minus minus minus minus 05 minus

Senna siamea Lamack Asia 3333 08 1lowast minus minus minus minus minus 02 minus

7evetia peruviana Schumann America 1111 05 minus minus minus minus minus minus minus minus

Delonix regia Bojer Madagascar 2222 minus 1lowast minus minus minus minus minus 02 minus

Roystonea regia Kunth America 2222 minus 6lowast minus minus minus 50lowast minus minus minus

Terminalia mantaly L Madagascar 4444 minus minus 7lowast minus minus 1lowast minus 02 2lowastCupressus lusitamea Miller America 1111 minus minus minus minus minus 2lowast minus minus minus

Mangifera indica L Asia 2222 minus minus minus minus minus 1lowast minus minus 1lowastLeea guineensis America 1111 minus minus minus minus minus 3lowast minus minus minus

Allamanda cathartica L America 1111 minus minus minus minus minus 2lowast minus minus minus

Ficus asperifolia Miquel Africa 1111 minus minus minus minus minus minus 1lowast minus minus

Ixora coccinea L Australia 1111 minus minus minus minus minus minus 2lowast minus minus

Caesalpinia pulcherrima Swartz Asia 3333 minus minus minus minus minus minus 7lowast 22 8lowastMillettia sp Africa 3333 minus minus minus 57 minus minus minus 02 3lowastAcacia auriculiformis Allan Africa 1111 minus minus minus 09 minus minus minus minus minus

Adansonia digitata L Africa 1111 minus minus minus minus 06 minus minus minus minus

Eucalyptus sp Australia 3333 minus minus minus minus 25 minus minus 17 6lowastTerminalia catappa L America 1111 minus minus minus minus minus minus minus 22 minus

Elaeis guineensis Jacq America 1111 minus minus minus minus minus minus minus minus 4lowastCynodon dactylon Persoon Europe 6667 + minus + + minus minus + + +Paspalum notatum Flugge Pantropical 8889 + + minus + + + + + +Sida acuta L America 2222 + minus minus minus minus minus minus + minus

Eleusine indica Garthner Tropical Africa 2222 + minus minus minus minus minus minus + minus

Species number minus minus 10 5 3 5 4 7 6 14 9Trees number minus minus 48 13 25 7 5 4 0 24 16Trees peeling minus minus 31 11 10 3 1 3 0 16 6Peeling rate () minus minus 646 846 40 73 20 428 0 667 375Lycee Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza (PSB) Rotary Place (PR) Prefecture Hotel (HP) Sainte-Anne (SA)Ministry ofMines (MM) Blanche Gomez (BG) MarienNGOUABI Museum (MMN) Human Rights (DH) presence (+) absence (minus ) data on areas below hectare (lowast) and frequency (freq)

0

1

2

3

4

5

6PSB

FSTlowast

PRlowast

MMlowast

HP

SA

MMN

DHlowast

Figure 3 Woody basal area in the different green spaces Pre-fecture garden (HP) Saint-Anne garden (SA) Marien NgouabiMuseum garden (MMN) Ministry of Mines square (MM) PierreSavorgnon De Brazza garden (PSB) Rotary Club square (PR)Faculty of Science and Technology square (FST) Human rightssquare (DH) and (lowast) data relating to areas of less than 1 ha


low representation of naturalized taxa such as Millettialaurentii (333) Terminalia catappa and Adansonia dig-itata with respectively 111

332 Density Woody density in green spaces of at least 1 havaries from 024 to 531 treesmiddothaminus 1 with numbers rangingfrom 1 to 59 individuals per green space -e most repre-sented species are Ficus benghalensis with 1060 treesmiddothaminus 1

(4910) Millettia laurentii with 27 treesmiddothaminus 1 (1881)Eucalyptus sp with 131 treesmiddothaminus 1 (913)Millettia sp with077 treesmiddothaminus 1 (537) and Terminalia mantaly with 069treesmiddothaminus 1 (483)

333 Tree Basal Area in the Green Spaces of Brazzaville-e projection of trunk sections on the ground per greenspace of at least 1 ha varies from 031 to 386m2middothaminus 1

(Figure 3) However for those less than 1 ha the value isbetween 026 and 525m2 per green space

334 Diametric Structure of Trees in Brazzavillersquo GreenSpaces -e diametric structure of ligneous trees is declined in

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Indi

vidu

als r

ate (

)

Diameter classes

PSBPRMM

FSTBGHP

SAMMNDH

Figure 4 Diametric structure of trees in green spaces in Brazzaville Prefecture garden (HP) Saint-Anne garden (SA) Blanche Gomesgarden (BG) Marien Ngouabi Museum garden (MMN) Ministry of Mines square (MM) Pierre Savorgnon De Brazza garden (PSB) RotaryClub square (PR) Faculty of Science and Technology square (FST) and Human rights square (DH)

0102030405060708090

100

PSB PR FST MM BG HP SA MMN DH

Seat

rate

s (

)

Green spaces

SunnyShady

Figure 5 Seating and sunshine in the various green spaces Pre-fecture garden (HP) Saint-Anne garden (SA) Blanche Gomesgarden (BG) Marien Ngouabi Museum garden (MMN) Ministryof Mines square (MM) Pierre Savorgnon De Brazza garden (PSB)Rotary Club square (PR) Faculty of Science and Technology square(FST) and Human rights square (DH)

5714

143

143

143

PSBMMN

FSTHP

Figure 6 Cumulation of playgrounds and historical andor cul-tural monuments by green spaces Prefecture garden (HP) MarienNgouabi Museum garden (MMN) Ministry of Mines square(MM) Pierre Savorgnon De Brazza garden (PSB) and Faculty ofScience and Technology square (FST)


erratic curves for all species notwithstanding their status asaesthetic and key factor of the well being of the green space(Figure 4) -is structure denotes a natural regeneration deficitand the ageing of the stand following (i) the nonreplacement ofthe elderly subjects and (ii) letting nature do its work

34 Inventory of Equipment in the Green Spaces of Brazzaville

341 Benches and Location -e inventory shows 188benches an average of 2089plusmn 395 per green spaceDepending on their location 6383 of the resting facilitiesare exposed to the sun all day long compared with the treecrown -is rate corresponds to an average of 13plusmn 333benches per green space However 3617 benefit at leastpartially from the shade of woody trees during the dayeither 8plusmn 17 benches per green space on average (Figure 5)

342 Playgrounds and Historical Monuments Only 4 of the9 green spaces studied have some leisure facilities and historicmonuments (Figure 6) -e presence rates of leisure facilities(sports field and other games) per green space are as follows75 at Pierre Savorgnon De Brazza garden and 25 at theFaculty of Science and Technology square Historical andor

cultural monuments represent 3333 Brazzaville green spacesare clearly underequipped and remain well away from in-ternational standards

35 Tree Health in the Green Spaces of BrazzavilleObservation of the health of trees in green spaces in Brazzavilleshows that the majority of them show tangible signs of humanremoving the bark of the trees Overall this inventory found that57 of the 142 trees surveyed are barked-e aggression rates ofthe highest woody species are found in the Ministry of Minessquare Marien Ngouabi Museum garden Pierre Savorgnon DeBrazza garden and Rotary Club square green spaces (Figure 7)where they vary between 40 and 846 -e species valued bythis activity are those that depend on proven phytotherapeuticproperties Mangifera indica Millettia laurentii Peltophorumpterocarpum Senna siamea and Terminalia catappa

36 Ratio of Green Spaces to Population With a cover of1292 ha of green spaces and an estimated population of1373382 inhabitants the ratio of green space to populationin the city of Brazzaville is 0094m2individual -is result iswell below the accepted value of 10m2individuals in urbanareas -is is synonymous with a negative correlation

0

20

40

60

80

100PSB

PR

FST

HP

SAMM

BG

MMN

DH

Figure 7 Rate of woody taxa debarked per green space Prefecture garden (HP) Saint-Anne garden (SA) Blanche Gomes garden (BG)Marien Ngouabi Museum garden (MMN) Ministry of Mines square (MM) Pierre Savorgnon De Brazza garden (PSB) Rotary Club square(PR) Faculty of Science and Technology square (FST) and Human rights square (DH)

Table 3 Green space-inhabitants ratio in the municipality of Brazzaville

Townships Men Women Total Area (km2) Density (habmiddotkmminus 2) Green spaces (ha) Ratio (m2ind)Makelekele 145450 152842 298292 13891 214738 0 0Bacongo 48223 50559 98782 7060 139918 487 049Poto-Poto 48223 44883 93106 9142 101844 805 086Moungali 82316 84403 166709 14064 118536 0 0Ouenze 89244 92813 182986 6887 265698 0 0Talangai 167325 170661 337986 29618 114115 0 0Mfilou 96818 99622 196440 111452 17626 0 0Total 677599 695783 1373382 192114 71488 1292 0094Source CNSEE 2010 CERAPE-SOFRECO 2012


between exponential urbanization and the installation ofgreen spaces (Table 3)-us the green space needs expressedfor the population of Brazzaville are currently estimated at137338 ha of green space a deficit of 136046 ha -emunicipalities of Bacongo and Poto-Poto which are the onlyones with green spaces need 9878 and 9311 ha of greenspaces respectively with deficits of 9391 and 8506 ha ofgreen spaces respectively -e other communes withoutgreen spaces need 16671 ha for Moungali 18299 ha forOuenze 33799 ha for Talangai and 19644 ha for Mfilou

4 Discussion

41 Direct and Indirect Benefits Associated with Green Spaces

411 Green Spaces and Biodiversity -e floral analysis ofgreen spaces in Brazzaville proves that these very paucispecificenvironments are also very poor floristically -is doubleweakness would correlate with the erosion of biodiversitycaused by the drastic regression of natural urban and periurbanforests [8 40] -is degradation of green spaces in Brazzavilledoes not allow these entities to provide goods and services thatare vested in them [4 9 13ndash16] -e preponderance of exoticspecies especially shrubs does not guarantee the conservationand enhancement of the local flora [40] A comparison of thespecific and floristic diversity of green spaces and periurbanforests in Brazzaville shows that they are more diversified[8 41ndash45] However most of their taxa are not present in greenspaces Considering that these green spaces have not beenmonitored integrating the conservation dimensions of plantbiodiversity both local and exotic and the extent of the areasince independence it is difficult to make a decision on anycorrelation between these two parameters despite some var-iations in the floristic composition

412 Green Spaces and Quality of Life -e very low level ofequipment stricto sensu of green spaces in Brazzaville coupledwith the projection of sections of trunks on the ground areelements that do not allow green spaces to fully play theirecological environmental and recreational functions[9 12 13 17 23 46] Under a hot and humid climate the city ofBrazzaville is unable to mitigate the impacts of climate change(climate variability and quasipermanent heat waves and per-sistence of parasitic and vector-borne diseases) and air pollutionby suspended particles greenhouse gases and metallic traceelements Facilities such as playgrounds and sports facilities arecrossroads for people from different social backgrounds eth-nicities races and generations (from young children to theelderly) -is cohabitation seals and reinforces the sense ofcommunity belonging of the populations [9 12 23 47 48]

413 Green Spaces and Health -e low representativenessof green spaces throughout the city of Brazzaville and theabsence of green spaces in several boroughs force thepopulations to live enclosed in dwellings or plots that are forthe most part poorly developed -us the green spaces ofthe city of Brazzaville do not offer the city dwellers the idealconditions for evacuating daily stress and mitigating the

psychological effects associated with occupational turpitudesand vicissitudes various ailments such as musculoskeletaldisorders respiratory problems and migraines [18ndash23] Ifthese green spaces covered a sufficient area they would notonly encourage the practice of collective games thus so-cializing would ward off the risks of obesity associated withsedentarization [24 49ndash53] -is would reduce the budgetdevoted to health by the State and the population [4]Optimizing the benefits of green spaces is to have them asclose as possible to homes Lessard and Boulfroy [54] es-timate that a better response on quality of life and a markedreduction in medical care is achieved within a 500m radius

414 Combating the Effects of Climate Change Global cli-mate change affecting planet earth is not a marginal phe-nomenon in the Congolese context as noted in the work ofBouka Biona andMpounza [55] Samba andNganga [33] andSamba et al [34] From these studies the climatic impact isexpressed in an increase in temperature and precipitationover almost the entire territory despite some variationsChanging these two parameters inexorably affects biodiversityand with it the dynamics and functioning of ecosystems [56]

-e vegetation cover of the green spaces of Brazzaville is verylow to mitigate the effects of the urban heat island and pollutiongenerated by the city on the one hand [5 6 9 16 57 58] On theother hand reducing carbon and other greenhouse gas emis-sions to combat global warming has become a global issue [9]However DBH is a very important parameter in the evaluationof carbon sequestered by trees via allometric equations -ehigher the DBH the more important the biomass the morecarbon sequestered the tree [6 9 59 60] At a time when themajority of trees in green spaces are senescent their carbonsequestration power andor capacity remain very limited

Most of the trees in the green spaces of Brazzaville havemodest DBH they are stands that have aged and havereached a point of equilibrium for carbon absorption Asstands approach maturity growth rates and carbon uptakedecrease [9 61] -ese trees which currently require moremaintenance energy than for their growth are characterizedby a very low carbon sequestration capacity

Because of the long life of these trees and their relativelylarge dimensions these trees are true carbon stores and notcarbon sinks [60] Currently with the obvious impoverish-ment of citizens green spaces have become essential ele-ments of the traditional phytotherapeutic system sources ofwood energy and wood crafts [62] -e majority of trees isbarked and has senescence cavities -e exploitation of thesevirtues exposes the internal organs to attacks by microor-ganisms (cryptogamic) the corollaries of which are decayand the release of carbon sequestered in the atmosphere[62ndash66] -us the fight against global climate change is notreally ensured by the green spaces in Brazzaville becausetheir contribution is rather noted as a source of carbonemissions

42 Efforts to Be Made in the Creation of Green SpacesDespite the benefits of green spaces which are no longer tobe demonstrated Brazzaville does not take this dimension


into account in its urban planning [4] -e clear proof isthat not all boroughs new or old have green spaces or evena reserved area in the various master urban plans -is lackof interest is reflected in the existence of the same greenspaces dating from colonial times some of which have hadvarying fortunes Unless they disappear like that of theMaya-Maya Airport they see their surface area greatlyreduced like the Schoelcher area [28 67] Despite thepresence of the environmental hygiene and quality-of-lifeservices that exist in the town halls the green spaces inBrazzaville have remained a colonial fact in the eyes of thecityrsquos new managers Indeed we are far from meeting theinternationally accepted standard of 10m2 of green spaceper citizen in urban areas and 25m2 in periurban areas[4 7 38 39] -is observation also applies to the avenueandor alignment trees which together inspired the nameldquoBrazza la verterdquo

5 Conclusion

In the city of Brazzaville the areas devoted to green spacesare very small -us the green spacepopulation ratio isalmost zero despite the international standard -e existinggreen spaces date from the colonial period and see theirsurface regressed if they have not disappeared Set up at atime when the city was born all the green spaces areconcentrated in the oldest townships of the city althoughthis one knew an important development during the lastthirty years -is situation does not allow the entire pop-ulation of Brazzaville to benefit directly or indirectly fromgreen spaces -e need for green space is essential in urbanareas especially those with low incomes as it helps to reducehealth costs

Brazzaville must develop and significantly increase theproportion of vegetated surface taking into account thedifferent needs of its population -us urbanization policyshould integrate the green space dimension for the wellbeing of all in order to meet the international standards of21st century urban cities -is policy will involve a rationaland equitable rebalancing of local biodiversity conservationissues environmental balances recreational needs andother associated values Finally our green spaces imper-atively require developments oriented towards the re-placement of all old trees with a preference for indigenousdiversity on the other hand -is vision would lead thecapital city to clearly fit into a policy to combat globalclimate change by increasing carbon sequestration andimproving the quality of life of urban and periurbanpopulations

Appendix

Overview of the green spaces revealing the location of thebenches and the floristic deficit are shown in Figure 8

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 8 Continued


Conflicts of Interest

-e authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest

References

[1] F Choay and P Merlin Dictionnaire de lrsquoUrbanisme et delrsquoAmenagement Presses Universitaires de France ParisFrance 4th edition 2015

[2] C Stefulesco Lrsquourbaniste Vegetal Institut pour ledeveloppement Forestier Paris France 1993

[3] A Camus Dicovert Dictionnaire des Jardins et PaysageEdition Arcature Paris France 1993

[4] H Li W Chen and W He ldquoPlanning of green space eco-logical network in urban areas an example of Nanchang

Chinardquo International Journal of Environmental Research andPublic Health vol 12 no 10 pp 12889ndash12904 2015

[5] S Savic J Unger T Gal D Milosevic and Z Popov ldquoUrbanheat island research of Novi Sad (Serbia) a reviewrdquo Geo-graphica Pannonica vol 17 no 1 pp 32ndash36 2013

[6] V E Molnar B Tothmeresz S Szabo and E Simon ldquoUrbantree leavesrsquo chlorophyll-a content as a proxy of urbanizationrdquoAir Quality Atmosphere amp Health vol 11 no 6 pp 665ndash6712018

[7] J P Muret Les Espaces Urbains Concevoir Realiser et GererEdition du Moniteur Paris France 1976

[8] V Kimpouni M Y Lenga-Sacadura R S KalathL Kiangana-Ngoyi and L Kiangana-Ngoyi ldquoDiversite flo-ristique des epiphytes et hemiparasites vasculaires delrsquoecosysteme forestier urbain de Brazzaville Congordquo Journalof Applied Biosciences vol 117 no 1 pp 11704ndash11719 2017

[9] N Bouzou and C Marques ldquoLes espaces verts urbains lieuxde sante publique vecteurs drsquoactivite economiquerdquo UnionNationale Des Entreprises Du Paysage Paris France RapportASTERES 2016

[10] B Huse S Szabo B Tothmeresz and B TothmereszldquoMapping an ecological network of green habitat patches andtheir role in maintaining urban biodiversity in and aroundDebrecen city (Eastern Hungary)rdquo Land Use Policy vol 57pp 574ndash581 2016

[11] Rousseau ldquoLes espaces verts en milieu urbain avantageproblematiques et recommandationrdquo Universite de Sher-brooke Sherbrooke Canada Essai de Maitrise en Environ-nement 2008

[12] C C Konijnendijk M Annerstedt A B Nielsen andS Maruthaveeran ldquoBenefits of urban parks a systematicreviewrdquo IFPRA World vol 2012 no 6 pp 10ndash12 2012

[13] P Ozenda Les vegetaux dans la biosphere Editions DunodParis France 1982

[14] F J Convery ldquoIntegration drsquoun processus de plan nationaldrsquoaction pour lrsquoenvironnement dans un cadre macro-economique in plans nationaux drsquoaction pour lrsquoenvironne-ment en Afriquerdquo Gouvernement Irlandais Institut pourlrsquoenvironnement (University College) Dublin IrelandCompte rendu atelier du 1990

[15] Dubois Des Arbres Pour Vivres en Sante Editions DunodParis France 1995

[16] Apur Developper le Vegetal a Paris les Nouvelles Regles duPlan Local Drsquourbanisme de Paris Apur Paris France2004

[17] Y Vergriete and M Labrecque Roles des Arbres et des PlantesGrimpantes en Milieu Urbain Revue de la Litterature etTentative drsquoExtrapolation au Contexte Montrealais Universitede Montreal Montreal Canada 2007

[18] G Coronio and J P Muret Loisirs Guide Pratique desEquipements Paris Centre de Recherche et de RencontresDrsquourbanisme Edite par Centre de recherche drsquourbanismeParis France 1976

[19] R S Ulrich R F Simons B D Losito E Fiorito M A Milesand M Zelson ldquoStress recovery during exposure to naturaland urban environmentsrdquo Journal of Environmental Psy-chology vol 11 no 3 pp 201ndash230 1991

[20] A Huet and G Saez Le Regne des Loisirs Loisirs Culturels etSportifs Dynamiques Socio Spatiales Editions De Lrsquoaube-Datar 2002

[21] T Takano K Nakamura and M Watanabe ldquoUrban resi-dential environments and senior citizensrsquo longevity inmegacity areas the importance of walkable green spacesrdquo

(e)

(f )

(g)

Figure 8 Prefecture hotel garden (a d and g) Sainte-Anne garden(b) Marien Ngouabi museum garden (c) and Lycee PierreSavorgnon de Brazza garden (f)


Journal of Epidemiology amp Community Health vol 56 no 12pp 913ndash918 2002

[22] J Maas and R Verheij ldquoGreen space urbanity and healthhow strong is the relationrdquo Journal of Epidemiology ampCommunity Health vol 60 no 7 pp 587ndash592 2006

[23] M Beaudoin and M-E Levasseur Verdir les Villes Pour laSante de la Population Institut National de Sante PubliquePhnom Penh Cambodia 2017

[24] WHO Urbanisme et Sante S2DAssociation InternationalePour la Promotion de la Sante et du Developpement DurableWHO Geneva Switzerland 2004

[25] WHO La Sedentarite un Probleme de Sante PubliqueMondiale WHO Geneva Switzerland 2008 httpwwwwhointdietphysicalactivityfactsheet_inactivityfr

[26] G O Robinette Plants People and Environmental Quality aStudy of Plants and their Environmental Functions USDepatment of the Interior National Park Service Wash-ington DC USA 1972

[27] M De Sablet Des Espaces Urbains Agreables a Vivre Placesrues Squares et Jardins Le Moniteur 1991

[28] D Nzala and P Miankodila ldquoArbres et espaces verts aBrazzaville (Congo)rdquo Bois et Forets des Tropiques vol 272no 2 pp 88ndash92 2002

[29] V Kimpouni S D Mbouba and M Motom ldquoEtude de laflore allochtone arborescente et foresterie urbaine a Brazza-ville (Congo)rdquo Journal de Botanique de la Societe Botanique deFrance vol 79 pp 73ndash92 2017

[30] P Vennetier Atlas de la Republique Populaire du CongoJeune Afrique Paris France 1977

[31] CNSEE Recensement General de la Population et de lrsquoHabitatde 2007 en Quelques Chiffres MEPATI UNFPA BrazzavilleCongo 2010

[32] Cerape-Sofreco Monographie departementale de Brazzavilleetude du Secteur Agricole Republique du Congo 2011

[33] G Samba and D Nganga ldquoRainfall variability in Congo-Brazzaville 1932ndash2007rdquo International Journal of Climatologyvol 32 no 6 pp 854ndash873 2011

[34] G Samba D Nganga and M Mpounza ldquoRainfall andtemperature variations over Congo-Brazzaville between 1950and 1998rdquo 7eoretical and Applied Climatology vol 91no 1ndash4 pp 85ndash97 2008

[35] L Makany Vegetation des Plateaux Teke (Congo) CollectionTravaux de lrsquouniversite de Brazzaville Brazzaville Congo1976

[36] Certu ldquoCaracterisation des espaces verts publics en fonctionde leur place dans le milieu urbainrdquo CERTUADF LyonFrance Guide Pour un Urbanisme 2009

[37] A Jarnier Les Modes Drsquoappropriation drsquoun Parc Urbain Us-ages Differencies drsquoun Espace Vert en Fonction des PopulationsPFE New York NY USA 2011

[38] S Richard La Politique et la Place des Espaces Verts en MilieuUrbain cas drsquoEtude des Six Prefectures Departementales de laRegion Centre Universite Franccedilois Rebelais Tours Master deGeographie 2013

[39] Certu Urbanisme et Sante Guide pour Un UrbanismeCERTUADF Lyon France 2012

[40] B Deak B Huse and B Tothmeresz ldquoGrassland vegetation inurban habitatsndashtesting ecological theoriesrdquo Tuexenia vol 36pp 379ndash393 2016

[41] V Kimpouni P Mbou E Apani and M Motom ldquoFloristicdiversity and structural parameters of the Brazzaville PattedrsquoOie forest Congordquo Open Journal of Ecology vol 3 no 8pp 518ndash531 2013

[42] V Kimpouni P Mbou G Gakosso and M Motom ldquoBio-diversite floristique du sous-bois et regeneration naturelle dela foret de la Patte drsquoOie de Brazzaville Congordquo InternationalJournal of Biological and Chemical Sciences vol 7 no 3pp 1255ndash1270 2013

[43] V Kimpouni P Mbou E Apani and M Motom ldquoEtudefloristique des ılots forestiers naturels de la Patte drsquoOie deBrazzaville Congordquo Acta Botanica Gallica vol 161 no 1pp 63ndash79 2014

[44] V Kimpouni J D D Nzila C-M Massamba-MakandaS Yallo Mouhamed and J-P Kampe ldquoSpatial analysis of thewoody flora of the djoumouna peri-urban forest Brazzaville(Congo)rdquo Ecology and Evolutionary Biology vol 4 no 1pp 1ndash10 2019

[45] V Kimpouni J D D Nzila C M Massamba-MakandaS Yallo Mouhamed and J-P Kampe ldquoPhytodiversite etparametres de structure de la foret peri-urbaine de laDjoumouna Brazzaville (Congo)rdquo International Journal ofInnovation and Scientific Research vol 37 no 1 pp 90ndash1102018

[46] V Le Houerou and J Le Houerou Lrsquoarbre de Voyageur Plantedes Jardins de lrsquoAfrique Tropicale Les Nouvelles EditionsAfricaines Paris France 1987

[47] S V Szokolay Environmental Science Handbook for Archi-tects and Builders Construction Press London UK 1980

[48] A Arnberger and R Eder ldquoExploring the heterogeneity ofrural landscape preferences an image-based latent classApproachrdquo Landscape Research vol 36 no 1 pp 19ndash402011

[49] E Dugas Du sport aux activites physiques de loisirs desformes culturelles et sociales bigarres sociologie theorie etrecherches 2007

[50] A T Kaczynski and K A Henderson ldquoEnvironmentalcorrelates of physical activity a review of evidence about parksand recreationrdquo Leisure Sciences vol 29 no 4 pp 315ndash3542007

[51] J Maas S M E Van Dillen R A Verheij andP P Groenewegen ldquoSocial contacts as a possible mechanismbehind the relation between green space and healthrdquoHealth ampPlace vol 15 no 2 pp 586ndash595 2009

[52] M D Velarde G Fry andM Tveit ldquoHealth effects of viewinglandscapes-landscape types in environmental psychologyrdquoUrban Forestry amp Urban Greening vol 6 no 4 pp 199ndash2122007

[53] R Ulrich ldquoView through a window may influence recoveryfrom surgeryrdquo Science vol 224 no 4647 pp 420-421 1984

[54] G Lessard and E Boulfroy Les roles de lrsquoarbre en ville Centrecollegial de transfert de technologie en foresterie de Sainte-Foy (CERFO) Quebec 2008

[55] C Bouka Biona andMMpounza Impacts des Effets Actuels etAttendus du Changement Climatique en Republique du CongoSIFEE Niamey Niger 2008

[56] P Desanker and C Justice ldquoAfrica and global climate changecritical issues and suggestions for further research and in-tegrated assessment modelingrdquo Climate Research vol 17pp 93ndash103 2001

[57] D D Milosevic S M Savic V Markovic D Arsenovic andI Secerov ldquoOutdoor human thermal comfort in local climatezones of Novi Sad (Serbia) during heat wave periodrdquo Hun-garian Geographical Bulletin vol 6 no 2 pp 129ndash137 2016

[58] S Jacquet ldquoEtude de la performance energetique drsquoune toiturevegetale extensive installee au centre-ville de Montrealrdquo Ecolede Technologie Superieure Montreal Canada Memoire deMaıtrise Electronique 2010


[59] M Sajdak and B Velazquez-Marti ldquoEstimation of prunedbiomass form dendrometric parameters on urban forests casestudy of Sophora japonicardquo Renewable Energy vol 47pp 188ndash193 2012

[60] R B TabueMbobda ldquoDiversite floristique et stock de carbonedans la partie Est de la Reserve de Faune du DJArdquo Universitede Yaounde I Yaounde Cameroon Memoire de Master enBiologie des Organismes Vegetaux 2013

[61] R Prat Biologie Vegetale Croissance et DeveloppementEditions Dunod Paris France 2012

[62] V Kimpouni M Y Lenga Sacadura R C Nkounkou Lou-foukou and J C Mamboueni ldquoSurvey of the anthropic ac-tions and the urban woody flora exploitation in Brazzaville(Congo)rdquo International Journal of Current Research andAcademic Review vol 5 no 7 pp 38ndash51 2017

[63] P Cornut Petit historique de la convention Climat et desnegociations climat Les cahiers de Global Change no 8 1997

[64] A Angelsen M Brockhaus W D Sunderlin andL V Verchot Analyse de la REDD+ les Enjeux et les choixCIFOR Bogor Indonesie 2013

[65] GIEC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas InventoriesAgriculture Forestry and other Land Uses vol 4 IPCC In-stitute for Global environmental strategies Hayama Japan2006

[66] GIEC Resume a Lrsquointention des decideurs changementsclimatiques 2013 les elements scientifiquesrdquo Contribution duGroupe de travail I au Cinquieme Rapport Drsquoevaluation duGroupe Drsquoexperts Intergouvernemental sur lrsquoevolution duClimat G-K Plattner et al Ed Cambridge University PressCambridge UK 2013

[67] L Nsiloulou ldquoLes arbres dans la ville de BrazzavillerdquoDepartement de Geographie FLSH UMNG BrazzavilleCongo Memoires de maıtrise 2002


chemical air cleaners noise pollution soil protectionthermoregulation climate regulation and bio-geochemicalcycle [4 9 13ndash16] In the role of air pollution control andthermoregulator Vergriete and Labrecque [17] show thatplants andor frequenting green spaces reduce the risks ofcertain ailments such as stress respiratory infections andmigraines [18ndash23]

With the promulgation of the World Health Organi-zation (WHO) Healthy Cities Programme [24 25] theenvironment is considered a determining factor for thecomfort well being and health of all More andmore we arebecoming aware of the fact that the environment in whichthe population lives is preponderant for its physical andmoral balance Among the means of improving thisframework green space is a very important component [26]Indeed green space is greatly valued for its contribution tothe quality of life in the urban environment Efforts toimprove urban centres in developed countries have almostall been accompanied by attention to the creation devel-opment and use of green space [27]

In Africa and more particularly in Congo the place ofthe green space has never been the subject of real attentionGreen spaces are unevenly distributed in the urban area andpostcolonial neighbourhoods are generally the mostneglected [28] -ere is also very little natural regenerationof these trees most of which are senescent Most species areornamental and exotic [29] Today these nonfunctional andconstantly degrading green spaces do not fulfil their primaryvocation (ecological biodiversity conservation social andrecreational) and play only a derisory role [12]

More than half a century since the Congo gained in-dependence the urban plan of the city of Brazzaville hasremained static on the development offer of green spaces andon the quality of life -e colonial period was marked by thecreation of green spaces for an attractive green and relaxingurban living environment -is embellishment is based onthe exploitation of the virtues of native and nonnative treespecies [28 29]

In the city of Brazzaville the areas and facilities devoted torecreational green spaces are clearly insufficient and inadequateor even unsuitable for some Since the 1960s there has been agrowing public interest in recreation and leisure Rest after aworking day and during holidays has become a necessity-usoffering the citizen an adequate framework for relaxationshould be a permanent feature in any urban development plan

-e involvement of green spaces in the well being of theurban community of Brazzaville and the mitigation of theharmful effects of global climate change are the foundationsof this study-emain objective of this study is to review themanagement of green spaces in Congo and particularly inBrazzaville given that green spaces play an important rec-ognized role in the conservation of biodiversity in generaland plant diversity in particular and in the provision ofgoods and services to the population

2 Materials and Method

21 Study Environment Created in 1884 the city of Braz-zaville the capital of the Republic of Congo is located on the

banks of the Congo River (Figure 1) in the south of thecountry between 04deg04primeS and 15deg02primeE [30] covering an areaof 32640 km2 with an estimated population of 1373382[31 32] Administratively the Brazzaville autonomous de-partment has 9 townships

-e climate in Brazzaville is humid tropical with a rainyseason from October to May a dry season from June toSeptember (Figure 2(a)) an average annual temperature ofabout 25degC and an average annual rainfall of 1400mm[33 34] March April and November are the rainiestmonths and June July August and September are the driest(Figure 2(a)) Relative humidity is particularly high alwaysabove 70 (Figure 2(b)) with an absolute minimum inAugust and September and a relative minimum in Februaryand March -e minimum varies between 50 and 60 themaximum vary from 88 to 94 Evaporation (Figure 2(b))shows a relative maximum from February to March and anabsolute maximum in August and September [35] -eaverage annual sunstroke varies between 1700 and 2000hours -e insolation curve has two maxima from March toMay and in November and minima from June to August(Figure 2(c))

22 Material

221 Study Material -e study material consists mainly oftrees shrubs grasses rest facilities leisure facilities andcultural monuments-e trees and shrubs were counted andidentified while the herbs were simply identified -emeasurement of woody trees including the diameter atbreast height (DBH) ge10 cm at 130m height is systemati-cally carried out It is noted concomitantly that the in-dividuals present signs of anthropic aggression (removingthe bark of the trees) In addition all cultural facilities andmonuments have been identified Finally the area of eachgreen space is evaluated

222 Classification and Nomenclature of Green SpacesIn urban or periurban areas green spaces are vegetated areaswhose typology is based on precise criteria based on the areacovered [7 36ndash38] -us we distinguish the followingdifferent types of spaces

(i) Square area less than 1 ha(ii) Proximity garden area between 1 and 4 ha(iii) Urban park area greater than 5 ha(iv) Periurban park area greater than 100 ha

Parks often offer water supply points afforestation bedsand ornamental trees but also created spaces such as lawns-eir location shows a recreational sports or relaxationvocation with the presence of playgrounds sports equip-ment and benches However a public garden and a squareare small spaces -e public garden is designed as a place torelax and a square is seen as a meeting place According toWHO at least 10m2 of green space in urban centres and25m2 in periurban areas are recommended per inhabitant[38 39]












Eq HprimeHmaxprime


3 Results




1525012 1525283 1525553 1525823 1526093 1526364 1526634 1526904 1527174 1527445 1527715 1527985 1528255

1525012 1525283 1525553 1525823 1526093 1526364 1526634 1526904 1527174 1527445 1527715 1527985 1528255

ndash426450

ndash426720

ndash426990

ndash427261

ndash427531

ndash427801

ndash428071

ndash428341

ndash428612

ndash426450

ndash426720

ndash426990

ndash427261

ndash427531

ndash427801

ndash428071

ndash428341


LSB Garden

Rotary club square





Human Rights Square

Scale 1150000 150 300 m





0

25

50

75

100

125

150

0

50

100

150

200

250

300


Tem

pera

ture

(degC)

Prec

ipita

tion

(mm

)

Month


(a)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

0102030405060708090

Evap

orat

ion

(mm

)

Rela

tive h

umid

ity (

)

Month

HumidityEvaporation

Janu

ary

Febr

uary

Mar

ch

Apr

il

May

June July

Aug

ust

Sept

embe

r

Oct

ober

Nov

embe

r

Dec

embe

r

(b)

20406080

100120140160180200

Inso

latio

n (k

wh

m2 )

Month

Janu

ary

Febr

uary

Mar

ch

Apr

il

May

June July

Aug

ust

Sept

embe

r

Oct

ober

Nov

embe

r

Dec

embe

r

(c)


































0

1

2

3

4

5

6PSB

FSTlowast

PRlowast

MMlowast

HP

SA

MMN

DHlowast









0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Indi

vidu

als r

ate (

)

Diameter classes

PSBPRMM

FSTBGHP

SAMMNDH


0102030405060708090

100


Seat

rate

s (

)

Green spaces

SunnyShady


5714

143

143

143

PSBMMN

FSTHP










0

20

40

60

80

100PSB

PR

FST

HP

SAMM

BG

MMN

DH






4 Discussion













5 Conclusion



Appendix


(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 8 Continued




References























(e)

(f )

(g)






























































Eq HprimeHmaxprime


3 Results




1525012 1525283 1525553 1525823 1526093 1526364 1526634 1526904 1527174 1527445 1527715 1527985 1528255

1525012 1525283 1525553 1525823 1526093 1526364 1526634 1526904 1527174 1527445 1527715 1527985 1528255

ndash426450

ndash426720

ndash426990

ndash427261

ndash427531

ndash427801

ndash428071

ndash428341

ndash428612

ndash426450

ndash426720

ndash426990

ndash427261

ndash427531

ndash427801

ndash428071

ndash428341


LSB Garden

Rotary club square





Human Rights Square

Scale 1150000 150 300 m





0

25

50

75

100

125

150

0

50

100

150

200

250

300


Tem

pera

ture

(degC)

Prec

ipita

tion

(mm

)

Month


(a)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

0102030405060708090

Evap

orat

ion

(mm

)

Rela

tive h

umid

ity (

)

Month

HumidityEvaporation

Janu

ary

Febr

uary

Mar

ch

Apr

il

May

June July

Aug

ust

Sept

embe

r

Oct

ober

Nov

embe

r

Dec

embe

r

(b)

20406080

100120140160180200

Inso

latio

n (k

wh

m2 )

Month

Janu

ary

Febr

uary

Mar

ch

Apr

il

May

June July

Aug

ust

Sept

embe

r

Oct

ober

Nov

embe

r

Dec

embe

r

(c)


































0

1

2

3

4

5

6PSB

FSTlowast

PRlowast

MMlowast

HP

SA

MMN

DHlowast









0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Indi

vidu

als r

ate (

)

Diameter classes

PSBPRMM

FSTBGHP

SAMMNDH


0102030405060708090

100


Seat

rate

s (

)

Green spaces

SunnyShady


5714

143

143

143

PSBMMN

FSTHP










0

20

40

60

80

100PSB

PR

FST

HP

SAMM

BG

MMN

DH






4 Discussion













5 Conclusion



Appendix


(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 8 Continued




References























(e)

(f )

(g)






















































0

25

50

75

100

125

150

0

50

100

150

200

250

300


Tem

pera

ture

(degC)

Prec

ipita

tion

(mm

)

Month


(a)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

0102030405060708090

Evap

orat

ion

(mm

)

Rela

tive h

umid

ity (

)

Month

HumidityEvaporation

Janu

ary

Febr

uary

Mar

ch

Apr

il

May

June July

Aug

ust

Sept

embe

r

Oct

ober

Nov

embe

r

Dec

embe

r

(b)

20406080

100120140160180200

Inso

latio

n (k

wh

m2 )

Month

Janu

ary

Febr

uary

Mar

ch

Apr

il

May

June July

Aug

ust

Sept

embe

r

Oct

ober

Nov

embe

r

Dec

embe

r

(c)


































0

1

2

3

4

5

6PSB

FSTlowast

PRlowast

MMlowast

HP

SA

MMN

DHlowast









0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Indi

vidu

als r

ate (

)

Diameter classes

PSBPRMM

FSTBGHP

SAMMNDH


0102030405060708090

100


Seat

rate

s (

)

Green spaces

SunnyShady


5714

143

143

143

PSBMMN

FSTHP










0

20

40

60

80

100PSB

PR

FST

HP

SAMM

BG

MMN

DH






4 Discussion













5 Conclusion



Appendix


(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 8 Continued




References























(e)

(f )

(g)












































































0

1

2

3

4

5

6PSB

FSTlowast

PRlowast

MMlowast

HP

SA

MMN

DHlowast









0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Indi

vidu

als r

ate (

)

Diameter classes

PSBPRMM

FSTBGHP

SAMMNDH


0102030405060708090

100


Seat

rate

s (

)

Green spaces

SunnyShady


5714

143

143

143

PSBMMN

FSTHP










0

20

40

60

80

100PSB

PR

FST

HP

SAMM

BG

MMN

DH






4 Discussion













5 Conclusion



Appendix


(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 8 Continued




References























(e)

(f )

(g)


























































0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Indi

vidu

als r

ate (

)

Diameter classes

PSBPRMM

FSTBGHP

SAMMNDH


0102030405060708090

100


Seat

rate

s (

)

Green spaces

SunnyShady


5714

143

143

143

PSBMMN

FSTHP










0

20

40

60

80

100PSB

PR

FST

HP

SAMM

BG

MMN

DH






4 Discussion













5 Conclusion



Appendix


(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 8 Continued




References























(e)

(f )

(g)



























































0

20

40

60

80

100PSB

PR

FST

HP

SAMM

BG

MMN

DH






4 Discussion













5 Conclusion



Appendix


(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 8 Continued




References























(e)

(f )

(g)





















































4 Discussion













5 Conclusion



Appendix


(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 8 Continued




References























(e)

(f )

(g)





















































5 Conclusion



Appendix


(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 8 Continued




References























(e)

(f )

(g)






















































References























(e)

(f )

(g)















































































































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SocioculturalandEcologicalDynamicsofGreenSpacesin …downloads.hindawi.com/journals/ijecol/2020/3719267.pdf · 2020. 3. 1. · ResearchArticle SocioculturalandEcologicalDynamicsofGreenSpacesin