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Social structure in Rome Social structure in Rome Social class Social class in in ancient Rome ancient Rome played a played a major role in the lives of Romans. major role in the lives of Romans. Ancient Roman society was Ancient Roman society was hierarchical hierarchical . Free-born . Free-born Roman citizens Roman citizens were were divided into several classes, both by divided into several classes, both by ancestry and by property. There were ancestry and by property. There were also several classes of non-citizens also several classes of non-citizens with different legal rights, along with different legal rights, along with with slaves slaves who had none. who had none.

Social structure in Rome Social class in ancient Rome played a major role in the lives of Romans. Ancient Roman society was hierarchical. Free-born Roman

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Social structure in RomeSocial structure in Rome

Social classSocial class in in ancient Romeancient Rome played a played a major role in the lives of Romans. major role in the lives of Romans. Ancient Roman society was Ancient Roman society was hierarchicalhierarchical. . Free-born Free-born Roman citizensRoman citizens were divided were divided into several classes, both by ancestry into several classes, both by ancestry and by property. There were also several and by property. There were also several classes of non-citizens with different legal classes of non-citizens with different legal rights, along with rights, along with slavesslaves who had none. who had none.

Patricians and PlebeiansPatricians and Plebeians The broadest division was by ancestry, The broadest division was by ancestry,

between between patricianspatricians, those who could trace their , those who could trace their ancestry to the first ancestry to the first SenateSenate established by established by RomulusRomulus, and , and plebeiansplebeians, all other citizens. , all other citizens. Originally, all public offices were open only to Originally, all public offices were open only to patricians, and the classes could not patricians, and the classes could not intermarry. Contemporary politicians and intermarry. Contemporary politicians and writers (writers (CoriolanusCoriolanus, for example) in the , for example) in the Kingdom and early Republic thought of Kingdom and early Republic thought of plebeians as rabble barely capable of sentient plebeians as rabble barely capable of sentient thought. However, the plebeians, by thought. However, the plebeians, by withdrawing their labour, had the power to withdrawing their labour, had the power to force change.force change.

A series of social struggles saw the A series of social struggles saw the plebsplebs secede from the city on three occasions, the secede from the city on three occasions, the last in last in 297 BC297 BC, until their demands were met. , until their demands were met. They won the right to stand for office, the They won the right to stand for office, the abolition of the intermarriage law, and the abolition of the intermarriage law, and the office of office of tribunetribune of the of the plebsplebs. This office, . This office, founded in 494 BC as a result of a plebeian founded in 494 BC as a result of a plebeian secession, was the main legal bulwark against secession, was the main legal bulwark against the powers of the patrician class. The tribunes the powers of the patrician class. The tribunes originally had the power to protect any plebeian originally had the power to protect any plebeian from a patrician magistrate. from a patrician magistrate.

Later revolts forced the Senate to grant Later revolts forced the Senate to grant the tribunes additional powers, such as the tribunes additional powers, such as the right to the right to vetoveto legislation. A tribune's legislation. A tribune's person was sacrosanct, and he was person was sacrosanct, and he was obliged to keep an open house at all obliged to keep an open house at all times while in office. Following these times while in office. Following these changes the distinction between patrician changes the distinction between patrician and plebeian status became less and plebeian status became less important. important.

Over time, some patrician families fell on Over time, some patrician families fell on hard times, some plebeian families rose hard times, some plebeian families rose in status, and the composition of the in status, and the composition of the ruling class changed. Some patricians, ruling class changed. Some patricians, notably notably Publius Clodius PulcherPublius Clodius Pulcher, , petitioned to be assigned plebeian status, petitioned to be assigned plebeian status, partly in order to run for the position of partly in order to run for the position of tribune but also partly to lessen the tribune but also partly to lessen the patrician tax burden. Rome's growing patrician tax burden. Rome's growing economic power as a trading nation left economic power as a trading nation left many patrician families behind. many patrician families behind.

Those that could not adjust to Those that could not adjust to the new commercial realities of the new commercial realities of Roman society often found Roman society often found themselves in the embarrassing themselves in the embarrassing position of having to marry their position of having to marry their daughters to wealthier plebeians daughters to wealthier plebeians or even freedmen.or even freedmen.

A plebeian, such as A plebeian, such as MariusMarius or or CiceroCicero, , who was the first of his line to become who was the first of his line to become consulconsul, was known as a , was known as a novus homonovus homo ("new man"), and he and his ("new man"), and he and his descendants became descendants became nobilesnobiles ("nobles"); ("nobles"); however they remained plebeian. Some however they remained plebeian. Some religious offices remained reserved for religious offices remained reserved for patricians, but otherwise the distinction patricians, but otherwise the distinction was largely a matter of prestige.was largely a matter of prestige.

Property-based classesProperty-based classes

At the same time, the At the same time, the censuscensus divided citizens into six divided citizens into six complex classes based on property. The richest were complex classes based on property. The richest were the senatorial class, who were worth at least 1,000,000 the senatorial class, who were worth at least 1,000,000 sestertiisestertii. Membership of the Senatorial class did not . Membership of the Senatorial class did not necessarily entail membership of the Senate. The necessarily entail membership of the Senate. The wealth of the Senatorial class was based on ownership wealth of the Senatorial class was based on ownership of large agricultural estates, and its members were of large agricultural estates, and its members were forbidden from enagaging in commercial activity. With forbidden from enagaging in commercial activity. With a few exceptions, all political posts were filled by men a few exceptions, all political posts were filled by men from the Senatorial class. Below them were the from the Senatorial class. Below them were the equitesequites ("equestrians" or "knights"), with 400,000 ("equestrians" or "knights"), with 400,000 sestertiisestertii, who , who could engage in commerce and formed an influential could engage in commerce and formed an influential business class. business class.

Certain political and quasi-political positions Certain political and quasi-political positions were filled by were filled by equitesequites, including , including tax farmingtax farming and, under the Principate, leadership of the and, under the Principate, leadership of the Praetorian GuardPraetorian Guard. . PetroniusPetronius satirizes the satirizes the wealth of the wealth of the equitesequites class in his class in his SatyriconSatyricon, , describing a sumptuous dinner party hosted by describing a sumptuous dinner party hosted by the disagreeable knight Trimalchio. Below the the disagreeable knight Trimalchio. Below the equitesequites were three more classes of property- were three more classes of property-owning citizens; and lastly the owning citizens; and lastly the proletariiproletarii, who , who had no property at all.had no property at all.

Originally the census was to determine Originally the census was to determine military service, with the military service, with the equitesequites those who those who could afford to maintain a war-horse. The could afford to maintain a war-horse. The proletariiproletarii were ineligible to serve until the were ineligible to serve until the military reforms of military reforms of Gaius MariusGaius Marius in in 108 BC108 BC. . During the Republic the census classes also During the Republic the census classes also served as Rome's electoral college. Citizens served as Rome's electoral college. Citizens in each class were enrolled in in each class were enrolled in centuriaecenturiae ("centuries"), and in elections each ("centuries"), and in elections each centuriacenturia cast a single vote; however the higher cast a single vote; however the higher classes had more centuries, each with fewer classes had more centuries, each with fewer members, than the lower, meaning that the members, than the lower, meaning that the votes of the wealthy counted for more than votes of the wealthy counted for more than the votes of the poor. the votes of the poor.

Voting also took place in class order, and Voting also took place in class order, and a result declared as soon as a majority a result declared as soon as a majority was reached, so the was reached, so the proletariiproletarii, who were , who were all enrolled in a single century, rarely got all enrolled in a single century, rarely got to vote at all.to vote at all.

Non-citizensNon-citizens - - WomenWomen

Free-born women belonged to the social Free-born women belonged to the social class of their fathers until marriage, at class of their fathers until marriage, at which time they joined the class of their which time they joined the class of their husband. Freed women were able to husband. Freed women were able to marry but were barred from marriage with marry but were barred from marriage with senators or knights and did not join their senators or knights and did not join their husband's class. Slaves were not husband's class. Slaves were not allowed to marry.allowed to marry.

Non-citizensNon-citizens - - ForeignersForeigners

The The Latin RightLatin Right, a form of citizenship with , a form of citizenship with fewer rights than full Roman citizenship, fewer rights than full Roman citizenship, was conferred originally on the allied was conferred originally on the allied cities of cities of LatiumLatium and gradually extended and gradually extended to communities throughout the empire. to communities throughout the empire. Latin citizens had rights under Roman Latin citizens had rights under Roman law, but not the vote, although their law, but not the vote, although their leading magistrates could become full leading magistrates could become full citizens. citizens.

Free-born foreign subjects were Free-born foreign subjects were known as known as peregriniperegrini, and laws existed , and laws existed to govern their conduct and to govern their conduct and disputes. These distinctions disputes. These distinctions continued until AD 212, when continued until AD 212, when CaracallaCaracalla extended full Roman extended full Roman citizenship to all free-born men in the citizenship to all free-born men in the empire.empire.

Non-citizens - FreedmenNon-citizens - Freedmen

Freedmen (Freedmen (libertiliberti) were freed slaves, who ) were freed slaves, who had a form of Latin Right; their free-born had a form of Latin Right; their free-born children were full citizens. Their status children were full citizens. Their status varied from generation to generation through varied from generation to generation through the Republic; Livy states that freedmen in the Republic; Livy states that freedmen in the Early Republic mainly joined the lower the Early Republic mainly joined the lower sub-classes of the plebeians, while Juvenal, sub-classes of the plebeians, while Juvenal, writing during the Empire when financial writing during the Empire when financial considerations alone dictated economic considerations alone dictated economic class, describes freedmen who had been class, describes freedmen who had been accepted into the equestrian class.accepted into the equestrian class.

Freedmen made up the bulk of the civil Freedmen made up the bulk of the civil service during the early Empire. Many service during the early Empire. Many became enormously wealthy as the result of became enormously wealthy as the result of bribes, fraud, or other forms of corruption, bribes, fraud, or other forms of corruption, or were gifted large estates by the Emperor or were gifted large estates by the Emperor they served. Other freedmen engaged in they served. Other freedmen engaged in commerce, amassing vast fortunes often commerce, amassing vast fortunes often only rivalled by those of the wealthiest only rivalled by those of the wealthiest patricians. The majority of freedmen, patricians. The majority of freedmen, however, joined the plebeian classes, and however, joined the plebeian classes, and often worked as farmers or tradesman.often worked as farmers or tradesman.

Although freedmen were not allowed to Although freedmen were not allowed to vote during the Republic and the early vote during the Republic and the early Empire, children of freedmen were Empire, children of freedmen were automatically granted the status of automatically granted the status of citizen. The Augustan poet citizen. The Augustan poet HoraceHorace was was himself the child of a freedman from himself the child of a freedman from VenusiaVenusia in southern Italy. in southern Italy.

Many of the Many of the Satires of JuvenalSatires of Juvenal contain contain angry denouncements of the pretensions angry denouncements of the pretensions of wealthy freedmen, some 'with the of wealthy freedmen, some 'with the chalk of the slave market still on their chalk of the slave market still on their heel'. Although himself the son of a heel'. Although himself the son of a freedman, Juvenal saw these successful freedman, Juvenal saw these successful men as men as nouveaux richesnouveaux riches who were far who were far too ready to show off their (often ill-too ready to show off their (often ill-gotten) wealth.gotten) wealth.

SlavesSlaves

Slaves (Slaves (serviservi) were for the most part ) were for the most part descended from debtors and from prisoners of descended from debtors and from prisoners of war, especially women and children captured war, especially women and children captured during sieges and other military campaigns in during sieges and other military campaigns in Italy, Spain, and Carthage. In the later years of Italy, Spain, and Carthage. In the later years of the Republic and into the Empire, more slaves the Republic and into the Empire, more slaves came from newly conquered areas of came from newly conquered areas of GaulGaul, , Britain, North Africa, the Middle East, and what Britain, North Africa, the Middle East, and what is now eastern Turkey.is now eastern Turkey.

Slaves originally had no rights Slaves originally had no rights whatsoever and could be disposed of by whatsoever and could be disposed of by their owners at any time. As time went their owners at any time. As time went on, however, the Senate and later the on, however, the Senate and later the emperors enacted legislation meant to emperors enacted legislation meant to protect the lives and health of slaves. protect the lives and health of slaves. However, until slavery was abolished However, until slavery was abolished Roman men habitually used their slaves Roman men habitually used their slaves for sexual purposes. for sexual purposes.

Horace, for instance, writes of his love for Horace, for instance, writes of his love for his young, attractive slaves, and in the his young, attractive slaves, and in the epode epode Parentis olimParentis olim chides Maecenas for chides Maecenas for eating garlic & onions and forcing his eating garlic & onions and forcing his slave of the night to retreat to the edge of slave of the night to retreat to the edge of the bed. All children born to female the bed. All children born to female slaves were legally slaves, although slaves were legally slaves, although many testators (Tacitus, among others) many testators (Tacitus, among others) freed the slaves whom they believed to freed the slaves whom they believed to be their natural children.be their natural children.