Sociocultural Theory and Second Language Learning Introduction to the Special Issue JAMES P. LANTOLF Department of Modern Languages and Linguistics Cornell University Ithaca, NY 14853 Email: jpl5@cornell.edu

THE PAPERS INCLUDED IN THIS ISSUE RE- port the findings of studies on various aspects of second language learning informed by the sociocultural theory of mind developed by the Russian psychologist and psycholinguist Lev S. Vygotsky and his colleagues. Researchers work- ing on educational problems in general, and those of us working on questions relating to second language learning, in particular, have found Vygotsky's ideas challenging, at times perplexing, but always stimulating and informa- tive. Although the details of sociocultural the- ory are fleshed out in the six papers that follow, it is important to underscore from the outset that Vygotsky's fundamental theoretical insight is that higher forms of human mental activity are always, and everywhere, mediated by symbolic means.

Vygotsky developed his proposals on sym- bolic mediation based on analogy with the proc- esses through which humans mediate their in- teraction with the world of objects through the use of physical tools. Mediation, whether physi- cal or symbolic, is understood to be the intro- duction of an auxiliary device into an activity that then links humans to the world of objects or to the world of mental behavior. Just as physi- cal tools (e.g., hammers, bulldozers, computers, etc.) allow humans to organize and alter their physical world, Vygotsky reasoned that symbolic tools empower humans to organize and control such mental processes as voluntary attention, logical problem-solving, planning and evalua-

The Modern Language Journal, 78, iv (1994) 0026-7902/94/418-420 $1.50/0 ?1994 The Modern Language Journal

tion, voluntary memory, and intentional learn- ing. Included among symbolic tools are mne- monic devices, algebraic symbols, diagrams and graphs, and, most importantly, language. Al- though physical and symbolic tools are collab- oratively constructed by the members of a cul- ture over time, a crucial difference between these two forms of mediation resides in their relative directionality. The former are out- wardly directed toward objects, while the latter are inwardly directed toward subjects. Thus, sym- bolic tools are the means through which hu- mans are able to organize and maintain control over the self and its mental, and even physical, activity.

According to Vygotsky, mental development arises as a consequence of the interaction of two distinct processes, one with biological roots and the other with sociocultural origins. These two developmental lines merge during the on- togenesis of children. Research by Vygotsky and others was able to demonstrate that once chil- dren begin to integrate symbols as auxiliary means of mediation into their physical and mental activity, this activity takes on a markedly different, and culturally influenced, character. To illustrate the difference between mediated and nonmediated mental functioning, we can consider the simple example of someone trying to remember which items to purchase in a gro- cery store. The person can attempt to remem- ber the items through repeated rehearsal until the items are memorized or can remember the items by writing them down on a piece of paper. Although both cases entail the use of language as a mediational tool, in the first instance, the person establishes a more direct link between the items and their memory trace; while in the

James P Lantolf second case, the person creates an even more powerful auxiliary link by generating a shop- ping list, which greatly eases the mental strain of trying to imprint the items into one's memory.

Symbolically mediated mental functions are appropriated by children as they carry out spe- cific culturally defined tasks under the guid- ance (i.e., mediation) of other individuals (e.g., parents, older siblings, teachers, etc.), who ini- tially assume most of the responsibility for car- rying out the tasks. Over time, children assume increased responsibility for organizing and de- ploying their own mental activity in tasks and, under normal circumstances, ultimately attain the ability to function independently of the other's guidance. Thus, at the outset of on- togenesis, conscious mental activity is distrib- uted and jointly constructed in the dialogic in- teractions that arise between children and representatives of the culture. As children par- ticipate in these collaborative interactions, they appropriate for themselves the patterns of plan- ning, attending, thinking, remembering, etc. that the culture through its representatives values. Hence, what is at one point socially me- diated mental processing evolves into self- mediated processing.

Given that collaborative mental activity is car- ried out primarily through linguistic means (initially speaking but later writing, in literate cultures, at least), Vygotsky argued that self- controlled cognitive functioning would also be linguistically mediated and would carry traces of its social beginnings. This self-controlled lin- guistic mediation is referred to as inner, or pri- vate, speech. Because of the developmental rela- tionship between social and inner speech, even when we appear to be acting alone in "splendid isolation," as for example, when we take tests in the educational setting, we are not alone. We externalize on paper, assuming it is a paper and pencil test, the results of our having partici- pated in distributed activity mediated by dia- logue with other individuals in our immediate, and even distant, past.

Mediation is the common thematic thread which runs through the six papers included in this issue. Although the papers are bound to- gether by this fundamental sociocultural princi- ple, each considers its implications for second language learning and performance from a dif- ferent, though related, perspective. Hence, the reader of this special issue will encounter the important corollary statements of sociocultural theory which emanate from its core principle of

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linguistically mediated cognition. The first pa- per, by McCafferty, presents a synthesis of the empirical research that has been carried out to date on the function of private speech in sec- ond language learning and performance. Mc- Cafferty considers the divergent claims that have been made regarding the regulatory func- tion of verbal aspect in the private speech of L2 learners. He discusses how speaker proficiency and cultural background may influence the fre- quency of private speech production and ad- dresses what he sees as productive areas of fu- ture research, including the relationship between L2 private speech and nonverbal ges- tures and comparative research on the private speech of tutored and nontutored L2 learners.

The second paper, by Appel and Lantolf, pre- sents the results of a comparative study of the self-mediation of Li1 and advanced L2 speakers of English given the task of recalling a narrative and an expository text. The authors propose that any differences between native and non-na- tive speakers of a language are not categorical but are very much task dependent. They further argue that recall tasks as employed in reading research and pedagogical practices do not nec- essarily elicit the kind of performance from L2 speakers that we have assumed. They interpret the evidence presented to show that speakers often speak, not to remember the contents of what they have read but to construct meaning from what they have read. Recall tasks, then, may not consistently assess reading comprehen- sion but may, instead, enhance comprehension itself, the very process they are designed to assess.

In the following paper based on analysis of the portfolios of classroom learners of French, Donato and McCormick argue that learning strategies can neither be directly taught nor are they a function of cognitive style or learner per- sonality, but arise as a by-product of the media- tional processes at work in the foreign language classroom culture. Significantly, they contend that learning strategies are closely linked to the formation of clear and specific goals for learn- ing. To understand the significance of this find- ing, the authors situate their analysis within the important sociocultural notion of Activity Theory.

The next two papers explore the effects of mediation on L2 learning as it is jointly con- structed in the zone of proximal development (ZPD)-an interpersonal configuration which brings into contact the individual's past learn- ing and future development. Aljaafreh and Lan-

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tolf present evidence from adult ESL learners that shows how corrective feedback, as negoti- ated between expert and novice in the ZPD, leads to L2 learning. The authors maintain that for corrective feedback to be effective it must be sensitive to the individual learner's ZPD. Fur- thermore, they propose that L2 development is not manifested solely in the learner's ability to produce the correct L2 patterns, but also in the frequency and quality of help co-constructed by the expert and the novice.

From a slightly different perspective, de Guer- rero and Villamil, in an extensive study of adult ESL writers, examine the effects of peer media- tion in the ZPD on the revision process. Al- though their findings support the general as- sumption that collaborative revision between peers is a positive move that should be fostered in L2 writing, they caution that asymmetrical in- teractions, in which one of the members of a given dyad is able to control the performance of the other member, may be more conducive to learning than symmetrical interactions, in which both members of a dyad compete for control.

Platt and Brooks, in the final paper, under- take a reinterpretation of such pivotal terms as acquisition rich environments and comprehensible in- put. Based on their analysis of interactions among learners in a vocational ESL class as well

The Modern Language Journal 78 (1994) as in a Swahili as a foreign language class, they suggest that much of what is relevant to the lan- guage learning process is often overlooked in traditional acquisition studies informed by the assumptions of information processing theory, be- cause such studies fail to take full account of what learners are actually attempting to do as they co-construct their own learning environ- ments.

The contributors to this special issue share the hope that the papers included here will serve as a stimulus for continued research on the implications of sociocultural theory for sec- ond language learning. We are aware that the kind of research presented in this issue does not reflect the prevailing view within our field. Nev- ertheless, as it is becoming increasingly clear in the education and developmental literatures, we are convinced that this line of research has significant potential for exploring aspects of the second language learning process that would otherwise remain hidden. It is in this spirit that the participating authors and I would like to express our sincere gratitude to the edi- tor of The Modern Language Journal, Sally Sieloff Magnan, as well as to the journal's editorial board and to the anonymous reviewers for all of their efforts and support in encouraging the continuation of our enterprise.

Forthcoming in The Modern Language Journal

Lee Wilberschied and Jean-Louis P. Dassier. "Increasing the Number of Minority FL Educators: Local Action to Meet a National Imperative"

Razika Sanaoui. "Adult Learners' Approaches to Learning Vocabulary in Second Languages" Akiko Okamura. "Teachers' and Nonteachers' Perception of Elementary Learners' Spoken

Japanese" Anita Vogely. "Perceived Strategy Use During Performance on Three Authentic Listening Compre-

hension Tasks"

Julia E.B. Hanley, Carol A. Herron, and Steven P. Cole. "Using Video as an Advance Organizer to a Written Passage in the FLES Classroom"

Madeline E. Ehrman and Rebecca L. Oxford. "Cognition Plus: Correlates of Language Learning Success"

Peter D. Maclntyre. "How Does Anxiety Affect Second Language Learning? A Reply to Sparks and Ganschow" (response article)

Article Contentsp.[418]p.419p.420

Issue Table of ContentsThe Modern Language Journal, Vol. 78, No. 4 (Winter, 1994), pp. 417-577+i-xxixVolume Information [pp.572-576]Front MatterFrom the Editor: Special Issues in the MLJ [p.417]Sociocultural Theory and Second Language Learning: Introduction to the Special Issue [pp.418-420]Adult Second Language Learners' Use of Private Speech: A Review of Studies [pp.421-436]From the Editor: In Recognition and with Appreciation [p.436]Speaking as Mediation: A Study of L1 and L2 Text Recall Tasks [pp.437-452]A Sociocultural Perspective on Language Learning Strategies: The Role of Mediation [pp.453-464]Negative Feedback as Regulation and Second Language Learning in the Zone of Proximal Development [pp.465-483]Social-Cognitive Dimensions of Interaction in L2 Peer Revision [pp.484-496]Errata: Dictionary Use While Reading: The Effects on Comprehension and Vocabulary Acquisition for Students of Different Verbal Abilities [p.496]The "Acquisition-Rich Environment" Revisited [pp.497-511]MLJ Response ArticlesWhere Are We regarding Language Learning Motivation? [pp.512-514]Understanding L2 Motivation: On with the Challenge! [pp.515-523]On Motivation: Measurement and Conceptual Considerations [pp.524-527]

MLJ News & Notes of the Profession [pp.528-534]In Other Professional Journals [pp.535-541]MLJ ReviewsTheory & Practiceuntitled [pp.542-543]untitled [p.543]untitled [pp.543-544]untitled [pp.544-545]untitled [pp.545-546]untitled [pp.546-547]

ESLuntitled [p.547]untitled [pp.547-548]untitled [pp.548-549]

Frenchuntitled [p.549]untitled [p.550]untitled [pp.550-551]untitled [pp.551-552]untitled [pp.552-553]untitled [pp.553-554]

Germanuntitled [pp.554-555]

Hebrewuntitled [pp.555-556]

Italianuntitled [pp.556-557]

Japaneseuntitled [pp.557-558]

Linguisticsuntitled [pp.558-559]untitled [pp.559-560]untitled [p.560]untitled [pp.560-561]

Polishuntitled [pp.561-562]

Russianuntitled [pp.562-563]

Spanishuntitled [pp.563-564]untitled [p.564]untitled [p.565]untitled [pp.565-566]untitled [pp.566-567]untitled [pp.567-568]untitled [p.568]

Swedishuntitled [p.569]untitled [pp.569-570]

Ukranianuntitled [pp.570-571]

Back Matter [pp.577-xxix]