Societies at Crossroads

Chapter 31

Intro: The Ottoman Empire in Decline• Military weakening and loss of territory• Increasing foreign economic influence and power• Internal issues• Attempts at reform

The Nature of Decline• Military Decline: expansion was over and began

losing territory• Due to outdated training, tech, tactics, strategy,

and breakdown of Janisseries • -> increasing vulnerability and decreasing

effectiveness (private armies in provinces, provincial autonomy, including tax collection)

• -> territorial losses: to Russia, to Austria, in Balkans, Egypt

The Nature of Decline (cont.)• Loss of Egypt: started with pol. Turmoil from

Napoleon’s war -> General Muhammad Ali seized power with Euro-style army (r. 1805-1848)– Industrialized (cotton textiles, armaments)– Invaded Syria and Anatolia, but stopped by British

before overthrowing sultan (to keep Russia from gaining land)

– Egypt -> autonomous

The Nature of Decline (cont.)• Economic difficulties: decreasing volume of trade

(due to direct trade between Europe and Asia and shift to Atlantic basin)– 18th/19th centuries: importing cheap European items -

> hurt local producers -> riots– Exports = raw materials -> fiscal insolvency and

financial dependency on foreign loans (with lots of interest -> inability to pay debts -> foreign administration of debts)

The Nature of Decline (cont.)• -> European extraterritoriality (= exemption from

Ottoman law in empire) = intrusion on sovereignty • By early 20th century: couldn’t maintain

bureaucracy -> decreasing morale, increasing corruption, increasing taxes -> peasant issues

Reform and Reorganization• Need to strengthen and preserve the state• 17th century: limits on taxes, increasing agri, end

to corruption• 18th century: Sultan Selim III – Euro-style army

(Janissery issues: revolt, they killed new troops, locked up sultan, killed male heirs, Mahmud II becomes sultan)

Reform and Reorganization (cont.)• Reforms of Mahmud II (r. 1808-1839): restore Ottoman

tradition, but more Janissery issues (-> massacre)• Western influenced reforms– Army: weapons, tactics, training, Euro trainers– Education: secondary schools – Centralization of power: taxes on rural landlords, abolition

of military land grants, undermining of ulama, Euro-style bureaucracy (ministries)

– Modernization: roads, telegraph lines, postal service• -> smaller, but more manageable and powerful

Reform and Reorganization (cont.)• Tanzimat era (1838-1876): even more reform

(inspired by Enlightenment, constitutional states)– Army– Legal system (to reduce need for extraterr.): French-

style law codes; protect indiv. Rights, still some religious law, but undermined ulama, enhanced state power

– Education: primary, secondary, and university system; primary became free and compulsory

Reform and Reorganization (cont.)• Opposition to Tanzimat reforms: – Religious conservatives: = threat to Islam (esp.

equality of Jews and Christians)– Minority leaders: = took their power as intermediaries – Young Ottomans: wanted indiv. Freedoms, local

autonomy, and political decentralization; constitutional gov’t

– Ottoman bureaucrats: wanted constitution to check sultan’s power

Reform and Reorganization (cont.)• 1876: bureaucrats seized power in a coup:

formed cabinet, installed new sultan, constitution to limit sultan’s power, established a parliament– But, sultan eliminated constitution, dissolved

parliament, exiled or executed liberals and ruled as autocrat for 30 years

– Continued reforms, sponsored econ. dev (railroad)

The Young Turks• Liberal opposition arose, exposure to Europe

increased, call for political reform• Most active = Young Turks (1889, Paris, exiles,

used newspapers to get support)– Wanted: universal suffrage, equality before law,

freedom of religion, free public edu, secularization of the state, emancipation of women

– 1908: coup restored parliament, constitution, puppet sultan (Mehmed V Rashid)

The Young Turks (cont.)• But, in trying to maintain empire, pushed for

Turkish as official language -> tension and Arab resistance

• Reforms couldn’t stop decline: lost more wars, subjects wanted autonomy or independence

• Only survived because Europe feared imbalance of power if Ottoman Empire collapsed

Intro: The Russian Empire Under Pressure

• Military weakening: outdated tech. and lack of industrialization

• Gov’t reform: emancipation of serfs, industrialization, but no political change

• Opposition movements -> revolution

Military Defeat• Russia = huge, diverse empire ruled through autocratic

government, plus support of church and nobles, while peasants were serfs -> social stability

• Tried to maintain tradition of expansion in 19th century: E -> Manchuria, S -> Caucasus and C. Asia, SW -> Mediterranean– Balkans: defeated Turks in 1828-29, and wanted to take over

Ottoman Empire– Crimean War: v. Europe, to maintain balance of power;

defeated, due to outdated military => agrarian economy with unfree labor couldn’t support expansionism -> need to restructure

Social Reform• Growing opposition to serfdom for moral and

economic reasons, and as source of rural instability

• 1861: Czar Alexander II freed the serfs – compensated landowners, serfs were free of labor obligations and had opportunity to own land (but few pol rights and

lots of taxes on land -> many went into debt)

Political and Legal Reform• 1864 - political reform: local elected assemblies

(zemstvos) – represented all classes, but nobles had more seats/votes and subordinate to czar

• 1864 – legal reform: Euro-style court system, trial by jury, elected justices of the peace -> less corruption

Industrialization• Serfs were supposed to = mobile labor force for

industry• But, gov’t was driving force for pol/mil goals, not

capitalists (like in Europe)• The Witte System: policies to support

industrialization – railroads (e.g., Trans-Siberian railway = change in Siberia), revamp of state bank, encouragement of industry with high protective tariffs, loans from Europe for steel, coal, and petroleum industries

Industrial Discontent• Workers had low standard of living and discontent

over factory work, urban conditions, gov’t ban on unions and strikes-> strikes, rebellions– This, plus lack of pol freedom -> receptive of

revolutionary ideas -> underground movements• The growing business class, however, prospered

so didn’t challenge the government

Repression and Revolution• Late 1800s: anti-gov’t protest, revolutionary

activity, reform movements (esp. the intelligentsia – wanted pol reform and social change inspired by socialism)

• 1873-76: anarchists and radicals sought support in rural areas (many arrested/exiled to Siberia)– -> gov’t policy of repression (censorship, secret police)

-> more radicalization

Repression and Revolution (cont.)• Other issues: ethnic tension in Baltic areas, etc. ->

separatist movements -> gov’t policy of Russification

• Anti-Semitism: pogroms -> Jewish migrations to W. Eur. and U.S.

Terrorism and More Expansion• Land and Freedom Party promote assassination of

pol figures to encourage pol reform -> 1881, kill Czar Alexander II -> end of gov’t reform and more repression

• 1894: Czar Nicholas II – more oppression (police control), expansion efforts (Russo-Japanese war over Korea and Manchuria) ending in defeat of Russian navy

The Revolution of 1905• Military defeat + pol and social discontent = ongoing

disturbances• 1905: Bloody Sunday massacre of protesting workers -> more

protests• Peasants plan to seize nobles’ land• Urban workers form elected councils (soviets) to organize strikes

and negotiate with employers and gov’t • -> gov’t had to make concessions: Duma (elected legislative

assembly; but weak)• Also, disorder in Baltic areas, Poland, Ukraine, Georgia, C. Asia

over ethnic tension + revolutionary ideas• Gov’t maintained order, but through lots of force

Intro: The Chinese Empire Under Siege• 19th century China: lots of problems• External: defeats and domination by Europeans• Internal: poverty, drugs, rebellion• -> reform programs• Largely ineffectual -> continued weakening

Opium• Late 1700s: restrictions and control of foreign trade and

little demand for foreign goods (-> traded in silver bullion) = isolationism

• British East India Company wanted more profit -> began trading in opium (for goods plus silver) -> rapid expansion (=addiction)

• Illegal, but corruption kept gov’t from doing anything• By 1830s, = huge problem: draining silver, social

problems• 1838-39: gov’t tried to stop trade by destroying lots of

opium form BEI Co. warehouses

Opium (cont.)• Britain retaliated -> Opium War (1839-42)• Showed British military superiority• End of war -> unequal treaty that took away sovereignty– 1842 Treaty of Nanjing: Hong Kong, new trading ports, most-

favored nation status, extraterritoriality• [defeats and unequal treaties with other European

powers -> legalization of opium trade, Christian missionaries, more ports, no tariffs]

• => foreign control of economy plus loss of tributary states

The Taiping Rebellion• 1850-64: due to peasant poverty and discontent

(agricultural production fell behind pop. increase)• Inspired by Hong Xiuquan (JC’s lil bro??) to prepare for

kingdom of heaven– Wanted to destroy Qing dynasty and radical social change

(= equality, abolish private property, communal wealth, prohibit footbinding and concubines, free public education, simplified written language, literacy for all)

• Lots of followers, spread from SE, took over Nanjing (1853) and other whole towns

The Taiping Rebellion (cont.)• Qing created regional armies of Han Chinese with

scholar-gentry commanders, and western advisors and weapons -> defeated rebels

• Results: lots of people died, agricultural production decreased even more, need for reform

Reform Frustration• Foreign and internal issues -> need for change• Self-Strengthening movement (1860-95): wanted to

blend Chinese tradition with western industrial technology– -> agrarianism, shipyards, railroads, weapon industries,

steel foundries, academies, authority to local leaders• Generally failed: little social or economic change,

opposition (Empress Dowager Cixi), contradictory goals, but, formed foundation of industrialization

Spheres of Influence• Continuing foreign intrusion– Dismantling of tributary states (Vietnam, Burma,

Korea)– 1898: foreign countries divided China into spheres of

influence, where they built railroads and had mineral rights -> kept China from completely falling

The Hundred Days Reforms• 1898: Confucian scholars wanted radical changes

in imperial system, with support of emperor– Constitutional monarchy, civil liberties, end of

corruption, new education system, foreign influence, modern military, economic development

• Many opposed reforms, including aunt Cixi (imprisoned emperor, nullified reforms, and executed reformers)

The Boxer Rebellion• Cixi-supported anti-foreigner movement• 1899, Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists:

killed foreigners and Chinese Christians, then attacked embassies– Foreign troops crushed the movement: gov’t had to pay

and allow them to station troops in Beijing -> weakening of Qing

• 1908: Cixi appoints 2 year old emperor• 1911: revolution• 1912: abdication of last Qing emperor

The Transformation of Japan• Crisis: early 1800s – turmoil (decreasing

agricultural production, crop failures, high taxes -> poverty, starvation) -> many sold land and became tenant farmers, others moved to cities– Even daimyo and samurai were in debt

• -> protest and reform• Reform: 1841-43 – cancelled daimyo and samurai

debts, abolished merchant guilds, pushed peasants back to the countryside to grow rice– Largely ineffective and lots of opposition

Foreign Pressure in Japan• Plus, starting in mid-1800s, westerners wanted

trade relations (esp. US for whaling/merchant ships for fuel and provisions)– Maintained isolationist policies, except Dutch

• 1853: US Navy steamships arrive and demand diplomatic and trade relations -> shogun agreed, other westerners followed

• -> unequal treaties: ports for foreign commerce, no tariffs, extraterritoriality

The End of Tokugawa Rule• Foreign intrusion -> domestic crisis -> Fall of

shogunate and return of imperial rule• Opposition of shogun for deals with foreigners• -> civil war: foreign-trained and armed opposition

won and shogun resigned

Meiji Reforms• Empire returned to power with 2 goals:

prosperity and strength• Looked to west for knowledge/expertise: sent

students and officials to study everything (from constitutional gov’t to education to military and industry) and hired foreign advisors

• To centralize power, old order had to be destroyed: daimyo gave up land (became prefectures with governors)

and samurai class abolished

Meiji Reforms (cont.)• 1873: fixed-money taxes (= predictable revenue

for gov’t) and depended on potential productivity of land (=without max. productivity -> debt)

• 1880s: constitutional monarchy with legislature (Diet), but with less power than the executive branch; some individual rights (but, could be limited by law and property was required to vote)

Meiji Reforms (cont.)• Economy: modernization (telegraph, railroad,

steamship lines) -> national economic network– Removed barriers to trade– Universal primary and secondary education and

universities for advanced instruction• -> industrial and economic growth• Some privately owned enterprises, some gov’t

owned (at first; then sold to private investors)

Costs of Economic Development• Peasants supplied capital through high taxes and

textile production (at very low wages)• 1883-84: peasant uprisings put down by military• Peasant life was difficult: extreme poverty,

malnutrition, starvation, infanticide, ban on labor unions/strikes (in cities)

Meiji Reforms (cont.)• On big scale: successful -> Japan as political and

economic equal to west• 1899: end of extraterritoriality• 1902: equal alliance with Britain• 1894/95 and 1904/5: military victories over China

and Russia, respectively