Social Welfare Administration

Social Welfare Administration 2012

SOCIAL WELFARE ADMINISTRATION

Administration

Administration is a cooperative human effort towards achieving some common goals. The word administration has been derived from the Latin words ‘ad’ and ‘ministrate’ which means to serve. In simple language, it means the ‘management of affairs’ or ‘looking after the people’.

L.D. White (1948) views that, “the art of administration is the direction, coordination and control of many persons to achieve some purpose or objective.”

According to Herbert A. Simon (1960), “In its broadest sense, administration can be defined as the activities of groups co-operative to accomplish common goals.”

Organization

An organization is defined as, “a social unit of people, systematically structured and managed to meet a need or to pursue collective goals on a continuing basis.” All organizations have a management structure that determines relationships between functions and positions, and subdivides and delegates roles, responsibilities, and authority to carry out defined tasks. Organizations are open systems in that they affect and are affected by the environment beyond their boundaries.

One way to ‘measure’ organizational types is by using OCAI, the Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument. This system is quite popular due to its effective and simple nature. Two primary characteristics are measured by this system:

The ratio of stability versus flexibility, and

The ratio of internal versus external mindedness.

Based on these two dimensions, four types of organizations can be discerned, which are briefly discussed here.

1. Hierarchical Organization

The hierarchical organization is very effective in a relatively stable environment, where the efficient and predictable delivering of products is its main reason of existence. Following the rules and procedures is of the utmost importance here. These types of organizations are often characterized by a machine bureaucracy with a role culture. For example, McDonald’s (think standardization and efficiency) and the Ford Motor Company with their seventeen levels of management.

1 Mrs. Jinu Abraham, Asst. Professor, Social Work Dept., LISSAH


2. Market Organization

In a more competitive environment, hierarchical organizations are no longer that effective, since they are too ‘internal minded’. A more external minded organization is required in such conditions. This type is called the market organization and is strongly focused on the result of the production processes. The economical and political environment is perceived as dangerous and is approached aggressively. The focus in this type of organization lies primarily on the results and productivity. The feeling that holds the company together is that feeling of being better than the competition. Here, a task culture dominates. General Electric, under the leadership of former CEO Jack Welch, is a good example of a market organization. He famously announced that if businesses divisions were not first or second in their markets then, simply, they would be sold. Their corporate culture was (and still largely is) highly competitive where performance results speak louder than process.

3. Family Organization

In a family organization (which is most often a professional bureaucracy) the idea that success is a consequence of individual development, teamwork and shared norms and values is paramount. The freedom of action for the individual employee is cherished. This type of organization is characterized by a lot of attention for the individual and a strong sense of solidarity. The culture in this type of company is a personal culture. A good example of a family organization in American business is Tom’s of Maine, which produces all-natural toothpastes, soaps, and other hygiene products. The founder, Tom Chappell, grew the company to respect relationships with co-workers, customers, owners, agents, suppliers, the community, and the environment. According to their company statement of beliefs, they aim to provide their employees with “a safe and fulfilling environment and an opportunity to grow and learn.” Typical of family organization cultures, Tom’s of Maine, is like an extended family with high morale and Tom himself takes on the role of mentor or parental figure.

4. Adhocracy

In an adhocracy, the temporary character of the organization is the central tenet. This is a consequence of the central position of innovation and fast adaptation to new situations. Hierarchical power levels are missing and someone’s influence can strongly fluctuate based on the problem that is being solved. In cultural perspective, creativity, entrepreneurship and a dynamical attitude dominate. The overall task is innovation and the production of unique and original services and products. The dominant culture in this type of organization is a combination of a task and personal culture. High-tech companies like Google are prototypical adhocracy. Google develops innovative web tools, taking advantage of entrepreneurial software engineers and cutting-edge processes and technologies. Their ability to quickly



develop new services and capture market share has made them leaders in the marketplace and forced less nimble competition to play catch-up.

Management

Management is the process of reaching organizational goals by working with and through people and other organizational resources. It has the following 3 characteristics:

1. It is a process or series of continuing and related activities.

2. It involves and concentrates on reaching organizational goals.

3. It reaches these goals by working with and through people and other organizational resources.

Principles of Management

There are 14 Principles of Management described by Henri Fayol.

1. Division of Labour

Henry Fayol has stressed on the specialization of jobs. He recommended that work of all kinds must be divided & subdivided and allotted to various persons according to their expertise in a particular area. Subdivision of work makes it simpler and results in efficiency. It also helps the individual in acquiring speed, accuracy in his performance. Specialization leads to efficiency & economy in spheres of business.

2. Party of Authority & Responsibility

Authority & responsibility are co-existing. If authority is given to a person, he should also be made responsible. In a same way, if anyone is made responsible for any job, he should also have concerned authority. Authority refers to the right of superiors to get exactness from their sub-ordinates whereas responsibility means obligation for the performance of the job assigned. There should be a balance between the two i.e. they must go hand in hand. Authority without responsibility leads to irresponsible behaviour whereas responsibility without authority makes the person ineffective.

3. Principle of One Boss

A sub-ordinate should receive orders and be accountable to one and only one boss at a time. In other words, a sub-ordinate should not receive instructions from more than one person because:

It undermines authority



Weakens discipline

Divides loyalty

Creates confusion

Delays and chaos

Escaping responsibilities

Duplication of work

Overlapping of efforts

Therefore, dual sub-ordination should be avoided unless and until it is absolutely essential. Unity of command provides the enterprise a disciplined, stable & orderly existence. It creates harmonious relationship between superiors and sub-ordinates.

4. Unity of Direction

Fayol advocates one head one plan which means that there should be one plan for a group of activities having similar objectives. Related activities should be grouped together. There should be one plan of action for them and they should be under the charge of a particular manager. According to this principle, efforts of all the members of the organization should be directed towards common goal. Without unity of direction, unity of action cannot be achieved. In fact, unity of command is not possible without unity of direction.

5. Equity

Equity means combination of fairness, kindness & justice. The employees should be treated with kindness & equity if devotion is expected of them. It implies that managers should be fair and impartial while dealing with the subordinates. They should give similar treatment to people of similar position. They should not discriminate with respect to age, caste, sex, religion, relation etc. Equity is essential to create and maintain cordial relations between the managers and sub-ordinate. But equity does not mean total absence of harshness. Fayol was of opinion that, “at times force and harshness might become necessary for the sake of equity”.

6. Order

This principle is concerned with proper & systematic arrangement of things and people. Arrangement of things is called material order and placement of people is called social order. Material order- There should be safe, appropriate and specific place for every article and every place to be effectively used for specific activity and commodity. Social order- Selection



and appointment of most suitable person on the suitable job. There should be a specific place for everyone and everyone should have a specific place so that they can easily be contacted whenever need arises.

7. Discipline

According to Fayol, “Discipline means sincerity, obedience, respect of authority & observance of rules and regulations of the enterprise”. This principle applies that subordinate should respect their superiors and obey their order. It is an important requisite for smooth running of the enterprise. Discipline is not only required on path of subordinates but also on the part of management. Discipline can be enforced if:

There are good superiors at all levels.

There are clear & fair agreements with workers.

Sanctions (punishments) are judiciously applied.

8. Initiative

Workers should be encouraged to take initiative in the work assigned to them. It means eagerness to initiate actions without being asked to do so. Fayol advised that management should provide opportunity to its employees to suggest ideas, experiences& new method of work. It helps in developing an atmosphere of trust and understanding. People then enjoy working in the organization because it adds to their zeal and energy. To suggest improvement in formulation & implementation of place. They can be encouraged with the help of monetary & non-monetary incentives.

9. Fair Remuneration

The quantum and method of remuneration to be paid to the workers should be fair, reasonable, satisfactory & rewarding of the efforts. As far as possible it should accord satisfaction to both employer and the employees. Wages should be determined on the basis of cost of living, work assigned, financial position of the business, wage rate prevailing etc. Logical & appropriate wage rates and methods of their payment reduce tension & differences between workers & management creates harmonious relationship and pleasing atmosphere of work. Fayol also recommended provision of other benefits such as free education, medical & residential facilities to workers.

10. Stability of Tenure

Fayol emphasized that employees should not be moved frequently from one job position to another i.e. the period of service in a job should be fixed. Therefore employees should be appointed after keeping in view principles of recruitment & selection but once they are



appointed their services should be served. According to Fayol. “Time is required for an employee to get used to a new work & succeed to doing it well but if he is removed before that he will not be able to render worthwhile services”. As a result, the time, effort and money spent on training the worker will go waste. Stability of job creates team spirit and a sense of belongingness among workers which ultimately increase the quality as well as quantity of work.

11. Scalar Chain

Fayol defines scalar chain as ’The chain of superiors ranging from the ultimate authority to the lowest”. Every orders, instructions, messages, requests, explanation etc. has to pass through Scalar chain. But, for the sake of convenience & urgency, this path can be cut short and this short cut is known as Gang Plank. A Gang Plank is a temporary arrangement between two different points to facilitate quick & easy communication as explained below:

Gang Plank clarifies that management principles are not rigid rather they are very flexible. They can be moulded and modified as per the requirements of situations

12. Sub-Ordination of Individual Interest to General Interest

An organization is much bigger than the individual it constitutes therefore interest of the undertaking should prevail in all circumstances. As far as possible, reconciliation should be achieved between individual and group interests. But in case of conflict, individual must sacrifice for bigger interests. In order to achieve this attitude, it is essential that:

Employees should be honest & sincere.

Proper & regular supervision of work.

Reconciliation of mutual differences and clashes by mutual agreement. For example, for change of location of plant, for change of profit sharing ratio, etc.

13. Espirit De’ Corps

It refers to team spirit i.e. harmony in the work groups and mutual understanding among the members. Spirit De’ Corps inspires workers to work harder. Fayol cautioned the managers against dividing the employees into competing groups because it might damage the moral of the workers and interest of the undertaking in the long run. To inculcate Espirit De’ Corps following steps should be undertaken:

There should be proper co-ordination of work at all levels

Subordinates should be encouraged to develop informal relations among themselves.



Efforts should be made to create enthusiasm and keenness among subordinates so that they can work to the maximum ability.

Efficient employees should be rewarded and those who are not up to the mark should be given a chance to improve their performance.

Subordinates should be made conscious of that whatever they are doing is of great importance to the business & society.

14. Centralization & De-Centralization

Centralization means concentration of authority at the top level. In other words, centralization is a situation in which top management retains most of the decision making authority. Decentralization means disposal of decision making authority to all the levels of the organization. In other words, sharing authority downwards is decentralization. According to Fayol, “Degree of centralization or decentralization depends on no. of factors like size of business, experience of superiors, dependability & ability of subordinates etc. Anything which increases the role of subordinate is decentralization & anything which decreases it is centralization. Fayol suggested that absolute centralization or decentralization is not feasible. An organization should strike to achieve a lot between the two.

Social Welfare Administration – Introduction

In earlier times, social welfare was performed by a select few individuals or small groups of individuals who were inspired by compassion and concern for the poor, the needy and the destitute. Since, it is no longer accepted that any normally intelligent person with good intentions can administer the welfare work, a sound administration is vital. It is increasingly realized that social welfare programmes require qualified and trained social welfare personnel to perform social welfare functions efficiently. So, it is argued that for serving the people effectively it is necessary to be professional, as professionalism can increase the ability of social welfare personnel to solve the pressing social problems confronting our society.

Social welfare administration aims to apply professional competence to achieve social work goals. Social work’s aim is to provide service to individuals in the society and social welfare administration is the ‘business’ of social work. Social welfare administration helps in professionally doing social work in the society.

Concepts related to Social Welfare Administration

Social Development

Development means progressive change in the living conditions and qualities of life of the members of the society. The process of social development is growth in the direction of



modernity, nation-building and socio-economic progress. Development has to be a whole, value laden, cultural process, including the natural environment, social relations, education, production, consumption and well being of the whole nation. Thus social development is the transformation of the society. It is very essential that social welfare administration be practiced to bring in the required social development in our country.

Social Welfare

Social welfare is understood as those formally organized and socially sponsored institutions, agencies and programmes that operate to improve and maintain the economic conditions, health or inter-personal competence of some sections of the population or of all the population. Thus, social welfare implies reordering of socio-economic relations in the present society, which is undergoing rapid transformation. Social welfare can be defined as “The organized system of social welfare institutions designed to aid disadvantaged individuals and groups to attain satisfying standards of life and health. It aims at personal and social relationship which permits individuals to develop their full capacities and the promotion of their well-being in harmony with the needs of the community” (Titmus, 1968).

Social Welfare Agency

It is an organization or an institution that provides treatment and preventive services in social welfare. These agencies practice social work, according to the objectives laid down by the agency. Social welfare agencies are of three kinds:

1. Governmental agencies which function according to the governmental setup, run and controlled by the government and funded by the taxes collected.

2. Voluntary agencies financed by the members of the community with local contributions and donations.

3. Non-governmental and autonomous agencies promoted and funded by the government.

Social Welfare Administration – Definition

Social welfare administration is a process through which social policy is transformed into social services. It involves the administration of government and non-government agencies.

The American Council of Social Work Education in its curriculum study has given a comprehensive definition of social welfare administration. It states “administration is the process of transforming community resources into a programme of community services, in accordance with goals, policies and standards which has been agreed by those involved in the enterprise. It is creative in that it structures roles and relationships in such a way as to alter



and enhance the total product. It involves the problem solving process of study, diagnosis and treatment”.

Herleigh Tracker (1971) interprets social welfare administration as a “process of working with people in ways that release and relate their energies so that they use available resources to accomplish the purpose of providing needed community services and programmes.”

Features of Social Welfare Administration

Some distinctive features of social welfare administration are:

1. Social welfare administration deals with social welfare agencies and helps them to achieve their objectives for the target groups for which they are working. It is specifically concerned with identification of social objectives, the formulation and implementation of proposed programmes to achieve the objectives laid down.

2. From functional point of view, social welfare administration includes three perspectives of social problems:

a. restoration of impaired social functioning;

b. provision of resources, social and individual, for more effective social functioning;

c. prevention of social dysfunction.

3. Despite variations in size, scope, structure and types of programmes, every agency has a governing board as an apex body for final decision-making. The board is generally represented by the community it intends to serve.

4. Social welfare administration requires optimum utilization of its available resources together with active community participation, so that the ultimate goal of programmes can be achieved properly.

5. Social welfare agencies have to allocate certain portion of their resources for survival so that the organization can continue to exist. But this should not limit their capacity to achieve quantitative and qualitative growth.

6. Social welfare agencies generally function in a cooperative manner and ensure participation of all the members in administration of their activities.

7. There is a growing trend in thse agencies to recruit professionally qualified manpower. It has helped in introducing professional approach in their functioning.

Functions of Social Welfare Administration



The functions of social welfare administration to achieve the objectives set up by the agency would include:

1. To formulate the appropriate objectives and programmes of the agency, it is very important to get the required information and to understand the total situation. The agency generally focuses on a particular problem in a particular geographical area.

2. To analyze the collected information so as to plan appropriate measures to solve social problems. Social welfare agency’s work is to address social problems of the society in that given area.

3. To recognize, screen and opt for an appropriate plan of action to tackle problems and handle the initiatives of the social welfare agency.

4. Formulating policies, programmes and plans for effectively carrying out the objectives of the social welfare agency in a planned manner.

5. To identify appropriate personnel for the social welfare agency with proper orientation and supervision so that they understand the objectives and how to implement the programmes in order to achieve the goals of the agency.

6. To inspire volunteers who can involve themselves in the aims, objectives and goals of the social welfare agency.

7. The administration has to delegate work to various departments under supervisors who will be accountable for the assigned work, in the various departments which has to be coordinated so that maximum results are obtained.

8. Rules, regulations, practices and procedures have to be set up so that there is uniformity and accountability among all staff in the agency so that the objectives of the agency are easily accomplished.

9. The agency must keep proper records and reports. These records and reports must be analyzed and interpreted to find out the progress of the agency’s work.

10. The financial practices must be very economically and strictly laid down so that there can be no misappropriations. The finances must be accurately utilized and accounted for finance is the backbone of any organization. So finances must be properly managed.

11. Every agency has to lay down certain standards of work and work towards meeting those standards at all times. The personnel from highest level to the lowest level must understand and maintain the standards and work for it with great care.



12. One of the main threads that binds the whole agency together is communication. The communication must be clear and smooth from all sectors of the agency be it horizontal from department to department, or vertical from top to bottom or bottom to top. The agency must also have an open communication channel with the community people.

13. Social welfare administration must also see to it that the agency has suitable coordination within the various departments of the agency and at various levels in the agency. The agency when it works as a whole, it becomes most effective to meet its objectives. The social welfare agency must also have proper coordination with other agencies working in the same field. There must be networking with agencies with similar themes, in same geographical areas.

14. Social welfare administration has an important role in monitoring and evaluation of the agency’s programmes and in assessing overall work.

Administrative Process in Social Welfare Institutions

POSDCoRB is an acronym which social welfare administration has borrowed from management theory. The classical management thinker, Luther Gullick gave this acronym to describe the functions of a manager in an organisation.

Planning

According to Terry and Franklin ‘Planning is selecting information and making assumptions regarding the future to formulate activities necessary to achieve organisational objectives’.

Every organisation does some form of planning, as they have to prepare for the future. In large organisations, planning is done by a separate division or department which generally reports to the Chief executive. Planning, here, is a highly specialized area, as a number of factors have to be taken into consideration. The department includes experts from diverse fields such as economics, statistics, management, etc. When any organisation operates in more than one region or country, the complexity of the planning process increases. In smaller organisations, the task is entrusted to staff members, who handle other work but have the competence and knowledge to do the planning function; do planning. Either way planning is an important activity of the administrator.

Major Steps in Planning:

1. Define the problem



Understanding the problem and its various dimensions is the first step in the planning process. Many experts say that if the problem is adequately defined half the problem is solved.

2. Collect all relevant data and information about the activities involved

The sources of information can be from within the organisation and outside it. The organisation can use outside sources of information like government reports, policies, legislations, Planning commission documents etc. Sources from within the organisation include policy statements, agency reports, evaluation reports, minutes of meetings, documents etc.

3. Analyze the information

An enormous amount of data may be collected from various sources. But if they are not seen from the organisational perspective then they cannot be of much use. Every component has to be seen as part of the larger whole. Cause and effect relationships have to be established.

4. Establish planning criteria and standards

Planning criteria are assumptions on which the plan is to be formulated. The criteria will be drawn from the organisation’s ideology, socio-economic factors, information gathered and the priorities of the decision-makers. These criteria will form the basis on which different action plans will be judged.

5. Preparation of different action plans for achieving the goal

Most organisations formulate a number of tentative plans. This enables the decision-makers to choose among the alternatives available based on its advantages and disadvantages.

6. Decide on one plan from the different alternative plans

The Plan should be workable and cost effective. It should be realistic enough to be implemented. Often it is said that the plan was good but its improper implementation ruined it. A good planner, therefore, will take into account these factors that impede implementation. A planner should also take into account strengths and weaknesses of the implementing agency.

7. Arrange detailed sequence and timing for the plan

Decide what activities have to be carried out and when. Time is an important but scarce resource and maintaining the time schedule is therefore important.

8. Provide channels for feedback



Constant feedback and monitoring are necessary. It will help identify shortcomings in the plan and its implementation. Some part of the plan may have to be modified if unforeseen factors influence the implementation process.

9. Implement the plan

The success of any plan sets on its effective implementation.

10. Evaluate the plan performance.

The last step in the planning process is the evaluation of its performance. At his stage only the success or failure of a plan is judged.

Types of Plans:

1. Strategic Planning - Strategic planning (also called long-term planning) has two important elements. It covers a long period of time which may extend from five to twenty or more years and secondly it covers mostly all the activities within the organisation. In other words, it is long-term and comprehensive planning.

2. Operationalized Planning - Operationalized Planning is also called tactical planning and it indicates the specific activities to be taken so that specific goals are to be achieved. Compared to strategic planning, operationalized planning is short-term and deals with specific areas. These two types of planning are not inclusive. Strategic planning depends on the operationlized planning for achieving its goals.

Organising

Organising means establishing effective behavioural relationship among persons so that they may work together efficiently and gain personal satisfaction in doing selected tasks under given environmental condition for the purpose of achieving some goal or objective.

The need for an organisation emerges when one individual cannot perform all the necessary tasks. As number of individuals increase, they are further divided into groups each of which are given a specific set of tasks to perform. How and on what basis these tasks are divided among individuals and group is the role of ‘organising’ in management.

Need for Organising:

1. Clear-cut lines of authority and responsibility in an organisation are created which help in controlling and leading the organisation.

2. There are lesser opportunities for organisation conflicts if organisational responsibilities are clearly defined.



3. Organised groups and organisations are more likely to give satisfaction to the employees and thereby positive results for the organisation.

Elements of Organising:

There are four important elements in organising – division of labour, degree of centralization and decentralization, departmentalization and span of control.

1. Division of labour means that the total work of the organisation is divided into smaller units and distributed among the employees. Work is allotted to person most suited to do it. It allows the employers to attain proficiency in their work and thereby increase the efficiency of the organisation.

2. Centralization and decentralization refers to the degree to which authority is distributed among the various levels of the organisation. If authority is distributed in such a way that majority of the decisions are taken by the top managers then the organisation is called centralized. On the other hand, if the lower levels of the organisation have authority to make decision—without seeking approval from the top level managers then the organisation is called decentralized. Important decisions include those related to financial matters, programme schedules, administrative matters, staff problems, etc. The degree of centralization and decentralization depends on a number of factors like organisational history, level of trust in the organisation, subordinate’s staff competence, technology available etc. Excessive centralization is likely to reduce employee’s motivation and discourage initiative. It is also time consuming when every decision has to be referred to the top and approval obtained for the same. The quality of decisions making may also suffer, as often it is the lower level staff that know the local conditions better. On the other hand, too much decentralization is also harmful. Decentralization may result in declining control of the top management. Consequently employees at the lower levels may engage in empire building at the cost of neglecting organisational objectives. Coordination in the organisation may suffer as each part may chart its own course. Chaos and indiscipline will be the result.

3. Departmentalization refers to the formal structure of the organisation composed of various departmental and managerial positions and their relationship to each other. Departments are formed on the following basis – function, product, territory, clients and process. Some examples are provided here of departments based on these factors.

Function based departments – Marketing department, Personnel department. Planning department, etc.



Product based departments – Micro-credit department, water and sanitation department etc.

Territory based departments – Northern Railways, Southern Railways, Eastern Railways.

Client-based departments – Women and child department, Welfare of SC/ST.

Process-based departments – Marketing, Planning, administration etc.

There are at least three departments which will almost inevitably be present in every organisation. They are namely administration, accounts and services. Most of the large organisations have departments based on more than one factors.

4. Span of control refers to the number of subordinates an individual can supervise and control. Control is not to be seen as something narrow and negative. It refers to the superior’s guidance, encouragement and appreciation provided to the subordinates. Management experts recommend that no superior can control more than five or six subordinates without decline in the quality of supervision.

Staffing

Staffing is the management function that deals with the recruitment, placement, training and development of organisation members. Any organisation is as good as it’s employees’ performance shows. Staff of the organisation should be selected, retained and promoted based on the needs of the organisation and their performance.

Staffing Process:

Human Resource Planning should take into consideration the following internal and external factors. The internal factors that need to be taken into consideration are the present and future skill needs, vacancies, areas of priorities of the organisation and its financial condition. External factors include the policies of government, donor agencies, collaborating organisations, the labour market etc.

1. Recruitment: Recruitment is concerned with developing a large pool of job for candidates in line in view of the needs of the organisation. This can be achieved by giving wide publicity to the position available and attracting many as eligible candidates as possible for the positions.

2. Selection: Selection involves evaluating and choosing among the job candidates. A number of means like interviews, group discussion, and skill tests are used to select the candidates.



3. Induction and Orientation: After selection, the newcomer has to be helped to fit into the organisation. They are introduced to their colleagues, acquainted with responsibilities and informed about organisation policies and goals.

4. Training and Development: The process of training and development aims at increasing the knowledge and skills of the employees along with attitudinal changes. The overall aim is to increase organisation’s productivity and employee’s level of job satisfaction.

5. Performance Appraisal: Performance appraisal aims at judging the performance of the employee’s and his/her contribution to the organisation. Performance appraisal has to be done on the basis of objective standards and not on the whims and fancies of the superior officer. Further the employee should have a clear job profile and should know on what basis he or she is being judged. If performance is satisfactory, the employee may be rewarded and if it is not, corrective action is to be taken.

People join organisations not merely for monetary gains. They also look for satisfaction of their social needs, self-esteem needs and emotional needs. In any case, after a person has achieved financial security, he or she will most probably seek other kinds of fulfillments namely pride in the job, a sense of achievement, satisfactory associations at work place, autonomy to function independently, etc. It is up to the organisation to provide employees with these opportunities.

Directing

Directing is the managerial function of guiding, supervising and leading people. According to Chandan ‘it is concerned with directing the human efforts towards organisational goal achievement’. Sometimes directing and leading are seen as one function. Often it is the success or failure of this function that will determine whether the organisation will achieve its objectives. Leading also determines the levels of satisfaction the employees of the organisation experience. Some of the requirements for successful leadership in an organisation are: clear-cut objectives which should be known to all the managers and employees, meaningful supervision by the superiors of the subordinates, participatory managerial style, unity of direction, and purposive and effective follow-up.

Leadership

Leadership is defined as the relationship in which the one person influences others to work together willingly on related tasks to attain goals devised by the leader and the group. Leaders can be formal or informal. Formal leaders are found in formal institutions like bureaucratic organisations, political parties, and military. Here the organisational functioning is governed by written and formal rules. They determine how the leader is selected/elected and what



his/her powers are and how they are to be exercised. On the other hand, informal leadership depends on the personal qualities of the leader such as the charm, intelligence, skills etc.

Leadership Styles

1. Autocratic Leaders

Autocratic leaders are those who assume all authority to themselves. Subordinates are discouraged to offer suggestions or participate in decision making process. Autocratic leadership has some advantages and are useful in certain situations. In this style, firstly decision making is quick and in emergencies it can be advantageous. Secondly, decisions will reflect the leader’s priorities and will not be diluted. Thirdly, if subordinates are inexperienced or are not qualified, then autocratic leadership is better. Autocratic leadership has many disadvantages also. As autocratic leaders do not take into account opinions of others, it may result in bad decisions. Secondly, the lack of consultation may adversely affect subordinate’s motivation and alienate them. It will increase resentment towards the leader and the organisation as a whole.

2. Participative or Democratic Decision-making

In the democratic or participative decision making process the subordinates are consulted. Their opinions are actively sought and a consensus arrived at before decisions are taken. The decisions thus taken may or may not reflect the opinion of the leader. The major advantages of this type of decisions making are that maximum possible information is collected and different viewpoints are to be considered. Participation of many individuals means that decisions taken will have a better chance of being accepted by others. As a result, confidence and loyalty among the workers will increase. However, success of democratic decision making depends on certain conditions. A pre-condition for democratic decision making is that individuals are motivated to contribute to the decision making process. Absence of this motivation will lower the quality of decisions made. There should also be trust between the leaders and the members. If there are vested interests or if the organisation has something to hide from the employees then the decision making process will be flawed. Further, there should also be a spirit of give and take as no one can get totally satisfactory decisions.

3. Laissez-faire or Free-rein Leadership

The leader gives the organisation maximum freedom to make decisions. The leader is in most cases a figure head and at other times a coordinator between the various members. It gives maximum autonomy to the members leading to creativity and freedom of expression. The major disadvantages are that in under-motivated organisations this type of leadership will result in chaos.



In different organisations the nature of work and tradition makes the leader adopt one or other leadership styles. The leaders adopt the laissez-faire method in situation where encouraging creativity is the aim – for example, in universities or laboratories. On the other hand, in family run business houses where control is considered as important, leadership styles adopted are closer to the autocratic leadership style.

Coordinating

Coordination is the process of integrating the objectives and activities of two or more units (departments or functional areas) of an organisation in order to achieve organisational goals efficiently. In the organising function, we have seen the need for division of work among the various units of the organisation. Efficiency increases with specialization of activity and grouping of related work. But the division of work brings about its own problems. Departments become so involved in their work that they forget the organisational objectives. Departmental interests are placed above organisational interests.

Ways to Achieve Coordination:

1. Hierarchy is an important method to achieve coordination. People who are high in the hierarchy have more authority and responsibility. Hierarchy in fact channels and regulates the exercise of authority, work allocation and flow of communication. Problems between departments if and when they arise can be sorted out by the superior officer.

2. Another important method of coordination is rules and regulations. Rules and regulations make organisational work predictable. Rules and regulations standardize routine work which saves the time of the managers. Everyone in the organisation will know what behaviour is expected from him/her and from others. Tasks will be performed accordingly.

3. The identification of objectives and formulation of plans also improve coordination. This gives the organisation a unity of purpose and a unity of direction. They help the various units with different responsibilities to direct their efforts toward achieving their targets.

4. Larger organisations often use committees to improve coordination. These committees consist of members of different departments of the organisations. Committee meetings help them exchange information, understand each others viewpoints and problems and resolve conflicts.

5. Vertical and horizontal communication systems are used in all organisations to share information. Intra organisational official communications in the form of departmental



notes, memos, official letters etc., help improve coordination between the various sections.

6. Nowadays, with the rise of information technology, IT enabled Management Information Systems are used to transmit data up and down the levels of the organisation. This system enables quick reporting, processing, storing and retrieval of information as and when required.

Till now we have discussed the formal means of improving coordination. But it is now realized that informal relationships between employees are as important as the formal means of coordination.

7. Personal relationships between the various members improve overall coordination within the organisation. In organisations where proper understanding and trust between employees exists, the need for formal means of coordination, which are time consuming and cumbersome, will be less. This will contribute to a better work environment and improve efficiency of the organisation.

Reporting

Reporting means keeping the superiors informed about the various aspects of work including progress of the various programmes, problems in implementation and problems related in staff. Reporting is done at every level.

The Annual Report of the organisation is its statement of achievement and shortcomings to the general body of the organisation and to the society at large. Within the organisation, the Chief Executive Officer reports to the Board of Management or the governing body. Subordinates of the executive officer will report to him/her and so on down to the lowest level of the organisation.

Need for Effective Reporting:

1. Reporting keeps the management informed about the organisation’s performance.

2. Reporting allows the management to take corrective actions when things go wrong.

3. Reporting inculcates a sense of responsibility among employees as they have to report the programme activities to the higher authorities.

Reporting Process:

1. Establish means by which reporting is done.

2. Keep a time period within which the report is done.



3. It should be decided as to whom the report should go and in what form.

4. Reporting also includes action to be taken on the report.

Budgeting

The word ‘budget’ originally meant a bag, pouch or pocket attached to a person. But in the modern sense, a budget is a complete statement regarding the organisation’s income and expenditure of the past financial year and provides an estimate of the same for the coming financial year. The organisation’s budget is usually approved by the highest controlling body, the Board of Management or the Governing Council.

Once the budget is approved, the allocation of funds to various sections/departments of the organisation takes place. The concerned heads of departments have to function within the funds allocated to them. Sometimes due to changes in environment or inside the organisation, a revised budget is formulated after a period of time which may increase or decrease the funds allocated to a particular department.

Budgeting is a specialized activity and persons involved should possess considerable knowledge in accounts, economics, costing etc. to prepare a proper budget.

A budget contains the expenditure, income and outcome planned for a specific period of time. Usually budgets are made for a year, that is, annually. Through the budget, the manager controls the activities of the organisation. Therefore budgeting refers to the controlling of the organisation based on a budget.

Need for Budgeting:

1. Finance is the fuel on which the organisation runs. One of the most effective ways of directing and controlling the organisation is by controlling the financial part of the organisation.

2. Budgeting helps to control the excessive expenditure. Sometimes managers tend to over spend with justifications and sometimes without justifications. Well prepared budget with clear allocations to various heads prevents this costly practice.

3. Budgeting also helps in preventing administrative and financial malpractices. At times, unscrupulous employees try a variety of means to earn money at the cost of the organisation. But budgetary allocation prevents this practice to a great extent. At the end of the year audit is done in which budgetary allocations are compared with actual expenditure incurred. Discrepancies if any have to be explained. This ensures that there is a check and balance.



4. Budgeting improves the coordination in the organisation. Proper appropriation to different overheads within the organisation helps prevent conflict and overlapping.

5. Budgeting also helps in measuring the performance of the organisation. The actual performance of the organisation can be seen in relation to objectives set forth in the budget.

6. Budgets are also a source of information. Budgetary allocations to various activities of the organisation reveal the priorities of the organisation. This is useful to people outside the organisation as well as its employees and supporters.

7. Lastly, the very process of budget preparation is an educative exercise. Managers review the existing situation, discuss the needs of the organisation in the coming year, and keeping in view the priorities of the organisation, prepare the budget. Thus the budgeting processes make the managers aware of the objectives of the organisation, its resource base and anticipate/forecast trends and changes in the external environment.

Evaluation and Feedback

Evaluation means ‘to assess the value of every organisation’s rationale for its existence and the contribution it makes for the welfare of the society. It is for this reason that government and donor agencies provide funds and the people support these organisations. Naturally it has to be seen whether the organisation has been fulfilling its mission or not. Thus evaluation of the organisation’s functioning and their programmes are a logical necessity.

Socially relevant programmes of NGOs have multiple dimensions. Therefore, evaluation of the programme has to include the following dimensions —

the relevance and the need of the programme for the client/s;

the extent of participation of clients/community in the various stages of the programme;

accessibility, availability and quality of the services rendered;

sustainability and financial viability of the programme.

Lately it has also been felt that the gender dimension of the programme should be part of the program evaluation process. Therefore, the extent of female participation and the benefits obtained for women has become an important part of the evaluation process.



Due to the decline in donor funds and government support, most organisations are hard pressed for funds. Therefore the financial aspect of the programme is of crucial importance. Thus evaluation takes into consideration cost effectiveness and timeliness of the programme implemented.

The American Public Health Association defines “evaluation as the process of determining the value or amount of success achieved in terms of its predetermined objectives”. It includes at least the following steps:

1. formulation of the objectives,

2. identification of proper criteria to be used in measuring success and determination and explanation of the degree of success,

3. recommendation for further programme activity.

According to the ‘Encyclopedia of Social Work in India’:

1. evaluation should have an objective approach to the study of problem,

2. it should focus on positive as well as a negative aspects of the problem,

3. evaluation should contribute to the improvement in the functioning of the organisation. In other words, evaluation has educative aspects also.

Evaluation can be of two types:

internal, which is done by the organisation’s functionaries themselves to assess their progress, and

external, which is done by outside agencies like government, donor agencies etc.

Public Relations

Public relation (PR) is one of the important functions of social welfare administration which ensures the development of cordial and harmonious relations with the stakeholders. It is the practice of managing flow of information between the organization and the public. PR is an essential and integrated component of public policy or service. The public relations activities are meant to ensure the benefits to the citizens, for whom the policies and services are meant for. The Institute of Public Relations, USA, has defined Public Relations as “the deliberate, planned and sustained effort to establish and maintain mutual understanding between an organization and its publics”. Likewise, Edward L. Bernays has given definition of Public Relations as “the attempt by information, persuasion and adjustment to engineer public support for an activity, cause, movement or institution”. Public relations and publicity are not



synonymous but many PR campaigns include provisions for publicity also. Publicity is the spreading of information to gain public awareness for a product, person, service, cause or organization, and can be seen as a result of effective PR planning.

You may wonder, what is the need for organizations to engage in PR activities? Investing on PR helps the organization to achieve its objective effectively and smoothly. PR does not mean creating good image for a bad team, since false image cannot be sustained for a long time. Even if the organization’s services/programmes are good, it needs an effective Public Relations campaign for attracting, motivating the public to utilize the services, creating awareness about policies and programmes and publicizing the work of the organization. It not only encourages people’s participation but also helps in building credibility and better image in the public eye. An effective PR can create and build up the image of an individual or an organization or a nation. At the time when an organization is under crisis an effective Public Relations can remove the ‘misunderstanding’ and help in developing reciprocal understanding and goodwill between the organization and the public. The PR includes analysis of public perception, modifying/designing organization’s policy/programmes in consonance with public interest and then executing the programmes for communication with the public.

PR is a planned effort or management function. It is an execution of communication programme for rapport building, creating goodwill, understanding and acceptance as the chief end results sought by public relations activities. It is very important to understand the two components of PR - ‘Public’ and ‘Relations’. It is essential that socio-demographic and cultural characteristics, values, attitudes, perceptions of the ‘public’ (that includes employees in the organization as well as the community that the organization is serving) be studied objectively. ‘Relations’ means conscious decision of the kind of relation or image the administrators want to create in the eyes of the public.

Let us look at the process of public relations.

The process of public relations is categorized into seven phases for better understanding: The first phase includes identifying and listing out the information or message to be disseminated. The second phase of PR process is to ascertain the existing image or awareness level about the issue in the target group or common public. The third phase is developing communication objectives and priorities. The fourth phase of PR deals with developing the message and choosing appropriate media to transmission. The fifth phase of PR is the implementation of ‘communication campaign’ designed in the fourth phase and coordination or the dissemination of message. In the sixth phase, communication campaign is checked whether message has reached properly and the expected action or behaviour or knowledge on image factors emerged. The seventh phase of PR includes rectification of the communication



campaign, in case the message does not reach properly after identification of reasons for the ineffectiveness. It is followed by dissemination of the revised message.

The Image building exercises start with understanding the present image and to chalk out, the desired image and to channalize all the PR activities towards it. Some possibilities that would call for PR are promotional opportunity (to inform about new service / policy which require wider publicity), competition (to overcome the resistance or pre-set mind condition), controversy (To eliminate the contradictory conditions in between the organization and the public), adverse publicity (to inform about the truth or correct issues and thereby removing the misunderstanding), catastrophe (announcement of any unfavourable issues) and crisis (whenever threats arise). Among the many channels, blogs are the most recent and economical means.

Fund Raising

Fund raising is the process of soliciting and gathering money or other gifts in-kind, by requesting donations from individuals, businesses, charitable foundations, or governmental agencies. Although fund raising typically refers to efforts to gather funds for non-profit organizations, it is sometimes used to refer to the identification and solicitation of investors or other sources of capital for-profit enterprises.

Common sources of funds are (1) local, International donors and government. Now the scenario is changing and even international NGOs are looking for fund raising, e.g. Plan International has targeted 30% of funding from local sources. Often in times of natural/manmade calamities like Tsunami/Kargil war, organizations engage themselves in fund raising.

Why we would raise funds? Obviously, it is impossible for any organization to implement activities and projects without certain human, technical and financial resources. Fund raising increases the amount of resources and even helps in development of corpus funds. It also reduces dependence on international and national donor organization, which, often times, may reduce flexibility of implementing innovative/creative ideas and targeting those needs that a community finds important. Fund raising brings sense of ownership among community people and helps organization build social capital and community linkages. Mobilizing local resources increases the sustainability of community initiatives.

Before initiating fund raising endeavour, organizations must check their tax situation. There are two main provisions regarding this – Sec. 80G and Sec. 35 A© of the tax Act. Under Sec. 80 G non-profit organizations working in specified areas (which are deemed to be charitable) can register with income tax authority under this section, which enables the donors (whether individuals or companies) to claim relief up to 50% of the amount donated. The Sec. 35 A © is a more recent one where contributions are 100% tax exempted. It is applicable to specified



projects rather than to registered organizations. Approval has to be sought from the National Committee for Promotion of Social and Economic Welfare, Delhi and NGOs generally have to undertake project for 3 years.

Another important issue in fund raising is to develop an ethically sound fund raising policy. It is crucial to list down socially inappropriate activities and not to accept any funds/resources from tainted sources, which may hamper organization’s own image and credibility. For instance, taking money from cigarette/liquor manufacturing company/people with criminal background for any social cause would do more harm than any good. Further, it is also unethical and unsought for to exaggerate data/information, project beneficiaries as victims, accentuating their vulnerability (whereas in reality they are not so) while appealing for funds.

Next, understanding psychology of prospective donors on why people give is also necessary. People donate because – (i) they may be concerned about the problem; (ii) may have personal experience of the problem; (iii) peer pressure (iv) guilt feeling (v) duty (vi) name/fame/as memorial and (vii) tax benefits. For a successful fund raising campaign one needs to identify likely people, create the right message and communicate that right message.

Another point is how much to ask for - it depends on the situation. In crisis situations like earth quack, flood, etc., cash and kind donations are asked for. Asking people to contribute ‘generously’ often confuses them. Instead, people respond better if a range of options is provided to them. For instance, divide the work into units: 1 sapling planted = Rs.5; 10 saplings planted = Rs.50; one cataract operation = Rs.500. Also linking the amount being asked with cause gives better results, say, sponsoring child’s education/nutrition, etc.

Approaching the prospective donors has many ways – face to face, addressing groups, telephonic conversation, personal letter to known/unknown and circular letter. One may organize house to house or office to office collection, organize fund raising events, invite celebrity on exhibition/fair/mela, frame appeal, produce occasional newsletters, pamphlets for fund raising, tap religious resources (zakaat appeal before Ramzaan for donation) and so on and so forth. Tapping corporate donors is also one of the important strategies for fund raising. Companies generally donate to create goodwill in the local community, to generate publicity and for tax benefits. Certain examples of corporate giving are - cash donations, sponsoring an event, free office space, free space for workshops, making company facilities available including meeting rooms, printing, designing, lending a staff member, providing expertise/advice and so on. Many times employees agree to have regular amount deducted each month from his/her salary for donations as seen in the case of Helpage in Chennai. In fact, fund raising strategies are becoming increasingly more creative and innovative.



Types of Social Welfare Agencies

There are two main types of social welfare agencies:

1. Public or Government agencies are based upon a law or order, administered within the framework of local, state and central governments and financed by the Government.

2. Private Agencies or Non-Governmental Organisations or Voluntary Organizations are established by individuals or philanthropic, religious, fraternal or humanitarian groups; their management is vested with a board of directors. These organisations are supported mainly by contributions, donations, endowments or trust funds.

Non-Government Organisations (Voluntary Organisations)

Definition

Accordingly to Lord Beveridge, “A Voluntary organisation, properly speaking, is an organisation which whether its workers are paid or unpaid, is initiated and governed by its own members without external control.”

Non-profit organisations in India:

a) exist independently of the state;

b) are self-governed by a board of trustees or ‘managing committee’/ governing council, comprising individuals who generally serve in a fiduciary capacity;

c) produce benefits for others, generally outside the membership of the organisation; and

d) are ‘non-profit-making’, in as much as they are prohibited from distributing a monetary residual to their own members.

Characteristics

1. It is registered under the Societies Registrations Act, 1860, the Indian Trusts Act, 1882, The Cooperative Societies Act, 1904 or Sec. 25 of the Companies Act, 1956, depending upon the nature and scope of its activities to give it a legal status.

2. It has definite aims and objectives, and programmes for their fulfilment.

3. It has an administrative structure and duly constituted management and executive committees.

4. It is an organisation initiated and governed by its own members on democratic principles without any external control.



5. It raises funds for its activities partly from the exchequer in the form of grants-in-id and partly in the form of contributions or subscriptions from members of the local community and/or the beneficiaries of the programme.

Structure

Functions

1. Human beings by nature are gregarious. The urge to act in groups is fundamental in them. People therefore form groups and associations voluntarily for their benefit as also of others with a view to lead a full and richer life. This phenomenon is reflected in voluntary associations which are formed for promotion of recreational and cultural activities, social services, professional interest etc.

2. A pluralistic society with a democratic system requires a multitude of independent, nongovernment organisations to serve as a buffer between the individual and the state and thus preventing the government from developing monopoly in various fields.

3. Organised voluntary action helps groups and individuals with diverse political and other interests, contributes to strengthening the feeling of national solidarity and promotes participative democracy.

4. The state does not have the requisite financial resources and manpower to meet all the needs of its citizens. The non-government organisations by raising additional resources locally can meet uncovered needs and enrich local life.


General Body (General Membership)

Executive Counsel/Managing Committee/Governing Body

Office Bearers (President, Vice President, General Secretary, Joint Secretary, Assistant Secretary, Treasurer)

Paid Staff/Volunteers (Social Workers)


Factors motivating Voluntary Action

Types

1. Bilateral Agencies

The word bilateral means, “Agreement made between two countries”. In this, agreement two countries make agreement to have duty free entry of donated supplies for relief and rehabilitation of the poor and the needy without discrimination of caste, creed or race. Under these agreements, commodities like food grains, milk powder, cheese, processed food stuff; drugs, medicines, multi vitamin tablets, hospital equipment, and supplies like ambulances, mobile dispensaries, agricultural implements etc. are received by approved organisations,



from approved organisations, located in respective countries. Government of India encourages such assistance. The Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment operates the bilateral agreements on gift deliveries entered into by the Government of India with the Governments of Federal Republic of Germany, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom and United States of America.

The Food Corporation of India is entrusted with the responsibility of handling the port operations work in respect of gift consignments, coming under the agreements on payment for the services at approved rates. The expenditure on handling clearance and inland transportation of gift deliveries to the approved consignees’ destination is borne by the Ministry as per terms of the Agreement.

2. International Agencies

Though the well being of the people is the concern of the state, it cannot be fulfilled due to the lack of financial resources, manpower, and other resources. Therefore the State depends upon the help and support of other nations and countries to ameliorate the lot of its poor and needy. It is upon this recognition that the International co-operation in social welfare is needed in order to secure social and economic welfare of human beings everywhere. International social welfare organisations can be classified into five groups:

i. Government Agencies of International character, e.g. United Nations, World Health Organisation, International Labour Organisation etc.

ii. Private International Organisation, e.g. The International Conference of Social Work, World Federation of Mental Health, The International Union for the Child Welfare.

iii. Private International Organisations having autonomous organisations in each country, e.g. International Red Cross, the YMCA and YWCA.

iv. National Government Agencies extending their help to other countries, e.g. The United States Technical Co-operation programme popularly known as point 4 Programme.

v. National Private Agencies extending their social service to other countries, e.g. The Ford Foundation and the Rockefeller Foundations in India.

3. Donor Agencies

One of the major activities of any Non Governmental Organisation is mobilizing financial support for its activities. A number of National and International organisations are providing funds to the social service organisations. Such agencies are known as Donor agencies. They



give support to the social service activities on the basis of the project proposals, submitted by the Organisation. Generally donor agencies are providing funds and other services to the registered organisations for their various social welfare activities for the needy and marginalized. The amount of their support varies from project to project according to the requirements or the gravity of the problems. The donor agencies mainly raise funds from its Citizen and the Government. Some of the Donor agencies are :

i. Cordaid, Germany

ii. Church Auxiliary for Social Action (CASA)

iii. Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)

iv. Christian Children’s Fund

v. World Vision

vi. Co-operative for American Relief Everywhere (CARE)

vii. Catholic Relief Services (CRS)

viii. Indo-German Social Service Society (IGSSS)

ix. Caritas India etc.

4. UN Bodies

The United Nations has set up various organisations for groups needing special help. Their contributions to international welfare may be discussed as follows:

i. United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) - It was established by the General Assembly on 11th December 1946. Its purpose is to help developing countries to improve the condition of their children and youth. UNICEF provides assistance in such fields as health, nutrition, social welfare, education, and vocational training. It also helps Governments to assess the important needs of their children and plan comprehensive programme to meet them. A large part of UNICEF aid is in the form of providing equipment, drugs, well-drilling rigs, school garden supplies, prototype equipment for day care centers and equipment for the production of the textbooks. UNICEF was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1965 and the Indira Peace Prize in 1989.

ii. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) - The office of the UNHCR was established on 1st January 1951. It provides legal protection, and at the request of a Government, material assistance for



the refugees. UNHCR’s headquarters is in Geneva. There are 40 Field Offices. UNHCR was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1954.

There are a number of other U.N bodies working for the social welfare. Some of these organisations are:

iii. United Nations Center for Regional Development.

iv. United Nations Development Programme.

v. United National Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation.

vi. United Nations Environment Programme.

vii. United Nations Institute for Training and Research.

viii. United Nations Research Institute for Social Development etc.

5. Charitable Organisations

Charitable Organisations are those organisations established for helping the poor or needy people. These organisations are mainly formed to serve the needy through a charitable approach. The Missionaries of Charity (MC) is one example of such charitable organisations. Most of its workers are fully dedicated to service and they serve without expecting anything back. These institutions provide institutional care to the poor and neglected. They also provide food, clothing, medical treatment etc. for needy people.

The Charitable Organisations are registered under the Charitable Endowment Act -1890. Section 2 of the Charitable Endowment Act defines ‘charitable purpose’ as including general relief to the poor, education, medical relief and the advancement of any other object of general public utility.

6. Societies

The Voluntary Organisation can be registered under the Societies Registration Act – 1860, Indian Trusts Act – 1882 or under Section 25 of the Indian Companies Act – 1956. Most of the Non-Governmental Organisations are registered under Societies Registration Act.

Societies are formed with some deliberate intention following some system in their day-to-day affairs as well as rules for their governing and proceedings. The following activities should be handled properly, since it is vital for better function of any organisation:

i. Primary study on the attainability of the objectives stated by the organisation.



ii. Recruitment of manpower, right people for the right job, to attain the organisational goals.

iii. Drafting of a constitution, this consists of memorandum of association and rules and regulations.

iv. Making sure of the registration of the society by appropriate legal authority.

Memorandum of Association and rules and regulations are two important parts of a society’s constitution. While memorandum of association defines the object of the Organisation recognised and approved by the Registrar, rules and regulations define the internal management principles, which are binding on the members. Societies are more democratic in their setup. Usually elections are conducted to elect the managing committee. In some cases, founder members may be permitted to remain life members of the managing committee.

7. Trust

Welfare programmes are also run by charitable trusts. The Indian Trusts Act –1882 provides room for registering and running Public, Private, Religious and Charitable Trusts. A Trust is an obligation annexed to the ownership of property and arising out of a confidence reposed in and accepted by the trustee(s), for the benefit of another and the owner. The following are the objects of a charitable trust:

i. Trusts for the relief of Poverty

ii. Trusts for the advancement of Education

iii. Trusts for the advancement of religion and

iv. Trusts for other purposes beneficial to the community. (Not falling under any other three heads, e.g. renovation of roads, supply of water, repairing of bridges etc.)

Registration Methods

The right of all citizens to form associations or unions is guaranteed by the Constitution of India, Article 19(1)(c). There are three pertinent legal forms of not-for-profit entities under Indian law - trusts, societies, and section 25 companies.

Many state and central government agencies have regulatory authority over these not-for-profit entities. For example, all not-for-profit organizations are required to file annual tax returns and audited account statements with various agencies. At the state level, these agencies include the Charity Commissioner (for trusts), the Registrar of Societies (referred to in some states by different titles, including the Registrar of Joint Stock Companies), and the



Registrar of Companies (for section 25 companies). At the national or federal level, the regulatory bodies include the Income Tax Department and Ministry of Home Affairs (only for not-for-profit organizations receiving foreign contributions).



1. Trust

Public charitable trusts, as distinguished from private trusts, are designed to benefit members of an uncertain and fluctuating class. In determining whether a trust is public or private, the key question is whether the class to be benefited constitutes a substantial segment of the public. In general, trusts may register for one or more of the following purposes:

Relief of Poverty or Distress;

Education;

Medical Relief;

Provision for facilities for recreation or other leisure -time occupation (including assistance for such provision), if the facilities are provided in the interest of social welfare and public benefit; and

The advancement of any other object of general public utility, excluding purposes which relate exclusively to religious teaching or worship.

A public charitable trust is usually floated when there is property involved, especially in terms of land and building.

Legislation: Different states in India have different Trusts Acts in force, which govern the trusts in the state; in the absence of a Trusts Act in any particular state or territory the general principles of the Indian Trusts Act 1882 are applied.

Main Instrument: The main instrument of any public charitable trust is the trust deed, wherein the aims and objects and mode of management (of the trust) should be enshrined. In every trust deed, the minimum and maximum number of trustees has to be specified. The trust deed should clearly spell out the aims and objects of the trust, how the trust should be managed, how other trustees may be appointed or removed, etc. The trust deed should be signed by both the settlor/s and trustee/s in the presence of two witnesses. The trust deed should be executed on non-judicial stamp paper, the value of which would depend on the valuation of the trust property.

Trustees: At least two trustees are required to register a public charitable trust. In general, Indian citizens serve as trustees, although there is no prohibition against non-natural legal persons or foreigners serving in this capacity. The Board of Management comprises the trustees.

Legal title of the property of a public charitable trust vests in the trustees. Trustees of a public charitable trust may not, however, in any way use trust property or their position for their own interest or private advantage. Trustees may not enter into agreements in which they may



have a personal interest that conflicts or may possibly conflict with the interests of the beneficiaries of the trust (whose interests the trustees are bound to protect). Trustees may not delegate any of their duties, functions or powers to a co-trustee or any other person, except that trustees may delegate ministerial acts. In essence, trustees may not delegate authority with respect to duties requiring the exercise of discretion.

Application for Registration: The application for registration should be made to the official having jurisdiction over the region in which the trust is sought to be registered. After providing details (in the form) regarding designation by which the public trust shall be known, names of trustees, mode of succession, etc., the applicant has to affix a court fee stamp of Rs.2/- to the form and pay a very nominal registration fee which may range from Rs.3/- to Rs.25/-, depending on the value of the trust property. The application form should be signed by the applicant before the regional officer or superintendent of the regional office of the charity commissioner or a notary. The application form should be submitted, together with a copy of the trust deed. Two other documents which should be submitted at the time of making an application for registration are affidavit and consent letter.

Public charitable trusts are highly regulated. For instance, in many states, purchases or sales of property by a trust must be approved in advance by the Charity Commissioner. They are also generally irrevocable. If a trust becomes inactive due to the negligence of its trustees, the Charity Commissioner may take steps to revive the trust. Furthermore, if it becomes too difficult to carry out the objectives of a trust, the doctrine of cy pres, meaning "as near as possible," may be applied to change the objectives of the trust. Thus, it appears that grantors can feel fairly secure that the charitable nature of a trust will be honoured, even if the original, specific purposes of the trust cannot be carried out.

2. Society

According to section 20 of the Societies Registration Act, 1860, the following societies can be registered under the Act: ‘charitable societies, military orphan funds or societies established at the several presidencies of India, societies established for the promotion of science, literature, or the fine arts, for instruction, the diffusion of useful knowledge, the diffusion of political education, the foundation or maintenance of libraries or reading rooms for general use among the members or open to the public, or public museums and galleries of paintings and other works of art, collection of natural history, mechanical and philosophical inventions, instruments or designs.’

Legislation: Societies are registered under the Societies Registration Act, 1860, which is a federal act. In certain states, which have a charity commissioner, the society must not only be registered under the Societies Registration Act, but also, additionally, under the Bombay Public Trusts Act.



Main Instrument: The main instrument of any society is the memorandum of association and rules and regulations (no stamp paper required), wherein the aims and objects and mode of management (of the society) should be enshrined.

Members: The Board of Management is in the form of a governing body or council or a managing or executive committee. Individuals or institutions or both may be members of a society. The general body of members delegates the management of day-to-day affairs to the managing committee, which is usually elected by the membership. Members of the general body of the society have voting rights and can demand the submission of accounts and the annual report of the society for inspection. Members of the managing committee may hold office for such period of time as may be specified under the bylaws of the society. A Society needs a minimum of seven managing committee members; there is no upper limit to the number managing committee members.

Application for Registration: Registration can be done either at the state level (i.e., in the office of the Registrar of Societies) or at the district level (in the office of the District Magistrate or the local office of the Registrar of Societies).

The procedure varies from state to state. However generally the application should be submitted together with: (a) memorandum of association and rules and regulations; (b) consent letters of all the members of the managing committee; (c) authority letter duly signed by all the members of the managing committee; (d) an affidavit sworn by the president or secretary of the society on non-judicial stamp paper of Rs.20-/, together with a court fee stamp; and (e) a declaration by the members of the managing committee that the funds of the society will be used only for the purpose of furthering the aims and objects of the society.

All the aforesaid documents which are required for the application for registration should be submitted in duplicate, together with the required registration fee. Unlike the trust deed, the memorandum of association and rules and regulations need not be executed on stamp paper.

Societies, unlike trusts, must file annually, with the Register of Societies, a list of the names, addresses and occupations of their managing committee members. Furthermore, in a society, all property is held in the name of the society, whereas all of the property of a trust legally vests in the trustees.

Also, societies may be dissolved. Dissolution must be approved by at least three-fifths of the society's members. Upon dissolution, and after settlement of all debts and liabilities, the funds and property of the society may not be distributed among the members of the society. Rather, the remaining funds and property must be given or transferred to some other society, preferably one with similar objects as the dissolved entity.



3. Section – 25 Company

The Indian Companies Act, 1956, which principally governs for-profit entities, permits certain companies to obtain not-for-profit status as "section 25 companies." According to section 25(1)(a) and (b) of the Indian Companies Act, 1956, a section-25 company can be established ‘for promoting commerce, art, science, religion, charity or any other useful object’, provided the profits, if any, or other income is applied for promoting only the objects of the company and no dividend is paid to its members.

Legislation: Section-25 companies are registered under section-25 of the Indian Companies Act. 1956.

Main Instrument: For a section-25 company, the main instrument is a Memorandum and articles of association (no stamp paper required)

Trustees: A section-25 Company needs a minimum of three trustees; there is no upper limit to the number of trustees. The internal governance generally has members and is governed by Board of Directors or Managing Committee or Governing Council elected by its members.

Application for Registration:

1. An application has to be made for availability of name to the registrar of companies, which must be made in the prescribed form no. 1A, together with a fee of Rs.500/-. It is advisable to suggest a choice of three other names by which the company will be called, in case the first name which is proposed is not found acceptable by the registrar.

2. Once the availability of name is confirmed, an application should be made in writing to the regional director of the company law board. The application should be accompanied by the following documents:

a. Three printed or typewritten copies of the memorandum and articles of association of the proposed company, duly signed by all the promoters with full name, address and occupation.

b. A declaration by an advocate or a chartered accountant that the memorandum and articles of association have been drawn up in conformity with the provisions of the Act and that all the requirements of the Act and the rules made there under have been duly complied with, in respect of registration or matters incidental or supplementary thereto.

c. Three copies of a list of the names, addresses and occupations of the promoters (and where a firm is a promoter, of each partner in the firm), as well



as of the members of the proposed board of directors, together with the names of companies, associations and other institutions in which such promoters, partners and members of the proposed board of directors are directors or hold responsible positions, if any, with description of the positions so held.

d. A statement showing in detail the assets (with the estimated values thereof) and the liabilities of the association, as on the date of the application or within seven days of that date.

e. An estimate of the future annual income and expenditure of the proposed company, specifying the sources of the income and the objects of the expenditure.

f. A statement giving a brief description of the work, if any, already done by the association and of the work proposed to be done by it after registration, in pursuance of section-25.

g. A statement specifying briefly the grounds on which the application is made.

h. A declaration by each of the persons making the application that he/she is of sound mind, not an undischarged insolvent, not convicted by a court for any offence and does not stand disqualified under section 203 of the Companies Act 1956, for appointment as a director.

3. The applicants must also furnish to the registrar of companies (of the state in which the registered office of the proposed company is to be, or is situate) a copy of the application and each of the other documents that had been filed before the regional director of the company law board.

4. The applicants should also, within a week from the date of making the application to the regional director of the company law board, publish a notice in the prescribed manner at least once in a newspaper in a principal language of the district in which the registered office of the proposed company is to be situated or is situated and circulating in that district, and at least once in an English newspaper circulating in that district.

5. The regional director may, after considering the objections, if any, received within 30 days from the date of publication of the notice in the newspapers, and after consulting any authority, department or ministry, as he may, in his discretion, decide, determine whether the licence should or should not be granted.



6. The regional director may also direct the company to insert in its memorandum, or in its articles, or in both, such conditions of the licence as may be specified by him in this behalf.

Like a society (but unlike a trust), a section 25 company may be dissolved. Upon dissolution and after settlement of all debts and liabilities, the funds and property of the company may not be distributed among the members of the company. Rather, the remaining funds and property must be given or transferred to some other section 25 company, preferably one having similar objects as the dissolved entity.

Special Licensing

In addition to registration, a non-profit engaged in certain activities might also require special license/permission. Some of these include (but are not limited to):

A place of work in a restricted area (like a tribal area or a border area requires a special permit – the Inner Line Permit – usually issues either by the Ministry of Home Affairs or by the relevant local authority (i.e., district magistrate).

To open an office and employ people, the NGO should be registered under the Shop and Establishment Act.

To employ foreign staff, an Indian non-profit needs to be registered as a trust/society/company, have FCRA registration and also obtain a No Objection Certificate. The intended employee also needs a work visa.

A foreign non-profit setting up an office in India and wanting staff from abroad needs to be registered as a trust/society/company, needs permission from the Reserve Bank of India and also a No Objection Certificate from the Ministry of External Affairs.

Section 2(15) of the Income Tax Act – which is applicable uniformly throughout the Republic of India – defines ‘charitable purpose’ to include ‘relief of the poor, education, medical relief and the advancement of any other object of general public utility’. A purpose that relates exclusively to religious teaching or worship is not considered as charitable. Thus, in ascertaining whether a purpose is public or private, one has to see if the class to be benefited, or from which the beneficiaries are to be selected, constitute a substantial body of the public. A public charitable purpose has to benefit a sufficiently large section of the public as distinguished from specified individuals. Organisations which lack the public element – such as trusts for the benefit of workmen or employees of a company, however numerous – have not been held to be charitable. As long as the beneficiaries of the organisation comprise an uncertain and fluctuating body of the public answering a particular description, the fact that the beneficiaries may belong to a certain religious faith, or a sect of persons of a certain religious persuasion, would not affect the organisation’s ‘public’ character.



Whether a trust, society or section-25 company, the Income Tax Act gives all categories equal treatment, in terms of exempting their income and granting 80G certificates, whereby donors to non-profit organisations may claim a rebate against donations made. Foreign contributions to non-profits are governed by FC(R)A regulations and the Home Ministry.



Social Welfare Administration in India

The structure of welfare organizations differs in agencies, which are established under public sector from those, which are in voluntary or private sector. Public or Government agencies are based upon a law, administered within the framework of local, state and central governments and financed by the government.

Our country has a long tradition of social service. Our sovereign and democratic republic stands committed to ensure social, economic and political justice to the people and usher in a welfare state. After independence, the concept of social justice became part and parcel of our Constitution and is reflected not only in the preamble, but also in the Directive principles of state policy.

Social welfare is defined as those services which are designed for those weaker and vulnerable sections of community who due to some hardship – social, economic, political, mental – are unable to make use of, or are traditionally denied, the use of these services. The scope of social welfare encompasses services relating to women, children, youth, aged, the handicapped, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, community welfare services, social defence, social welfare measures and social welfare services for other weaker sections of society.

In India the Government organizations are by the government and can be at three levels that is local, state and central level organizations.

Local Level

At the Local level, the social welfare services are through rural and urban local authorities. Rural local authorities comprise of the panchayati raj institutions, which were introduced for local governance in the rural areas of the country. The three-tier system of panchayati raj consisting of gram panchayat, panchayat samiti and zilla panchayat and these are responsible to undertake the welfare activities for their respective areas. In fact, panchayati raj bodies are very much involved in implementing and administering the welfare programmes assigned to them.

The urban local authorities consisting of municipal corporations was created by the Acts of the concerned State legislature are assigned obligatory and discretionary functions in the field of social welfare. For instance, section 43 of Delhi Municipal Corporation Act, 1957 makes it incumbent on the corporation to make adequate provisions for construction and maintenance of drainage work, public latrines and urinals, water supply, pollution control, checking of dangerous diseases, provision of transport facilities, provision of medical relief and establishment of maternity and child welfare centers, etc.



The concept of democratic decentralization is essential in the field of development. The aspect of welfare has come to be understood as the primary responsibility of the individuals. Therefore, through people’s participations and decentralization of power, the government is trying to achieve the goal of total development. Besides Government efforts, there are a number of non-government organizations working at the local level with more flexibility and proximity.

State Level

At the State level, the state governments and union territory administrations formulate and implement various kinds of welfare services programmes on their own in their respective jurisdiction for the benefit of the socially and economically weaker sections of the society.

The state government or the union territories administrations carry out their welfare commitments and programmes mainly through the departments of social welfare and voluntary organizations. At the state level, the Department of Social Welfare is the responsibility of the welfare minister and the secretary to government is the administrative head of the department. The secretariat helps, guides and advises the Minister in the formulation of policies of the department, in getting the legislation passed by the state legislature, and supervises the execution of the policies, schemes, projects and programmers undertaken by the Directorate.

The Directorate of social welfare is headed by a Director who is assisted by Additional Director, Joint Director, Deputy Directors, Administrative officer and supporting staff. In the field, the Divisional and District Social Welfare Officers function at the district level and execute the various welfare programmes in their respective jurisdictions. The administrative and staffing pattern at all the stages is more or less the same and so are the kinds of welfare services provided in each state except for some minor variations.

The functions of the State Social Welfare Boards are as follows:

i. To promote the growth of voluntary social welfare agencies, with special reference to development of welfare services in all areas.

ii. To administer the grant-in-aid programme.

a) On behalf of the Central Social Welfare Board for development and capital grants and

b) On behalf of the state welfare governments for maintenance grants.

iii. To assist the Central Social Welfare Board in the provision of a field counselling services for aided agencies



iv. To administer the programmes of rural welfare projects

v. To stimulate effective coordination among voluntary welfare agencies at the States and local levels

vi. To assist the Central Social Welfare Board and State Government in the further development of welfare services

Central Level

At the Central level, also called the Union level although the responsibility of formulating overall policy and planning of social welfare programmes rests with the department of social welfare, the initiation and execution of certain welfare services and stimulating the effective coordination among voluntary welfare agencies especially at the national level will rest with the Central Social Welfare Board.

Central Social Welfare Board (CSWB)

The important landmark in the history of voluntary social welfare was created in 1953, with the provision of Rs.4 Crore for the social welfare sector in the First Five Year Plan. The dilemma before the country’s planners was whether this amount should be utilized through government machinery or by voluntary agencies, as at that time there was no independent department of social welfare at the centre, nor at the state levels. Under the leadership of Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru our then prime minister, it was decided that social welfare needed a special kind of machinery that had components of flexibility, dedication and closeness to the country’s people. It was then felt that it should be handled not by the government machinery but by the voluntary workers who had dedicated their service to the needy. Accordingly, an autonomous board was created which was charged with the responsibility of preparing plans and schemes to be funded from out of the provision made in the Five Year Plans. An outstanding social worker was made the Chairperson of the Central Social Welfare Board. Dr. (Mrs.) Durgabai Deshmukh was its first Chairperson.

The main function of the Board was to give grant-in-aid and technical guidance to Voluntary Organizations engaged in different types of social welfare activities. One of the functions of the board was also to create organizations in the areas where these did not exist. It was found that in those days in the slum and rural areas, there were no services for women and pre-school children. The Board accordingly launched a scheme named the family and child welfare projects. The present integrated child development services (ICDS) programme was the outcome of these efforts.

Central Social Welfare Board was set up on the recommendations of the Planning Commission as a semiautonomous body, but the power of the administration was vested in



the ministry of education. It was registered as a company from 1st April 1969 under section 25 of the Indian companies Act, 1956 in order to have greater autonomy and flexibility.

Objectives of the Board:

Promote the growth of voluntary social service agencies.

To assist voluntary welfare programmes for the specific groups of persons who need special help, like women, children and the handicapped.

To coordinate the welfare schemes of various central and state government.

To develop new programmes of welfare and organize pilot projects that is innovative and closer to the common man.

A cabinet minister, who is assisted by the Minister or the Deputy Minister, heads the Ministry of welfare. The Department has two broad divisions: one headed by the secretary – welfare and the other headed by the secretary, department of women and child welfare. The secretary-welfare is assisted by an additional secretary. In the wing, there are directors, deputy secretary, under secretaries, joint directors and other officers to handle the tasks. The ministry is assisted in its functions by a number of subordinate organizations, national commissions and national institutes over which the ministry exercises its administrative control. These are enlisted below:

Central social welfare board

National commission for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes

Minorities commission

National institute of social defence

National institute for the visually handicapped

National Institute for the Orthopaedically Handicapped

National Institute of Rehabilitation

Activities of the Ministry

The Ministry has been taking up large number of subjects and accordingly undertakes multi-dimensional function related to the welfare of various sections in the society like:

i. Policy, planning and coordination of programmes

ii. Operations of central and centrally sponsored schemes



iii. Guidance and direction to the state

iv. Association with Planning Commission

v. Convening of conference of state minister/secretaries of social welfare

vi. Constitution of commission, committees/study teams

vii. Assistance to voluntary organizations

viii. Informal and mass education activities

ix. Publications

x. Research, education and documentation

xi. Participation in International Conferences, seminars and workshops.

Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS)

Launched on 2nd October 1975, today, ICDS Scheme represents one of the world’s largest and most unique programmes for early childhood development. ICDS is the foremost symbol of India’s commitment to her children – India’s response to the challenge of providing pre-school education on one hand and breaking the vicious cycle of malnutrition, morbidity, reduced learning capacity and mortality, on the other.

Objectives

The Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme was launched in 1975 with the following objectives:

i. to improve the nutritional and health status of children in the age-group 0-6 years;

ii. to lay the foundation for proper psychological, physical and social development of the child;

iii. to reduce the incidence of mortality, morbidity, malnutrition and school dropout;

iv. to achieve effective co-ordination of policy and implementation amongst the various departments to promote child development; and

v. to enhance the capability of the mother to look after the normal health and nutritional needs of the child through proper nutrition and health education.

Services

The above objectives are sought to be achieved through a package of services comprising:



i. supplementary nutrition,

ii. immunization,

iii. health check-up,

iv. referral services,

v. pre-school non-formal education and

vi. nutrition & health education.

The concept of providing a package of services is based primarily on the consideration that the overall impact will be much larger if the different services develop in an integrated manner as the efficacy of a particular service depends upon the support it receives from related services.

Services Target Group Service Provided by

Supplementary Nutrition Children below 6 years:

Pregnant & Lactating Mother (P&LM)

Anganwadi Worker and Anganwadi Helper

Immunization* Children below 6 years:


ANM/MO

Health Check-up* Children below 6 years:


ANM/MO/AWW

Referral Services Children below 6 years:


AWW/ANM/MO

Pre-School Education Children 3-6 years AWW

Nutrition & Health Women (15-45 years) AWW/ANM/MO



Education

*AWW assists ANM in identifying the target group.

Nutrition including Supplementary Nutrition

This includes supplementary feeding and growth monitoring; and prophylaxis against vitamin A deficiency and control of nutritional anaemia. All families in the community are surveyed, to identify children below the age of six and pregnant & nursing mothers. They avail of supplementary feeding support for 300 days in a year. By providing supplementary feeding, the Anganwadi attempts to bridge the caloric gap between the national recommended and average intake of children and women in low income and disadvantaged communities.

Growth Monitoring and nutrition surveillance are two important activities that are undertaken. Children below the age of three years of age are weighed once a month and children 3-6 years of age are weighed quarterly. Weight-for-age growth cards are maintained for all children below six years. This helps to detect growth faltering and helps in assessing nutritional status. Besides, severely malnourished children are given special supplementary feeding and referred to medical services.

Immunization

Immunization of pregnant women and infants protects children from six vaccine preventable diseases-poliomyelitis, diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, tuberculosis and measles. These are major preventable causes of child mortality, disability, morbidity and related malnutrition. Immunization of pregnant women against tetanus also reduces maternal and neonatal mortality.

Health Check-ups

This includes health care of children less than six years of age, antenatal care of expectant mothers and postnatal care of nursing mothers. The various health services provided for children by anganwadi workers and Primary Health Centre (PHC) staff, include regular health check-ups, recording of weight, immunization, management of malnutrition, treatment of diarrhoea, de-worming and distribution of simple medicines etc.

Referral Services

During health check-ups and growth monitoring, sick or malnourished children, in need of prompt medical attention, are referred to the Primary Health Centre or its sub-centre. The anganwadi worker has also been oriented to detect disabilities in young children. She enlists all such cases in a special register and refers them to the medical officer of the Primary Health Centre/ Sub-centre.



Non-formal Pre-School Education (PSE)

The Non-formal Pre-school Education (PSE) component of the ICDS may well be considered the backbone of the ICDS programme, since all its services essentially converge at the anganwadi – a village courtyard. Anganwadi Centre (AWC) – a village courtyard – is the main platform for delivering of these services. These AWCs have been set up in every village in the country. In pursuance of its commitment to the cause of India’s Children, present government has decided to set up an AWC in every human habitation/ settlement. As a result, total number of AWC would go up to almost 1.4 million. This is also the most joyful play-way daily activity, visibly sustained for three hours a day. It brings and keeps young children at the anganwadi centre - an activity that motivates parents and communities. PSE, as envisaged in the ICDS, focuses on total development of the child, in the age up to six years, mainly from the underprivileged groups. Its programme for the three-to six years old children in the anganwadi is directed towards providing and ensuring a natural, joyful and stimulating environment, with emphasis on necessary inputs for optimal growth and development. The early learning component of the ICDS is a significant input for providing a sound foundation for cumulative lifelong learning and development. It also contributes to the universalization of primary education, by providing to the child the necessary preparation for primary schooling and offering substitute care to younger siblings, thus freeing the older ones – especially girls – to attend school.

Nutrition and Health Education

Nutrition, Health and Education (NHED) is a key element of the work of the anganwadi worker. This forms part of BCC (Behaviour Change Communication) strategy. This has the long term goal of capacity-building of women – especially in the age group of 15-45 years – so that they can look after their own health, nutrition and development needs as well as that of their children and families.

Funding Pattern

ICDS is a Centrally-sponsored Scheme implemented through the State Governments/UT Administrations. Prior to 2005-06, 100% financial assistance for inputs other than supplementary nutrition, which the States were to provided out of their own resources, was being provided by the Government of India. Since many States were not providing adequately for supplementary nutrition in view of resource constraints, it was decided in 2005-06 to support to States up to 50% of the financial norms or to support 50% of expenditure incurred by them on supplementary nutrition, whichever is less.

From the financial year 2009-10, Government of India has modified the funding pattern of ICDS between Centre and States. The sharing pattern of supplementary nutrition in respect of North-eastern States between Centre and States has been changed from 50:50 to 90:10 ratio.



So far as other States and UTs, the existing sharing pattern of 50:50 continues. However, for all other components of ICDS, the ratio has been modified to 90:10(100% Central Assistance earlier).

Budgetary Allocation

Alongside gradual expansion of the Scheme, there has also been a significant increase in the Budgetary allocation for ICDS Scheme from Rs.10391.75 crore in 10th Five Year Plan to Rs.44,400 crore in XI Plan Period.

The ICDS Team

The ICDS team comprises the Anganwadi Workers, Anganwadi Helpers, Supervisors, Child Development Project Officers (CDPOs) and District Programme Officers (DPOs). Anganwadi Worker, a lady selected from the local community, is a community based frontline honorary worker of the ICDS Programme. She is also an agent of social change, mobilizing community support for better care of young children, girls and women. Besides, the medical officers, Auxiliary Nurse Midwife (ANM) and Accredited Social Health Activist (ASHA) form a team with the ICDS functionaries to achieve convergence of different services.

Monitoring System

Central Level

Ministry of Women and Child Development (MWCD) has the overall responsibility of monitoring the ICDS scheme. There exists a Central Level ICDS Monitoring Unit in the Ministry which is responsible for collection and analysis of the periodic work reports received from the States in the prescribed formats. States have been asked to send the State level consolidated reports by 17th day of the following month.

The existing status of monitoring of these six services is as under:

(i) Supplementary Nutrition: No. of Beneficiaries (Children 6 months to 6 years and pregnant & lactating mothers) for supplementary nutrition;

(ii) Pre-School Education: No. of Beneficiaries (Children 3-6 years) attending pre-school education;

(iii) Immunization, Health Check-up and Referral services: Ministry of Health and Family Welfare is responsible for monitoring on health indicators relating to immunization, health check-up and referrals services under the Scheme.



(iv) Nutrition and Health Education: This service is not monitored at the Central Level. State Governments are required to monitor up to State level in the existing MIS System.

(v) No. of ICDS Projects and Anganwadi Centres (AWCs) w.r.t. targeted no. of ICDS Projects and AWCs are taken into account for review purpose.

The information received in the prescribed formats is compiled, processed and analysed at the Central level on quarterly basis. The progress and shortfalls indicated in the reports on ICDS are reviewed by the Ministry with the State Governments regularly by review meetings/ letters.

State Level

Various quantitative inputs captured through CDPO’s MPR/ HPR are compiled at the State level for all Projects in the State. No technical staff has been sanctioned for the state for programme monitoring. CDPO’s MPR capture information on number of beneficiaries for supplementary nutrition, pre-school education, field visit to AWCs by ICDS functionaries like Supervisors, CDPO/ ACDPO etc., information on number of meeting on nutrition and health education (NHED) and vacancy position of ICDS functionaries etc.

Block Level

At block level, Child Development Project Officer (CDPO) is the in-charge of an ICDS Project. CDPO’s MPR and HPR have been prescribed at block level,. These CDPO’s MPR/ HPR formats have one-to-one correspondence with AWW’s MPR/ HPR. CDPO’s MPR consists vacancy position of ICDS functionaries at block and AWC levels. At block level, no technical post of officials have been sanctioned under the scheme for monitoring. However, one post of statistical Assistant. Assistant is sanctioned at block level to consolidate the MPR/ HPR data.

In between CDPO and AWW, there exist a supervisor who is required to supervise 25 AWC on an average. CDPO is required to send the Monthly Progress Report (MPR) by 7th day of the following month to State Government. Similarly, CDPO is required to send Half-yearly Progress Report (HPR) to State by 7th April and 7th October every year.

Village Level (Anganwadi Level)

At the grass-root level, delivery of various services to target groups is given at the Anganwadi Centre (AWC). An AWC is managed by an honorary Anganwadi Worker (AWW) and an honorary Anganwadi Helper (AWH).



In the existing Management Information System, records and registers are prescribed at the Anganwadi level i.e. at village level. The Monthly and Half-yearly Progress Reports of Anganwadi Worker have also been prescribed. The monthly progress report of AWW capture information on population details, births and deaths of children, maternal deaths, no. of children attended AWC for supplementary nutrition and pre-school education, nutritional status of children by weight for age, information on nutrition and health education and home visits by AWW. Similarly, AWW’s Half yearly Progress Report capture data on literacy standard of AWW, training details of AWW, increase/ decrease in weight of children, details on space for storing ration at AWC, availability of health cards, availability of registers, availability of growth charts etc.

AWW is required to send these Monthly Progress Report (MPR) by 5th day of following month to CDPO’ In-charge of an ICDS Project. Similarly, AWW is required to send Half-yearly Progress Report (HPR) to CDPO by 5th April and 5th October every year.

International Partners

Government of India partners with the following international agencies to supplement interventions under the ICDS:

1. United Nations International Children’ Emergency Fund (UNICEF)

UNICEF supports the ICDS by providing technical support for the development of training plans, organizing of regional workshops and dissemination of best practices of ICDS. It also assists in service delivery and accreditation system where the capacity of ICDS functionary is strengthened. Impact assessment in selected States on early childhood nutrition and development, micro-nutrient and anemia control through Vit. ‘A’ supplementations and deworming interventions for children in the age group of 9-59 months is also conducted by UNICEF from time to time.

2. Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere (CARE)

CARE is primarily implementing some non-food projects in areas of maternal and child health, girl primary education, micro-credit etc. Integrated Nutrition and Health Project (INHP)-III, which is a phaseout programme of INHP series would come to an end on 31.12.2009.

3. World Food Programme (WFP)

WFP has been extending assistance to enhance the effectiveness and outreach of the ICDS Scheme in selected districts (Tikamgarh & Chhattarpur in Madhya Pradesh, Koraput, Malkangir & Nabrangpur in Orissa, Banswara in Rajasthan and Dantewada in Chhattisgarh), notably, by assisting the State Governments to start and expand



production of low cost micronutrient fortified food known as ‘Indiamix’. Under this the concerned State Government are required to contribute to the cost of Indiamix by matching the WFP wheat contribution at a 1:1 cost sharing ratio.


Documents

Social Welfare Administration