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The fourth chapter deals with the impact of NGO/SHG on ‘Social development of

women’ and it highlights the impact of the NGOs on the social conditions of the members. It

elucidates the self confidence, reaction against social evils, behavioural changes, access to

facilities and political participation.

The fifth chapter discusses the ‘Economic development of women through NGO’. It

highlights economic impact in terms of changes in asset value, income generation,

expenditure, savings and getting loan.

The sixth chapter discusses the ‘Perception of the respondents on the development

of women’.

The seventh chapter is related to the Findings, Suggestions and Conclusion for the

development of women through the services of NGO.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter is devoted to give a detailed description of the previous studies

undertaken by researchers relating to socio economic development of women through NGOs.

As such, it is an exercise to review the literature available relating to the present study. This

chapter gives an insight into the various research studies already undertaken in various areas,

giving the scope for further research on the aspects uncovered. It is to be mentioned that as

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the review of literature is an important component of a research study, it serves as a base for

the researcher to gain knowledge of a theme. It also helps the researcher to give the proper

measure to minimize the problems while conducting the study. It also gives a logical

presentation of the research studies over a period of time. The review includes articles (based

on research studies) published in leading journals, books and reports. The following are the

studies which enabled the researcher to undertake this study.

2.2 STUDIES RELATED TO FORMATIONS AND FUNCTIONS OF SHGs

Sen (2000)1 had attempted a study promoted by Sreemamahila samity in Nadia

District to find out the functioning of SHGs. The findings of the study revealed that the

individual loans were mostly used for productive purposes and group dynamics was an

instrument for change in the life of the poor women. The study found out that group cohesion,

group action, need based credit and timely repayment were the essential elements for

sustainability of the groups.

Zubair Meenai (2003)2

in her article, “Sustainability of Self-Help Groups”, discussed

the functional modality of SHGs and that what all to be done and what all not to be done.

Even rural women can also come up in a life along with her family through income generating

activity which she exercises through the membership in SHG.

Ramana Reddy and Nataraju Gupta (2006)3 in their empirical study on, “Credit

Management in SHGs under South Asia Poverty Alleviation Programme (SAPAP) : A Study”

conducted in Andhra Pradesh, Kalva village under the domain of Kurnool District envisaged

many a thoughts pertaining to structural characteristics of SHGs functionary modality,

regularity in conducting meetings and attendance of members in those meetings, savings of

money by the SHG members, that to with the quantum and regularity in savings and decision

– making process in the inter and intra SHG activities. Formation of rules and regulations of

the SHG functionary procedures, book – keeping of the SHG, rotation of SHG leadership,

lending and credit activities of SHG, repayment of the internally circulated amount among the

SHG members and the corpus of the SHG were also elaborately discussed.

Vinayamoorthy and Pithoda (2007)4 made an attempt to examine women

empowerment through SHGs in three villages of Tamil Nadu. They selected a sample of 398

members of 20 SHGs from Vellore, Thiruvannamalai and Dharmapuri Districts of the state.

The main objectives of the study were to examine the income, expenditure and the savings of

the members after joining SHGs and the role of SHGs in providing credit. They concluded

that the economic activities of SHGs were quite successful.

70

Kumararaja (2009)5 made an attempt to evaluate the performance of SHGs in Tamil

Nadu. The study highlighted the progress of SHGs in India and Tamil Nadu. It revealed that

there has been a steady progress in the number of SHGs and amount of loan sanctioned. The

study concluded that a timely and regular check of the micro credit through SHGs will

contribute to a healthy progress and to the overall development of rural women.

2.3 STUDIES RELATED TO WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Anderson (1988)6 in his book “Thinking about Women Sociological and Feminist

Perspectives” has written that “Women must know themselves sufficiently to become free”.

This statement sums up the idea of Women Empowerment. Anderson argues that the

objective of any programme to empower women has to educate her, initiating critical thinking

to the extent that she is able to make a realistic evaluation of her predicament within social,

cultural, political and economic system enabling her to take necessary action to lead a

satisfying life. Any women empowerment programme has to have a lot of stress on

encouraging women to take action. He argues that all knowledge imparted will be fruitless

unless followed by right responses.

Individual empowerment occurs through the process of personal development, which

entails both the growth of skills and abilities and a more positive self-definition. Empowered

people feel better about themselves. There is an increased sense of personal dignity, self-

respect and self-esteem at the psychological level. Also, there is a new confidence and a sense

of personal efficiency. The person perceives herself as more capable and worthy. There is

actual increase of knowledge, information, competence, skills, resources, opportunities and

more effective action and interpersonal relationship. The development of self-confidence

strengthens the personal ability leading to individual transformation of consciousness and

capacity.

Rajeswari and Sumangala (1999)7 explored the problems and prospects in women

entrepreneurship women entrepreneurship helps pool the small capital resources and skills

available with women. It paves the way for fuller utilization of capital and also human

potential.

Suman Krishnan Kant (2001)8 opined that the process of women’s empowerment is

multi-dimensional. It enables women to realize their full potential and empowers them in all

spheres of life.

The Ministry of Human Resource Development (2001)9 pointed out that in order to

enhance women’s access to credit for consumption and production, the establishment of new

and strengthening of existing micro-credit mechanisms and micro finance institution will be

71

undertaken so that the outreach of credit is enhanced. Other supportive measures would be

taken to ensure adequate flow of credit to financial institutions and banks, so that all women

below poverty line have easy access to credit.

Bhagyalakshmi (2004)10

in her study stresses the need for sharpening women’s

empowering strategies to make them effective and results oriented. She pointed out that

money earned by poor women is more likely to be spent on the basic needs of life than that by

men and that this realization would bring women as the focus of development efforts. She

also examines the advantages of organizing women groups thereby creating a new sense of

dignity and confidence to tackle their problems with a sense of solidarity and to work together

for the cause of economic independence.

Baruah (2004)11

in his article, “Constraints in the Empowerment of Women”, stated

that psychological, social, economical and political pillars were reported to be constraints for

women’s empowerment. Mostly, the disparity of gender against female folk was high in the

society, especially economical and political arena. The psychological constraints were also

reported among women from different religions.

According to Prema Parande (2005)12

, empowerment is an active process of enabling

women to realize their identity, potentiality and power in all spheres of their lives. There are

several indicators such as participation in crucial decision making process, ability to prevent

violence, self-confidence and self-esteem, improved health and nutrition conditions and at the

community level, existence of women’s organisation, increased number of women in

designing development tools and application of appropriate technology etc. Improvement in

economic status is a more visible indicator of women empowerment.

Satya Sundaram (2005)13

in his article stated that Micro-finance is being provided

through Self-Help Groups and nongovernment organisations. The scheme is successful

because it has almost solved the problem of overdue. Besides credit is being put to the most

productive use, the SHG-Bank linkage has greatly helped the weaker sections. The voluntary

agencies should aim at real empowerment of women. As a result of reservation, there are a

large number of women sarpanches, but they do not function, but their husband’s function on

their behalf and the voluntary agencies must be in touch with educational institutions for

mutual benefit.

Harjeet Ahlulwalia (2006)14

opines that women in India are a mixed lot. Some are

well in control of their destinies; others depend to a large extent on their husbands or fathers

and are denied even the freedom of thought. Somewhere along the line there are also women

who actually run their households single handedly not because they are separated or widowed

72

but because their men would have it so. This is a predominant feature of the below poverty-

line families. The search for employment takes them away from home, leaving their children

prey to neglect, hunger, disease and even exploitation. Well kept conveniently located day-

care homes, dedicated train or bus services to commercial centres, more congenial work

environment etc. are all major factors that can both encourage fulltime working women and

increase their productivity levels.

Sandhya Rani (2006)15

says that the Indian economy needs to generate a large

number of jobs in the decentralized rural non-farm sector. The rural economy in recent years

has been showing clear positive signs for the micro-enterprise opportunity especially for

women. The prospects of micro-entrepreneurship are many in a few sub sectors such as trade,

transport, construction and service. Availability of micro-credit helps SHG women a lot and

many women come forward and establish micro-enterprises. At present a good number of

NGOs and financial institutions have been offering micro finance especially to women micro

entrepreneurs. The micro-finance assistance from banks, NABARD and financial institutions

like SFCs has been encouraging women to start micro-enterprises. As a result micro

entrepreneurship is gradually growing importance among the jobless particularly among the

educated and uneducated urban and rural women.

According to Usha Rao (2007)16

women form an important segment of the labour

force and economic role played by them cannot be isolated from the total framework of

development as the role and degree of integration of women in economic development is

always an indicator of economic independence and social status.

Bimlasen (2007)17

mentions that the empowerment is an active process of enabling

women to realize their identity, potentiality and power in all spheres of their lives. There are

several indicators of employment. At the industrial level, participation in crucial decision-

making process, ability to prevent violence, self- confidence and self esteem, improved health

and nutrition conditions and at the community level, existence of women’s organization.

Indira Misra (2008)18

in her article while focusing on the definition of

entrepreneurship, moves onto incorporate some basic factors like openness to

entrepreneurship, balancing business attractions, willingness to invest, thinking beyond town

borders etc. which would be required by the rural community to look into and identify

platforms and opportunities either inherently available or which need to be developed to

encourage entrepreneurship. It touches upon the fact that to promote rural development,

entrepreneurship was seen as a strategic development intervention that could accelerate the

73

rural development process. It is pointed out that institutions and individuals seem to agree on

the urgent need to promote rural enterprises.

Ganapathi and Sannasi (2008)19

made an attempt to highlight the factors influencing

the women entrepreneurs. The study highlighted the common features of women

entrepreneurs, challenges faced by them while undertaking the entrepreneurial activities and

the necessary strategies to overcome the challenges. The study concluded that women must be

motivated to establish business in the interest of the family income in particular and national

income in general.

Gudaganavar and Gudaganavar (2008)20

made an attempt to examine the

empowerment of rural women through SHG. They highlighted the progress of SHGs in India

from 1992-93 to 2006-07. They also highlighted the region-wise progress of SHGs and

employment of women through SHGs. They concluded that no development was possible

without empowerment of women.

Lalitha and Prasad (2009)21

have analyzed the empowerment of women through

Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) programme in the Guntur

district of Andhra Pradesh. The study reveals that the income of individual after joining

DWCRA programme has increased comparatively. The study concludes that the potential of

women is not fully tapped and utilized for the community.

The research done by Saurabh (2009)22

focuses on the experience of micro finance

programmes in the context of liberalization. The author highlights the rural Indian society and

Indian rural financing system. The study suggests eliminating the shortcomings of the existing

rural financing system by establishing more microfinance projects and Regional Rural Banks.

2.4 STUDIES RELATED TO EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN THROUGH

SHGs

Lalitha Shivakumar (1995)23

pointed out that the small savings by rural women can

generate the requisite resources which can wean the people away from the exploitation of

moneylenders savings depend on habits and voluntary savings constitute the key for economic

progress. It has also been proved that the poor people can save substantially through group

efforts. Promotion of Self-Help Groups has the potential to bring women into the mainstream

of economic development paving the way for sustainable development.

Karl (1995)24

studied the role of SHGs of women on decision-making and concluded

empowerment as a multifaceted process, involving the pooling of resources to achieve

collective strength and countervailing power and entailing and the improvement of manual

74

and technical skills, administrative, managerial and planning capacities and analytical

reflective abilities of local women.

Aziz Ahmed (1999)25

through a case study on Thrift Groups in Assam highlighted that

woman were coming to the administration directly for their just rights and to address their

grievances boldly. It proved that Self Help Groups are successful in North East India even in

the midst of insurgency.

Dodkey (1999)26

explains that Self-Help Groups are now gaining acceptance, as an

alternative system of credit delivery, for meeting the credit needs especially to the people who

are the poorest of poor generally comprising small marginal farmer, Landless agricultural

labourers, rural artisans, womenfolk and other micro-entrepreneurs. The SHGs are regarded

as a support system to the exiting banking operations. The objectives of the SHG is to

inculcate the habit of thrift, savings, banking culture, i.e., availing loan and repaying the same

over a given economic prosperity through credit. The principles underlying the SHG model in

India are almost identical to Bangladesh concept, i.e., financing the poorest of the poor,

ensuring excellent recovery level and empowering women not just by meeting their needs for

consumption and productive loans but also through more holistic educative programmes on

issues such as sanitation, family planning and the evil effect of liquor consumption in the

family.

Gurumoorthy (2000)27

pointed out that women’s participation play a significant role

in rural employment activities. The self-help would concentrate on all round development of

the beneficiaries and their village as a whole. The groups would undertake the responsibility

of delivering non-credit service such as literacy, health and environmental issues. The concept

of Self-Help Group would mould women as responsible citizens of the country for achieving

social and economic status. It has also proved that it would bring on the mindset of the

conservative and tradition bound illiterate women in rural areas.

Vijay Kulkarni (2000)28

has described in his article “Empowerment of Women

through Self-Help Groups” the difference between women who have become part of SHGs

and those who are not members of the SHGs from the same village. Empowerment has taken

place across caste/class.

Barik and Vannan (2001)29

in their work “Promoting Self Help Groups as a

Subsystem of Credit Cooperatives” have stated that SHGs can be developed as a sub-system

to primary agricultural co-operatives societies at village level. They have seen that by and

large SHGs have been linked with commercial banks in the rural areas. However, the linkage

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with the co-operative credit system is proverbially poor. As such the need of the hour is to

make an earnest effort to bring about effective linkage with the co-operatives.

Mani Singh (2001)30

has explained in his article “Self-Help Groups: Some

Organizational Aspects” that the organizational functions are motivation, meeting, adoption

of a fixed area of operation, monthly meeting, fixation and collection of monthly thrift,

maintenance of books of accounts, formulation of rules and regulations, increase in

membership and framing of policies/programmes and follow co-operative norms. He has also

revealed that the social functions are providing education, knowledge and information,

providing idea of consumer protection and environment protection, preventing harmful

diseases, eradication of poverty, and linkage with other agencies for socially useful activities.

According to Ojha (2001)31

Self-Help Group model of self-employment generation

seems to be a workable model. However, there will be need for utmost care in promotion of

Self-Help Groups. Self-help promotion consists of assisting individuals to join together and

set-up an organisation promoting their individual and collective skills and opportunities to

develop their own. Self-help promotion aims at generating self-sustainable growth processes

within the course of which the target group makes its own decision.

Self-Help Groups are encouraged to come together as cooperative societies at the

village and mandal level by federating them under the mutually aided Cooperative Society

Act (1995). These societies will be accessing credit from financial institutions, donor

agencies, District Rural Development Agency (DRDA) and voluntary organisations and help

the women members of the Self-Help Groups in availing bigger loans for economic activities

as well as helping in collective bargaining in marketing of products, purchasing of raw

materials etc. Due to this massive self-help movement, there is a perceptible improvement in

the socioeconomic status of the rural women (Snch Lata Tandom, 2001)32

.

Rao (2002)33

pointed out that the genesis and development of SHGs in India reveals

that the existing formal financial institutions have failed to provide finances to landless,

marginalized and disadvantaged groups. The origin of SHGs could be traced to mutual aid in

Indian village community. Cooperatives are formal bodies whereas SHGs are informal SHGs

encourage savings and promote income generating activities through small loans. The

experiences available in the country and elsewhere suggest that SHGs are sustainable, have

reliability, stimulate savings and in the process help borrowers to come out of vicious circle of

poverty.

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Lalitha sivakumar(2002)34

in her article expressed that the Self-Help Groups and

Bank linkage projects being implemented under the guidance of NABARD which gives an

institutional set up for micro-entrepreneurs. This linkage programme is a part of micro-

finance operations emphasizing a savings based credit programme, flexibility in lending,

operations, de-linking credit from the bondage of collateral requirements, group leading inter-

group learning, group decision in fixing repayment schedule, skill development through

training and promotion of backward and forward linkage facilities through NGOs. The net

working among the banks, NGOs and women borrowers can open new vistas in building a

new micro-credit structure lending to sustainable development. Women Development

Corporation and Government departments also engage the services of NGOs for mobilizing

women under their schemes on the development of micro-enterprises. The effective

partnership between reputed NGOs and banks for promotion of Self-Help Groups will provide

a strong institutional base for a credit-plus approach to micro-enterprises of women.

According to Lalitha and Nagarajan (2002)35

Empowerment literally means

‘becoming powerful’. Empowerment of rural poor demands that members of village

committees should have their own organisation, which will serve their own economic needs

and interest exclusively. Moreover sufficient knowledge about the needs and problems of

rural poor has not been supplied to the policy making agencies. If SHGs are promoted, the

group members can articulate the problems in a better manner.

Bharat Dogra (2002)36

has presented in his article “Women Self Help Groups” that

almost all these women are from poor families, mostly from dalits and backward classes;

while the increase in income is important, it is not only this aspect of these SHGs are

emphasized but also several existing problems of villages and ways of overcoming them are

also discussed. It is important for the long-term success of Self Help Groups that loans should

be returned promptly.

Prem Singh Dahiya (2002)37

have described in their article on ‘Socioeconomic

upliftment through Self Help Groups in Solan District of Himachal Pradesh’ that the success

or the efficiency of micro finance interventions can be understood at three levels mainly (I)

outreach and financial sustainability of the programme, (ii) income or poverty impact on the

users, and (iii) development of financial market at the local level. The economic impact is

measured in terms of increase in annual incremental income. All SHGs recorded increase in

income, overall is 94.3%. They have also pointed out that various parameters are used to

measure the maturity of the members of SHG. These are (I) homogeneity, (ii) feeling of

relevance of group formation, (iii) awareness about objectives of groups, (iv) participation

77

and frequency of meetings, (v) regularity of savings, (vi) repayment of loans and (vii) group

participation in financial transactions.

Archana Sinha (2002)38

observed that the SHGs are informal groups where members

come together toward collective action for a common cause. The common need here is

meeting their emergent economic needs without being dependent on outside help. The main

objectives of SHG is to inculcate the habit of thrift, savings, banking culture, that is, availing

the loan and repaying the same over a given period of time and in the process, gain economic

prosperity through credit. Hence, Self Help Groups and micro-credit should be seen as one of

the components of a solution to accelerate the socio-economic development particularly of the

rural poor women in India. A judicious mix of micro-credit along with other activities with

emphasis on development and empowerment strategies and processes would certainly make

micro-credit an effective instrument of social and economic development particularly of

women in a holistic and integrated manner.

Chiranjeevalu (2003)39

in his study in Warrangal District proved that women have

developed abundant self – confidence and self – esteem through SHG movement. Not only

economic poverty the social and gender issues also were tackled effectively through the

process.

Rajamohan (2003)40

points out that the SHGs is a medium for the development of

savings habit among the women fold. It mobilizes a large quantum of resources. It is a

window for better technology and skill upgradation. It helps to increase the income of the

family. In SHGs collective action and solidarity are important empowering mechanisms.

Prasant Sarangi (2003)41

has mentioned in his article ‘Self Help Groups” that the

SHGs in our country have become a source of inspiration for women welfare. He has also

highlighted that nowadays, formation of SHG is a viable alternative to achieve the objectives

of rural development and to get community participation in all rural development

programmes.

Jaswant Singh (2003)42

says that Self-Help Group and bank linkage programme

being propagated by NABARD, for the last ten years has been recognized as the largest and

fastest growing micro-finance programme in the world. Our expectations of providing bank

credit to 1.25 lakh SHGs during the current year have been surpassed once again, and by

January 2003, bank credit of ` 598 crore has already been provided to about 25 lakh poor

families through 1.50 lakh new SHGs. The programme has also set in motion the process of

women empowerment. However, the spread of the programme across the country has been

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uneven and has largely remained confined to a few States. He urges all states to vigorously

join in their endeavour to make the SHG bank linkage programme a widespread success.

Rajeshwari (2003)43

explains that a bank branch finances directly to SHG by opening

the loan accounts in the name of SHG. Bank loan is disbursed in the ratio of savings in the

common fund of SHG. The maximum permissible ratio between savings in the common fund

and bank loan is from 1.1 to 1.4. The bank branch finances SHG, which is formed at the

instance of an NGO, but the responsibility of repayment solely, lies with SHG. The bank

achieves better and wider coverage of weaker sections in rural areas in a cost effective manner

by mobilizing deposits from the savings of SHG members.

Sivaramakrishnan (2003)44

explains that the Swarajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana

(SGSY) aims at establishing a large number of micro-enterprises in the rural areas, building

upon the potential of the rural poor. The objective under SUSY is to bring every assisted

family above the poverty line in three years. Towards this end SUSY is conceived as a holistic

programme of micro-enterprises covering all aspects of self-employment, viz. organisation of

the rural poor into Self-Help Groups and their capacity building, planning of activity clusters,

infrastructure build up, technology, credit and marketing.

Chiranjeevulu (2003)45

in his article “Empowerment of Women through Self Help

Groups “ has revealed that the multi-pronged strategy including local marketing to export has

been contemplated. The product will be thoroughly popularized among all the SHGs in the

district and channels for distribution of product to all the strategic marketing locations will be

developed. He has also highlighted that network with other marketing enterprises of SHG

women in neighboring districts will be established. Consumption points under the control of

government like hostels and devasthanams would be approached for bulk orders. Product will

also be marketed through PDS and Gruhamithra supply channels.

Rajeshwari (2003)46

in her article ‘New Generation Co-operatives throughSHGs’ has

described the models of financing SHG. In model I, the bank branch finances directly the

SHG by opening the loan account in the name of SHG. In model II the bank branch finances

SHG which is formed at the instance of NGO. The maximum permissible ratio between

savings in the common fund and bank credit is 1:4 for concerned NGO which acts as

facilitator, but the responsibility of repayment solely lies with SHG. In model III the local

bank branch does not have adequate confidence in lending to SHG promoted by NGO or in

SHG itself for various reasons and is not willing to be linked directly with the SHG; the bank

finances such SHG through the agency that promotes the group. The NGO may act as a

financial intermediary and is responsible for loan repayment.

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Sivaramakrishnan (2003)47

has disclosed in his article ‘Poverty Alleviation Through

Self Help Groups’ that the poverty levels have reduced from 56.44% of India’s population in

1973-74 to 37.27% in 1993-94. The IX Five Year Plan document envisages reducing rural

poverty in the country from a level of 30.55% (208 million) during 1996 to 9.64% (73

million) by 2006 and further to 4.31% (35 million) by 2011. He has also mentioned that

organization of the rural poor into Self Help Groups is one of the ways to reduce the poverty.

Rasheeda Bhagat (2004)48

in her work, ‘India Interior’ has expressed that there has

been a sea change in the attitude of men towards women’s groups and micro finance. She also

stated that in the last 10 years, the banker’s attitude has changed substantially and there is a

remarkable difference in the way they look at these women’s groups. That is a major success

of this programme.

Anita Panda (2004)49

has explained in her article, ‘SHG - A Boon for Many’ that

initially the women were assisting the males in the business, but subsequently the women also

came forward to start business independently. She has also revealed that the members utilized

the loan in their family business and repaid the due amount in time.

Nirmala (2004)50

in their study on ‘SHGs for poverty alleviation in Pondicherry’ have

discussed the performance and impact of SHGs on the empowerment of rural poor women in

Pondicherry region. The following are the objectives examined by the study: (I) to observe the

socioeconomic background of the sample respondents during the survey; (ii) to identify the

main determinants of monthly income of the respondents; and (iii) to examine the benefits

and problems experienced by the SHG sample respondents. Such a study has contributed to an

understanding of the functioning of SHGs in the rural Pondicherry.

Shanthi and Dhanalakshmi (2004)51

in their article, on ‘Case Study of Women’s

Empowerment through SHGs in Gobichettipalayam Block, Erode District’ stated that

empowerment is an active, multi-dimensional process which enables women to realize their

full potential and powers in all spheres of life. Women’s empowerment process starts with

economic empowerment .They have also disclosed that leadership qualities and active

participation in group culture lead to improvement in political acumen which would in turn

strengthen and sustain the overall process of empowerment.

Kala (2004)52

has mentioned in her article ‘Economic Empowerment of Women

through SHGs’ that amongst all the states, Tamil Nadu has the fourth highest percentage of

female - headed households in the country. The Tamil Nadu Women Development Project

(TNWDP) taken up for implementation under the name of ‘Mahalir Thittam’ covered about

10 lakhs poor women of the State in the year 1997-98. Women SHGs share was 78% in

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March 1998. She has also stated that men SHGs accounted for 40% or more in only six States,

viz. Karnataka, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and Meghalaya.

Sheik Mohamed (2004)53

has mentioned in his article, ‘Self Help Groups for the

Success of Women Entrepreneurs’, that women are contributing significantly in modern

business and commercial world in their own way. Working women can be classified into

different categories like women entrepreneurs, highly qualified professionals, employees in

the organized private and public sectors and women workers in unorganized sector. He has

also explained that transforming the prevailing social discrimination against women must

become the top priority and must happen concurrently with increased direct action to rapidly

improve the social and economic status of women.

Sorubarani and Thenmozhi (2004)54

in their article, ‘Self Help Groups: Gateway to

Women Empowerment’ have described that the RBI issued instructions to commercial banks

regarding establishment of linkages by them directly with NGOs and SHGs. They have also

disclosed that the basic principles on which SHGs function are group approach, mutual trust,

organization of poor, manageable small groups, group cohesiveness, demand based lending,

collateral free women friendly loan, peer group pressure in repayment, skill training, capacity

building and empowerment.

Senthil Vadivoo and Sekar (2004)55

have focused in their article ”Self Help Group –

A Movement for Women Empowerment” that empowering women is not just for meeting

their economic needs but also for more holistic social development. In SHGs, collective

action and solidarity is an important empowering mechanism. They are of the opinion that by

empowerment, women would be able to develop self-esteem, confidence, realize their

potential and enhance their collective bargaining power.

Venkatachalam and Jayaprakash (2004)56

have described in their article, ‘Self

Help Group in Dindigul District’ that the concept of SHG has sown the seeds for a silent

revolution at the village level. It paves way for women to spell out their views and to

participate in the local administration. They have also pointed that more than 80% of SHGs

are established in rural areas and only 5% is located in municipal areas.

Leelavathy (2004)57

has expressed in her paper titled, ‘SHG is a creamy layer for

Women’s social status’ that the SHGs remove the curse of money lenders. SHGs are the

ladder for upliftment of the down-trodden economically and socially. She has also pointed out

that the SHGs are taking up construction work for their hamlets like lying of roads, closing

down of liquor shops, contributing to the rehabilitation works and management of their

village affairs.

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Rosappu and Kalyana Sundar (2004)58

have discussed in their article, ‘Economic

Independence through Self Help Group’ that in the absence of extra time and government

jobs, the role of SHGs in generating funds, getting loan from the banks and indulging in

various business like making soaps, mats, chocolates, pappads building toilets, coconut

spoons, running tea shops, stone quarries, installing gas plants and solar energy networks is

highly commendable.

As women receive better education and training, they earn more money and as the

economic status of women improves they gain greater social standing in the household and

the village and will have greater voice. As women’s economic power grows it is easier to

overcome the tradition of ‘son preference’ and also put an end to the evil of dowry. According

to the annual report of the Ministry of Rural Development, 11.45 lakh of SHGs have been

formed in India so far. 118413 SHG exist in Tamil Nadu with 2326973 members in its fold

(Fredrick, 2005)59

.

Vasanth Kannabiran (2005)60

says that the increasing participation of women in

micro-credit and formation of women’s Self-Help Groups have done little more than assuring

short-term relief to ease immediate needs, what is absent is a long term social, political and

cultural vision that will end the subordination of women. The declaration on SHGs, women’s

empowerment and poverty reduction point out that one alarming outcome of the emergence of

SHGs has been the manner it has altered the nature of discourse on development and social

justice by placing the onus of overcoming poverty on the poor. What SHGs provide women

today is mere membership while obstructing and obscuring their movement. Then movement

serves to advertise the accountability on the status of women in the international arena, for the

women themselves it is one step forward and two steps backward guaranteed to maintain the

status quo on the issue of subordination.

Kamaraju (2005)61

has mentioned in his article, Self Help Groups -Emerging Rural

Enterprises” that in rural areas SHGs utilized the loan for purchasing milch animals, goats and

for meeting personal urgent needs. Some SHGs have purchased power tillers for agriculture

purpose on hire purchase basis. Investment in power tiller will increase their income both

individually and collectively. Hiring out power tiller to peasants is an important

entrepreneurial activity of SHGs. He has also indicated that the SHGs should function as a

non-political and non-controversial one. Political and religious neutrality paves the way for its

healthy growth. He has also expressed that SHG gains momentum nowadays because of its

many-fold effect in the economic empowerment of poor women.

82

Velu Suresh Kumar (2005)62

has mentioned in his article, ‘Women Empowerment

Success through Self Help Groups’, that apart from financial aspects, it also becomes a

platform for exchanging ideas regarding prevention of AIDS, dowry, nutrition, marital laws,

literacy, sanitation, children rearing etc. He has also pointed out that leadership qualities

developed through SHG meetings have seen 2500 women becoming presidents or members of

panchayats and local bodies in the State.

Suguna (2006)63

has pointed out Mahatma Gandhi’s words, “Woman is the companion

of man, gifted with equal mental capacities, she has the right to participate in the activities of

man and she has the same right, freedom and liberty as he has, she is entitled to a supreme

place in her own sphere of activity.

Sakunthalai and Ramakrishnan (2006)64

in their article have said that the concept of

SHG is catching up as the most viable means to empower women, especially at the grass-root

level. Women have shown extraordinary dynamism in organizing themselves in group

activities for income generation; better bargaining power and improvement in the quality of

life. Some advantages through Self-Help Groups in the villages and in the community are

inculcation of the spirit of Self-Help, collective action for development, women begin to form

similar group seeing the success of the other SHGs, family welfare through social awareness

by women, enhanced social status from secondary to primary, economic independence,

voicing and acting against social injustices, problem solving ability and increased

consciousness.

Sujit Kumar Paul (2006)65

has opined in his article on “Women empowerment: The

Changing Scenario Through Self Help Group”, that the level of participation with the

significant thought of development plays a vital role not only to the development of individual

but also to the development of the dwelling domicile. Moreover, these developmental

thoughts not only develop any individuality, but it has strived to hold an authority for the

national economical development.

Anitha and Revenkar (2007)66

made an attempt to study rural development through

micro credit, the growth of SHGs from 1992-93 to 2003-04, and agency-wise SHGs linked on

March 31, 2004. They concluded that the success of SHGs not only improved the economic

status of women, but also brought lot of changes in their social status.

Laxmi (2007)67

reports that SHGs are to supplement credit strategies for meeting the

needs of the poor by combining the flexibility, sensitivity and responsiveness of the informal

credit system with the technical/ administrative capabilities and financial resources of formal

financial institutions to build mutual trust and confidence between bankers and the tribal poor

83

and to encourage banking in a segment of population that formal financial institution usually

find difficult to reach innovative form of financing is imperative.

Kumararaja (2009)68

has made an attempt to evaluate the performance of SHGs in

Tamil Nadu. The study highlights the progress of SHGs in India and in Tamil Nadu. It reveals

that there has been a steady progress in the number of SHGs and amount of loan sanctioned.

The study concludes that a timely and regular check of the micro-credit through SHGs will

contribute to a healthy progress and to the overall development of rural women.

NCSW Report (2009)69

states that Self-Help Groups have taken the form of a

movement for women especially rural women’s social and economical development. SHGs

have arisen out of the perceived problems of women’s lack of access to resources at both the

household and the village level. In the past 20 year, Self-Help Groups have become

significant institutions for rural development in India. This has been particularly true in the

case of poor women.

Nagaraj and Chandrakanth (2009)70

explained that a SHG is a group of about 10 to

20 poor women or men from a similar class and region, forming a savings and credit

organisation by pooling financial resources in order to extend loans to the members at low

interest with far fewer procedural hassles. ‘Savings first’ is the prime ethic of SHGs. The

National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD), Reserve of Bank of India

(RBI) leading NGOs and multilateral agencies included SHG as strategic component to

mitigate poverty.

2.5 STUDIES RELATED TO WOMEN EMPOWERMENT THROUGH NGOs

Ghosh (2001)71

pointed out that combating poverty cannot be managed by the

government alone. There are many areas where government needs collaboration and

cooperation from NGOs particularly in creating opportunity facilitating empowerment and

providing security to the poor. The pressure of the donor agencies on the recipient

government to work through NGOs in development programme is also a dominant factor in

increasing the role of NGOs to fight against poverty.

Bina Agarwal (2001)72

said that the secure and effective land rights are of critical

importance for women’s welfare and empowerment. But achieving this will need concerted

efforts by gender-progressive NGOs, especially women’s groups, as well as by those within

the government who are concerned about women’s empowerment, poverty and equitable

development.

84

M.S. Kallur (2001)73

in his article, “Empowerment of women through NGOs”

highlighted the vital role played by NGOs in the promotion of SHGs. The group approach

brought to the surface many operative latent traditional values like group support, group

action, thrift and empowerment of women.

“NGO initiatives at the grass roots” by Ganesh Bhat (2002)74

stated that the greatest of

all the deficiencies was the lack of emotional attachment between the training institution and

the entrepreneurs the NGO has developed. There were a large number of small NGOs spread

across Tamil Nadu State which were mobilizing and organizing SHGs with little or even no

funds. Their only strength was commitment to the SHG programme. The organizations of

these NGOs worked as front line workers.

Om Raj Singh (2003)75

has indicated in his article ‘Role of NGOs in fostering Self

Help Groups’ that most of the SHGs have come up due to the dynamic leadership of certain

individuals within a group or through the catalytic role played by the NGOs in developing

such groups. One such NGO is the MYREDA (Mysore Resettlement and Development

Agency) whose mission is building of people’s institutions. The building of appropriate

people’s institutions to manage and control resources is an essential component for

sustainability and for the confidence and self-reliance which is necessary to cope with

external threats. He has also pointed out that the focus on institution building goes against the

prevalent culture of patronage where benefits flow to individuals with the right contracts.

MYRADA has over 1006 groups of women with the focus on women’s rights and access to

and control of resources which they require to ensure a sustainable livelihood.

“Foreign aid to NGOs in India“an analysis by P.A. Rego (2005)76

examined the role

and importance of NGOs in rural appraisal for drawing up development plans at a very low

cost and involving the rural community.

Ahmad Shamshad (2005)77

in his article, “NGOs and the development of rural

entrepreneurship” Stated that the development of rural entrepreneurship had gained the status

of a national movement not only for industrial development but also for solving the problem

of unemployment and the uplift of economically weaker sections in rural area. It also

emphasized that the role of NGO is significant primarily at the grass root level.

J.K. Stephen and A. Seilan (2005)78

in their article, “Role of NGOs in micro

financing through SHGs”, pointed out that NGOs have played a vital part in the field of micro

finance through monthly saving of SHG members. NGO’s guidance and motivation are the

major factors in forming SHGs and making the members of SHG to save regularly and

deposit in the bank.

85

Mohanam (2006)79

says that the micro-credit system has particular relevance to

women and their empowerment, considering the historical perspective of the involvement of

women in the thrift and credit activity. The role of NGOs is significant and pronounced in the

sphere of micro-credit. The rich experience of NGOs and their problem is a potential factor

that affirms their elevated role in the sphere of micro-credit.

2.6 STUDIES RELATED TO MICRO FINANCE

Puhazhendhi and Satyasai (2000)80

in their study commissioned by NABARD

covered 560 sample households from 223 SHGs spread over 11 states across India. For

assessing the impact of the programme, a comparison of pre- and post-SHG situation was

made. With a view to quantify the empowerment of SHG members, economic and social

empowerment index was computed for each household by using the scoring technique. The

findings of this study showed 33 per cent rise in average annual income from pre- to post-

SHG situation. Forty per cent of this incremental income was generated by non-farm sector

activities. The estimated employment days per household worked out to 375 person days

during post-SHG situation that had registered an increase of 17 percent from pre-SHG

situation. Sample households took up 200 additional economic activities by utilising 85 per

cent of the borrowed funds for productive purposes. The share of families living below the

poverty line was reduced by 20 per cent in post-SHG situation. The social empowerment of

sample SHG members in terms of self-confidence, involvement in decision-making, better

communication, etc. improved in a significant way.

Sheokand (2000)81

discussed the evolution of Indian banking and its failure to

provide credit facilities to poor people. NABARD started Self Help Group – Bank Linkage

Programme in 1992, which was considered as a landmark development in banking with the

poor. It was observed that Regional Rural Banks’ security-oriented individual banking system

was replaced by the delivery of credit to focused groups. According to him the government

sponsored programmes had occupied much of the economic space but did not achieve the

objective of alleviating poverty. Self Help Group- Bank Linkage Programme had been proved

very successful for the socioeconomic empowerment of hard core poor, providing financial

services to them and preparing them to take up economic activities for poverty alleviation.

Although this programme was not a panacea for the problems of rural poverty, yet it had the

potential for becoming a permanent system of rural lending in the country with full

86

participation from the formal banking system and without any interference from the

government.

Dipendrta Banarjee (2001)82

gives the most acceptable definition of microfinance. It

is the provision of thrift credits, other financial services and products of very small amount to

the poor in rural, semi-urban and urban areas to enable them to raise their income levels and

improve the standard of living. The micro-finance service, unlike direct credit to weaker

sections, and loan under SGSY banking institution has discretion to determine the interest on

micro-credit. The importance of micro-credit in financial markets is progressively gaining

universal acceptance as an effective tool to eradicate poverty and unemployment prevailing in

developing countries. It helps to provide credit for dispossessed people to build business and

empowerment occurs when these people witness effort and outcome. The Central Bank has

left the application of interest rate to loan extended to microcredit organisation or by the

micro-credit organisation to Self-Help Groups / member of beneficiaries to the discretion of

the bank with only stipulation.

Manimekalai and Rajeswari (2001)83

studied the socio-economic background of

self-help group women in rural micro-enterprises in Tamil Nadu and examined the factors

which had motivated the women to become SHG members and eventually as entrepreneurs.

The researchers analysed the nature of economic activities and the performance in terms of

growth indicators such as investment turnover, employment, and sources of finance, product

marketing and other related aspects and identified the problems faced by SHG women in

running the enterprises. The study found that women SHGs earned the highest profit from

agriculture, followed by trade related activities and catering services. A majority of sample

units did not market their products outside the districts but sold these directly to the

customers. The income of the SHG women almost doubled after taking up micro-enterprises.

Majority of the respondents faced serious problems like non availability of raw materials, lack

of infrastructure facilities including marketing, lack of support from family members in

running the enterprises etc. The provision of microfinance by the NGO to the women SHGs

had helped the groups to achieve a measure of economic and social empowerment. It had

developed a sense of leadership, organisational skill, management of various activities of a

business, identifying raw materials, market and suitable diversification and modernisation.

87

Harper (2002)84

studied the differences, outreach and sustainability of the SHG

banking system and Grameen banking system of providing microfinance. SHG bank linkage

and Grameen banking systems dominated the microfinance markets in India and Bangladesh

respectively. In SHG bank linkage system 10 to 20 members formed a group and this group

became an autonomous financial organisation, received loans from the bank in group name

and the group members carried all saving and lending transactions on their own behalf. Thus,

SHG was effectively a micro bank. But in Grameen banking system microfinance participants

organised themselves into groups of five members and each member maintained her

individual saving and loan account with microfinance organisation and the main function of

the group was to facilitate the financial intermediation process. It was also found that both

systems were best suited to their prevailing environments.

Jerinabi (2003)85

in her work “A study on micro credit management by women’s self

help group has analyzed the impact of micro credit on SHG members in improving their

economic status in Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu.

Sabyasachi Das (2003)86

has explained in his article “Self Help Groups and Micro

Credit Synergic Integration” that the inability of the credit institutions to deal with the credit

requirements of the poor effectively has led to the emergence of micro-finance or micro-credit

system as an alternative credit system for the poor. He has also mentioned that in rural India,

it can be seen that the poorer sections of the society and destitute cannot avail the credit from

banks and other formal institutions due to their inability to deposit collateral security and

mortgage property. At this point of view, micro-financing or group lending is being looked

upon as the instrument that can be considered as the golden stick for poverty alleviation vis-a-

vis rural development.

Singh (2003)87

had explained the failure of government initiated anti-poverty

programmes and the success of microfinance programme as an effective poverty alleviation

strategy in India. According to him the government-implemented rural development

programmes failed because these were centrally invented (lacking participation of local level

institutions), politically motivated, had leakages, misappropriation and heavy administrative

expenses.

Rimjhim Mousumi Das (2004)88

in his article “Micro finance through SHGs” has

explained that microfinance through SHGs has become a ladder for the poor to bring them up

not only economically but also socially, mentally and attitudinally. He has also revealed that

88

micro finance not only deals with the credit part but also deals with savings and insurance

part. The most successful region for micro finance is the southern part of India.

Loganathan (2004)89

has disclosed in his article ‘SHGs and Bank Linkages ‘that the

three basic groups of banks which are involved in SHGs linkage. They are the commercial

banks, the regional rural banks and the co-operative banks. 48 commercial banks, 192

regional rural banks and 264 co-operative banks are associated with SHG and Bank Linkage

Programme. This programme is in operation over 523 districts across the nation. Average loan

disbursement per SHG as micro finance by commercial banks was Rs. 31,836 and the same

by RRBs was Rs 26,220 and by cooperative banks was ` 21,703.

Basu and Srivastava (2005)90

in their Rural Finance Access Survey-2003 conducted

jointly by World Bank and National Council of Applied Economic Research, India,

highlighted the inadequacies in rural access to formal finance and the exploitative terms of

informal finance, which provided a strong need for innovative microfinance approaches. The

survey took a sample of 6000 rural households from two Indian states- Andhra Pradesh and

Uttar Pradesh. The study indicated that rural banks serve primarily the needs of the richer

rural borrowers and the rural poor faced severe difficulties in accessing savings and credit

from the formal sector. The survey showed that 66 percent of the large farmers had a deposit

account and 44 per cent had access to credit. While only 30 per cent of the marginal/landless

farmers had a bank account and 87 percent had no access to credit from a formal source. So,

they had to depend on informal sources of finance. Around 44 per cent of the households

surveyed, borrowed informally at least once in preceding 12 months and the interest charged

on informal loans averaged 48 percent per annum. It was also found that the largest uses of

informal loans were for meeting family emergencies (29 per cent) and social expenditures (19

per cent) arising from events such as births, marriages and deaths. Some 13 per cent of

borrowers reported using informal loans for investment related purposes.

Nagayya (2006)91

in his article, ‘Micro-finance for Self-Help Group’ has stated that

the bank and Self-Help Group linkages through financing agencies helps to empower the poor

and mobilizing collective strength to make them self-reliant. He has also stated that

government intervention will not be able to bring a change in intrinsic attitude of the

communities so as to make efficient use of credit sanctioned.

Yamuna (2007)92

studied the changes in the role and status of SHG participants in

Solamadevi village of Coimbatore district. For the purpose of study primary data was

collected from 54 SHG members through an interview schedule. The results of the study

showed that all the participants who received bank loans under this scheme started their own

89

businesses. There was an increase in the income level, savings, value of assets and household

durables after joining the SHGs. It was also found that SHGs had developed women’s

relationships with government department and banking institutions. They had been equipped

with leadership skills through various human resource training programmes and interaction

with other SHGs. Women had got lot of courage and self confidence to speak for their rights

after becoming SHG members.

According to Joshi (2007)93

micro-finance provides credit access to poor with no

collateral obligations. It encourages savings and promotes income-generating activities. Loans

are provided at the market driven rates of interest and peer pressure is used in repayment.

Micro-finance is carried out through Self-Help Groups, where poor come together in the

range of 10-20 by weekly, fortnightly and monthly meetings through their savings and

loaning. It is hoped that through such interventions hitherto uncovered groups are covered

with credit and in the process get empowered.

Sarkar (2008)94

in his paper discussed the new model of microfinance in Bangladesh

and expressed the need of some institutional reforms in the microfinance development

strategy of India. The Grameen Bank had introduced a more flexible credit system named as

Grameen-II. Under this new system, loans of different duration suited to individual needs

were provided. Besides the duration of the loan, the size of weekly installments could be

varied and the borrower could pay less during the lean season and more during the busy

season. All borrowers started with a basic loan. In addition to the basic loan, the same

borrowers were also granted a housing loan and a higher education loan simultaneously. The

most important feature of the flexible loan was that, if borrowers were unable to repay their

loans, they were no longer seen as defaulters; rather they had a legitimate way to remain

within the folds of the organisation so that they may continue to receive loans.

Sangwan (2008)95

empirically ascertained the determinants of financial inclusion and

studied the relevance of Self Help Groups (SHGs) in achieving financial inclusion. For the

purpose of the study, the cross-section data of 42 Regions from different states and UTs of

India was used. The coverage under financial inclusion was assessed in terms of percentage of

adults having credit and saving bank accounts. In order to find out the determinants of

financial inclusion a multiple regression technique was applied. The empirical evidence of

impact of bank branch density, level of income, literacy and SHG membership on financial

inclusion was estimated with this technique. It was found that as on March 2006, the financial

90

inclusion of adults above 19 years of age was 63 percent in terms of saving accounts and 16

per cent in terms of credit accounts and about 37 percent adults in India did not use financial

services. The regression equations estimated with cross section data of States revealed that the

branch density had positive and significant coefficient with the percentage of adults having

saving as well as credit accounts. The coefficient of per capita income was also positive and

significant. Literacy percentage had surprisingly negative relationship with both percentage of

saving as well as credit accounts of adults. It may be partly because of lack of financial

education among the educated ones. The results substantiated that the persons having low

income and less geographical access to bank (e.g., agricultural labourers, marginal and small

farmers, migrant labourers, tribal and women) were excluded from the financial inclusion.

The regression equations were also estimated by including percentage of adult covered in

SHGs, the variable had positive association with the level of financial inclusion especially in

credit accounts. It suggested that SHGs could play significant role in achieving the financial

inclusion especially for women and low-income families.

Sarswathy (2009)96

has analyzed the role of micro-finance in Krishnagiri district. She

highlights the role of Government of India, NABARD, NGO and banks. The study reveals

that majority of members agree to the point that their income has increased after joining SHG.

It concludes that SHGs have become the development ambassador of villages.

Nagayya and Koteswara Rao (2010)97

state that micro-finance refers to credit

provided to the poor for self-employment and other financial and business services. They

reviewed the recent trends in the SHG-Bank linkage programme at National and State level

with special reference to Andhra Pradesh in detail and certain aspects of the other three

southern States, viz. Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala.

2.7 CONCLUSION

The review of literature brings to light that extensive studies have already been made

at macro level with regard to support services of NGOs, SHGs and banks for the

empowerment of women in economic and social spheres in various regions. The findings of

the previous studies have helped the researcher to identify and formulate the research problem

for the study at the micro level with regard to women development under Mahalir Thittam in

Ramanathapuram district through the selected 10 NGOs and their allied SHGs during the

given period.

91

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