Societal Multilingualism Theme 5

SOCIETAL MULTILINGUALISM

Theme 5

Language Contact

What is language contact?

What are the linguistic outcomes of language contact?

How does language contact contribute to linguistic developments within the languages in contact?

In what ways is language contact interrelated with other linguistic and sociolinguistic processes at work in the involved languages?

Where two or more languages share a common geographic context (Brussels) or where one language stops being used by speakers and a different language is used (the existence of an international border), a situation of language contact is encountered.

There are many factors that play a role in multilingualism and language contact and a larger number of outcomes from such a situation

Language Contact

In areas close to international borders, speakers of each of the different languages often develop a continuum, they speak dialects of their own languages which are close enough to the other language to permit successful communication (e.g.: people living on the two sides of the border between Portugal and Spain normally understand each other without any problem, a situation that would be most unlikely between people coming from further away in Portugal and Spain).

Language Contact

Diachronic perspective - a contact situation between languages may result in the loss of one of the languages, if they are in a power relationship, or in the merging of both, if both languages have equal status and social consideration.

Language contact is the main source of language evolution and language change over time. (Diachronic variation)

Language Contact

In some cases, socially or psychologically weakened groups, or groups reduced in number, might move towards assimilation of the dominant language (and culture).

When those groups are numerous or if they have a strong cultural tradition, the most likely outcome is opposition and resistance to the dominant group, resulting in language conflict.

Language contact

Language contact can cause political conflict.

Belgium conforms a bilingual state but it contains Walloon speakers of French dialects, Flemish speakers of Dutch dialects, and speakers of German dialects. There, a dominant language group (French) controls administration, politics and economy, presumably giving employment preferences to applicants who have command of the dominant language (Hans Nelde, 2002).

Language Contact

Think about the linguistic situation in your speech community. Expand on the positive and negative effects that multilingualism might have on your society. If you already live in a multilingual speech community, describe the situation and the effects of multilingualism.

Language Contact

Analyze each of the following statements. Expand on each item providing your opinion and supporting your arguments.

a) Creoles are not real languages and, therefore, they should not be used as a medium of instruction or in the media.

b) In multilingual countries, it is too expensive and often time consuming to instruct children in various languages.

c) Bilingualism is rather infrequent and it normally interferes with the child cognitive development.

Language Contact

In multilingual situations languages are frequently in some sort of conflict caused by ideological, political or economic reasons.

Some issues typically generate problems in multilingual settings such as decisions regarding the election of an official language, the choice of a given language for formal education, or the selection of a language to be used in courts, among others.

Language Conflict

The existence of bilingual and multilingual societies raises important social, political and educational issues.

In what languages should education be delivered, and at what levels?

What languages should be accepted for publication and broadcasting?

In what languages should laws be written, and what languages should be accepted in court proceedings?

Language Conflict

Another typical situation of language conflict occurs when two or more languages compete for status in society.

Many current language conflicts result form different social status and government's preferential treatment of the language domains .

Language Conflict

Language conflicts can be viewed as natural or artificial language conflicts.

Natural language conflicts have been traditionally, caused by political decisions regarding majority or minority social groups.

Assimilation or opposition represents the key factor in language conflict.

Language Conflict

That type of conflict is seen in Canada with the French-speaking community or in Spain with the Basque-speaking community and it intensifies when ideological or political arguments are posed and intertwine with linguistic ones.

Artificial language conflicts arise when a compromise is attained and a language is disfavored.

The European union, for instance, faces the problem of what languages should be officially spoken within the EU.

Language Conflict

What is a minority language and what kinds of problems such a language faces?

A language spoken by a minority of the population of a territory.

Such people are labeled as linguistic minorities or language minorities.

Minority languages

Minority languages are occasionally marginalized within nations for a number of reasons. These include:

- the small number of speakers

- the decline in the number of speakers

- their occasional consideration as uncultured, primitive, or simple dialects when compared to the dominant language.

Minority Languages & Politics

Support for minority languages is sometimes viewed as supporting separatism, for example the on-going revival of the Celtic languages (Irish, Welsh, Scottish Gaelic, Manx, Cornish and Breton).

Immigrant minority languages are often also seen as a threat and as indicative of the non-integration of these communities.


Both of these perceived threats are based on the notion of the exclusion of the majority language speakers.

Often this is added to by political systems by not providing support (such as education and policing) in these languages.


As seen the term presents certain difficulties of definition but it seems safe to say that a minority language will exhibit some at least of the features that will be listed.

The problem can be summed up as the danger of the language becoming extinct.


a) A minority language lives in the shadow of a culturally dominant language, dominant usually because of political factors, which puts the minority language at risk.

e.g. many of the languages that the Bolivian constitution recognize as official live in the shadow of Spanish. In many cases the absolute number of speakers of the minority language is declining.

Minority languages

b) A minority language is not the language of all areas of activity. It may be excluded from formal spheres such as administration, education, or the mass media and may be confined to the home, religious life, or literature.

c) Bilingualism is a characteristic of its speakers. Also, they are said to form a network rather than a community. No urban centers that could be described as for their language name.

Minority languages

d) Lack of vocabulary because the dominant language is used for discussing certain topics - vocabulary may be influenced by that of the dominant language to the extent of accepting borrowings where native terms exist.

The following phenomenon can be observed:

Reluctance on the part of native speakers to speak the language to learners or even to native speakers from different dialect areas.

Minority languages

Because the language may lack areas of vocabulary, or because there is no standard, or because speakers are completely bilingual (differences of dialect present barriers to mutual comprehension)

Thus the minority language becomes the marker of increasingly small in-groups

Minority languages

Language shift in minority languages

Pressure from one language on speakers of other languages to adopt it.

Language shift for practical reasons Job

Education

Business

Pressure from the

host society

Language shift is expected

A sign of successful assimilation

Language shift

Displacement of a minority mother tongue language by the language of the wider society (majority) over time

Local majority

Immigrant minority

Common in migrant communities or communities under military occupation.


What factors lead to language shift?

Economic, social and political factors

Demographic factors

Attitudes and values

Death of Speakers


Economic, social and political factors

1. Getting a job - reason for learning another language (Young men moving to urban centers)

2. The dominant language is associated with social status and prestige

3. The pressure of institutional domains such as schools and the media

4. Political influences (Conquest, language policy: official language - assimilatory education)


Demographic factors

1. Language shift is faster in urban areas than rural ones

2. The size of the group is sometimes a critical factor

3. Intermarriage between groups can accelerate language shift

4. Aging population in the community


Attitudes and values

1. Language shift is slower among communities where the minority language is highly valued,

2. When the language is seen as an important symbol of ethnic identity its generally maintained longer.


Why should we care about language loss?

Loss of a language = loss of a culture

Every language reflects a unique world-view and culture complex (Wurm 1991)

Do you agree with the above statement?

Can you think of any other reasons to account for language maintenance?

How can a minority language be maintained?

Documentation and archivization

Intergenerational transmission

Vernacularization

Changing the society

Language Use

Not only traditional, but also modern context

Not only in the classroom, but outside the classroom

Factors Encouraging Language Maintenance and Language Loss

Linguistic factors

Maintenance: Mother tongue is standardized and exists in written form

Loss: Mother tongue is non-standard and/or not in written form

Maintenance: Use of an alphabet which makes printing and literacy relatively easy

Loss: Use of writing system which is expensive to reproduce and difficult to learn

Linguistic factors

Maintenance: Home language has international status

Loss: Home language of little or no international importance

Maintenance: Home Language literacy used in community and with homeland

Loss: Illiteracy in the home language

Linguistic factors

Maintenance: Flexibility in the development of the home language (e.g. limited use of new terms from the majority language).

Loss: No tolerance of new terms from majority language; or too much tolerance of loan words leading to mixing and eventual language loss.

Cultural factors

Maintenance: Mother tongue institutions (e.g. schools, community organizations)

Loss: Lack of Mother-tongue institutions mass media, leisure activities.

Maintenance: Cultural and religious ceremonies in the home language.

Loss: Cultural and religious activity in the majority language.

Cultural factors

Maintenance: Ethnic identity strongly tied to home language

Loss: Ethnic identity defined by factors other than language.

Maintenance: Nationalistic aspirations as a language group

Loss: Few nationalistic aspirations

Cultural factors

Maintenance: Mother tongue the homeland language.

Loss: Mother tongue not the only homeland national language.

Maintenance: Emotional attachment to mother tongue giving self-identity and ethnicity.

Loss: Self-identity derived from factors other than shared home language.

Cultural factors

Maintenance: Emphasis on family ties and community cohesion.

Loss: Low emphasis on family and community ties. High emphasis on individual achievement.

Maintenance: Emphasis on education to enhance ethnic awareness controlled by language.

Loss: No emphasis on education to enhance ethnic awareness.

Cultural factors

Maintenance: Low emphasis on education if in majority language.

Loss: Acceptance of majority language education.

Maintenance: Culture unlike majority language.

Loss: Culture and religion similar to that of the majority language.

Ethnolinguistic vitality

How can we predict the likelihood that a language will be maintained?

By measuring its ethnolinguistic vitality.

Factor 1: Intergenerational

transmission

Factor 2: Number of Speakers

Factor 3: Proportion of

Speakers within the total

Population

Factor 4: Existing Language

Domains

Factor 5: Response to New

Domains and Media

Factor 6: Materials for

Language Education and

Literacy

Factor 7: Governmental

and Institutional Language Attitudes

and Policies

Factor 8: Community Members Attitudes

Factor 9: Amount and

Quality of Documentation

Ethnolinguistic vitality

Language and Politics

Politics is concerned with power, the power to

- make decisions,

- control resources,

- control other people's behavior and often

- control their values.

Even the most everyday decisions can be seen in a political light

How can language be used to achieve political ends?

Language used in the exercise of political power to control minority groups by:

- banning languages

- including minorities in government participation

- rewarding the fact of being bilingual


What are the rhetorical devices used by politicians to make an impact on the public?

Much of their success is due to their skillful use of rhetoric as they attempt to persuade their audience of the validity of their views.

Subtle uses of language in politics

Using a regional or social dialect by a political leader is often a claim to a specialized identity.


Language conflict

Language contact can cause political conflict. e.g. Belgium being a bilingual state contains Walloon speakers of French dialects, Flemish speakers of Dutch dialects, and speakers of German dialects.


The dominant language group (French) controls administration, politics and economy, presumably giving employment preferences to applicants who have command of the dominant language (Hans Nelde, 2002).


Natural and artificial language conflicts

Natural language conflicts caused by political decisions regarding majority or minority social groups.

Assimilation or opposition represents the key factor in language conflict.


This type of conflict is seen in Canada with the French-speaking community or in Spain with the Basque-speaking community and it intensifies when ideological or political arguments are posed and intertwine with linguistic ones.



KFC becomes PFK (Poulet Frait de la Kentucky).

Artificial language conflicts arise when a compromise is attained and a language is favored or disfavored.

The European union, for instance, faces the problem of what languages should be officially spoken within the EU.


The twenty-five member states in 2005 spoke twenty-two different official languages which turned their headquarters in Brussels into a veritable Tower of Babel and the tasks of translation and interpretation into a daunting enterprise.


The decision to adopt English, French and German as the official working languages in the EU has raised conflicts with countries that also felt they deserved this consideration of language for international communication.


Linguistic Rights

In 1996, a world-wide representation of non-governmental organizations with the support of the UNESCO approved The Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights (UDLR) in Barcelona, Spain.

What was the purpose of this document?

Linguistic Rights

- To turn the world's nations' attention to the problems arising from a globalized world with greater movements of people

- To preserve everyone's right to a language identity.

Linguistic Rights

The original document contains 52 articles and some additional dispositions embracing many aspects of linguistic rights.

PRELIMINARY TITLE

Concepts

TITLE ONE

General Principles

SECOND TITLE

Overall linguistic rgime

Section I

Public administration and official bodies

Section II

Education

Section III

Proper names

Section IV

Communications media and new technologies

Section V

Culture

Section VI

The socioeconomic sphere

ADDITIONAL DISPOSITIONS

Language Rights

Linguistic Rights

Some of the general principles that this document tries to establish are the following:

Linguistic Rights

1. The UDLR safeguards the personal rights to adhere to a linguistic identity and to develop one's own culture.

2. The UDLR considers that all language communities are equal and therefore merit official recognition in all kinds of social, political and economic respects (e.g., education, law, trade, public administration, etc.).

Linguistic Rights

3. The UDLR is especially concerned about the role that education plays in the maintenance and spread of a language and therefore states that education must help to maintain and develop the language spoken by the language community. In addition to this, it encourages the most extensive possible command of any other language they may wish to know. (Art.26).

Linguistic Rights

4. The UDLR claims the right to use proper names and place names in the language specific to the territory, both orally and in writing.

5. The UDLR supports the right to decide the extent to which a minority language should be present in the media in a given territory and to receive a thorough knowledge of its cultural heritage through it.

Linguistic Rights

6. The UDLR declares the right to preserve their linguistic and cultural heritage.

7. The UDLR watches over the right to use the language in all socioeconomic activities and to have full legal validity.

Linguistic Rights

What made the document have far-reaching implications in recent years?

The social recognition and acceptance of minority languages around the world.

There exists, nevertheless, some controversy over its fundamentals.

Linguistic Rights

Article 1

1. This Declaration considers as a language community any human society established historically in a particular territorial space, whether this space be recognized or not, which identifies itself as a people and has developed a common language as a natural means of communication and cultural cohesion among its members. The term language specific to a territory refers to the language of the community historically established in such a space.

Linguistic Rights

Brumfit (1995) considers that this document is based on the idea of "language communities" and little account is taken of the language rights of individuals.

He finds little room for individual choice in favor of the imposition of a language identity.

Linguistic Rights

Article 1

5. This Declaration considers as a language group any group of persons sharing the same language which is established in the territorial space of another language community but which does not possess historical antecedents equivalent to those of that community. Examples of such groups are immigrants, refugees, deported persons and members of diasporas.

Linguistic Rights

Brumfit also criticizes the restrictive definition of "language community " as referring to a people being historically established in a territory as opposed to the notion of "language group" which refers to a group of persons sharing the same language but which does not posses historical antecedents (article 1.1 and 1.5).

Linguistic Rights

e. g. The long-standing Greek-speaking population in Australia and the Turkish-speaking population in Germany would fall into a second-class category as they would be considered "language groups" but not "language communities".

How long does a language group need to exist in order to qualify as a community?

Linguistic Rights

Brumfit also refers to the lack of references in the document regarding the situation in countries where a language is used to avoid giving one language, among many historicaily established ones, a prioritv over the others, which could eventually give rise to a number of conflicts (in former colonies that nowadays use English or French for interethnic communication).

Linguistic Rights

Linguistic rights include, among others, the right to one's own language in legal, administrative and judicial acts, language education, and media in a language understood and freely chosen by those concerned.

Linguistic rights in international law are usually dealt in the broader framework of cultural and educational rights.

Linguistic Rights - task

Read the full text of The universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights and choose 3 articles and comment on them providing your own point of view.

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Societal Multilingualism Theme 5