SOCIAL STRATIFICATION: SOCIAL STRATIFICATION: CLASS AND RACIAL CLASS AND RACIAL

INEQUALITYINEQUALITY

Natalie Conte, Oneika Jenkins, Mandeep Natalie Conte, Oneika Jenkins, Mandeep ChohanChohan

OverviewOverview

►Theoretical approachesTheoretical approaches►Dimensions of institutional racismDimensions of institutional racism►Analysis of Racism and Capitalist Analysis of Racism and Capitalist

Relations of ProductionRelations of Production►Population and Labour Force Population and Labour Force

ParticipationParticipation►Racial and Ethnic InequalityRacial and Ethnic Inequality

““Sex and race, because they are easy and visible Sex and race, because they are easy and visible differences, have been the primary ways of differences, have been the primary ways of organizing human beings into superior and inferior organizing human beings into superior and inferior groups and into the cheap labour in which this groups and into the cheap labour in which this system still depends. We are talking about a system still depends. We are talking about a society in which there will be no roles other than society in which there will be no roles other than those chosen or those earned. We are really talking those chosen or those earned. We are really talking about humanism.”about humanism.”

- - GLORIA STEINEMGLORIA STEINEM

Racism as an Anomaly/Secondary Racism as an Anomaly/Secondary Feature of Social/Economic/Political Feature of Social/Economic/Political

RelationsRelations► A prioriA priori explains away idea that racism is a “problem” explains away idea that racism is a “problem”► Racism an irrational attribute of an otherwise fair, Racism an irrational attribute of an otherwise fair,

equal, achievement-oriented societyequal, achievement-oriented society► Racism is either an anomaly that will eventually Racism is either an anomaly that will eventually

disappear due to universalizing and levelling disappear due to universalizing and levelling tendencies of “post-industrialism” ortendencies of “post-industrialism” or

► A secondary feature of social/economic/political A secondary feature of social/economic/political relationsrelations

Underlying Implications/CriticismsUnderlying Implications/Criticisms ► Racism and the development of ideas that involve Racism and the development of ideas that involve

evaluations of superiority/inferiority based on group evaluations of superiority/inferiority based on group differences is a dysfunctional, irrational feature of differences is a dysfunctional, irrational feature of social relationssocial relations

► Social practices based on racially defined criteria are Social practices based on racially defined criteria are unnecessary for capitalist social and economic unnecessary for capitalist social and economic developmentdevelopment

Racial Inequality as a Result of Racial Inequality as a Result of

Individual CharacteristicsIndividual Characteristics ► Problem of inequality is not located in structural Problem of inequality is not located in structural

operation of society, but rather in the particular operation of society, but rather in the particular cultural or psychological characteristics of groups of cultural or psychological characteristics of groups of peoplepeople

► Emphasizes the anomalous nature of inequality Emphasizes the anomalous nature of inequality within a mostly fair and equal-opportunity societywithin a mostly fair and equal-opportunity society

► Rosen: groups differ in their levels of achievement Rosen: groups differ in their levels of achievement motivation, their “psychological need to excel”motivation, their “psychological need to excel”

► Herrnstein & Murray: “success and failure in the…Herrnstein & Murray: “success and failure in the…economy…are increasingly a matter of the genes economy…are increasingly a matter of the genes that people inherit”that people inherit”

Underlying Implication/CriticismUnderlying Implication/Criticism► There is equality of opportunity within a framework There is equality of opportunity within a framework

of inequality of conditionof inequality of condition

Racial Inequality as a Result of Racial Inequality as a Result of

Cultural FactorsCultural Factors ► Root of problem lies in the apparent failure of Root of problem lies in the apparent failure of

groups to assimilate into mainstream social groups to assimilate into mainstream social relations, which has prevented their full relations, which has prevented their full participation in society orparticipation in society or

► There exists a culture of poverty precluding the There exists a culture of poverty precluding the possibility of social/economic mobility for certain possibility of social/economic mobility for certain groups of peoplegroups of people

► Oscar Lewis: living in a state of poverty creates a Oscar Lewis: living in a state of poverty creates a certain culture, which sets into motion a self-certain culture, which sets into motion a self-fulfilling prophecy and creates internal, cultural fulfilling prophecy and creates internal, cultural barriers to social mobility and economic barriers to social mobility and economic advancementadvancement

Underlying Implications/Criticisms:Underlying Implications/Criticisms:

► Concept of assimilation implies that there are Concept of assimilation implies that there are certain objective, widely accepted standards of certain objective, widely accepted standards of behaviour indicative of social/structural integration behaviour indicative of social/structural integration

► Blaming the victim by focusing on “social Blaming the victim by focusing on “social maladjustment” or “social defects”maladjustment” or “social defects”

► Values, attitudes, and orientations are assumed to Values, attitudes, and orientations are assumed to be key causal variables in stratification processbe key causal variables in stratification process

► Values exist in isolation of material circumstances Values exist in isolation of material circumstances in which poor people livein which poor people live

► Racism and discrimination have no impact on social Racism and discrimination have no impact on social inequalityinequality

Racial Inequality as a Consequence Racial Inequality as a Consequence

of Institutional Racismof Institutional Racism ► Structural theory explains phenomena by Structural theory explains phenomena by

considering underpinning structures of society, considering underpinning structures of society, such as history, culture, public policies, institutional such as history, culture, public policies, institutional practices, etc.practices, etc.

► Institutional racism (a structural aspect of Institutional racism (a structural aspect of racist ideology) racist ideology) refers to sets of social practices refers to sets of social practices that are:that are: Institutionally basedInstitutionally based Make reference to individious distinctions based Make reference to individious distinctions based

on physical/genetic criteriaon physical/genetic criteria Have the effect of structuring what certain Have the effect of structuring what certain

groups of people can/can’t dogroups of people can/can’t do

Canadian Dimensions of Canadian Dimensions of Institutional RacismInstitutional Racism

Immigration ControlImmigration Control

► Has been used to exclude Has been used to exclude or deter people of certain or deter people of certain nationality/ethnic origin nationality/ethnic origin from entry into Canada - from entry into Canada - E.g. Chinese head tax, E.g. Chinese head tax, South Asians and the South Asians and the “continuous journey” rule“continuous journey” rule

► Has been used to relegate Has been used to relegate certain immigrants to certain immigrants to cheap labour by limiting cheap labour by limiting choices in employmentchoices in employment

► To use immigrants as To use immigrants as leverage in labour leverage in labour disputes disputes

http://archives.cbc.ca/IDC-1-69-1433-9242/life_society/chinese_immigration/clip1

Allocative MechanismAllocative Mechanism

► Institutional racism used as a means to allocate Institutional racism used as a means to allocate groups of people to certain sites in production groups of people to certain sites in production relations, as some sectors require large pools of relations, as some sectors require large pools of readily available cheap and docile labourreadily available cheap and docile labour - - E.g. The E.g. The allocation of Caribbean women to positions as allocation of Caribbean women to positions as domestic servants domestic servants

► Migrant labour seen as a way to increase labour-Migrant labour seen as a way to increase labour-market flexibility, but also to prevent “undesirable” market flexibility, but also to prevent “undesirable” immigrants from forming families in Canadaimmigrants from forming families in Canada

Civil and Political MarginalizationCivil and Political Marginalization

► Non-Europeans regarded as “racially” incapable of Non-Europeans regarded as “racially” incapable of participation in bourgeois democratic political participation in bourgeois democratic political traditionstraditions

► Non-Europeans regarded as incapable of taking on Non-Europeans regarded as incapable of taking on responsibilities/duties of citizenship i.e. voting, responsibilities/duties of citizenship i.e. voting, obtaining an education, participating in community obtaining an education, participating in community lifelife

► The denial of franchise and participation in The denial of franchise and participation in mainstream union activities further marginalized mainstream union activities further marginalized part of political basis upon which these groups part of political basis upon which these groups could resist their exploitation could resist their exploitation

Denial of the FamilyDenial of the Family

► State policies have been structured by a desire to State policies have been structured by a desire to preclude the emergence of Canadian-born preclude the emergence of Canadian-born generations of non-Europeans generations of non-Europeans

► Some argue that Canadian government’s efforts to Some argue that Canadian government’s efforts to continually narrow definition of a family member continually narrow definition of a family member under family class immigration regulations is a under family class immigration regulations is a current covert attempt to use neo-racist criteria to current covert attempt to use neo-racist criteria to curtail family reunification among Asian immigrants curtail family reunification among Asian immigrants in Canadain Canada

► Migrant labour from Caribbean also a means to Migrant labour from Caribbean also a means to curtail family formation and creation of Canadian-curtail family formation and creation of Canadian-born black populationborn black population

Institutional Racism: Institutional Racism: Continuous Journey, 1908Continuous Journey, 1908

Continuous Journey Regulation of Continuous Journey Regulation of 19081908

► Part of the Immigration Policy of Canada Section 38, 1910: Part of the Immigration Policy of Canada Section 38, 1910: (http://www.collectionscanada.ca/immigrants/021017-2511.01-e.html)(http://www.collectionscanada.ca/immigrants/021017-2511.01-e.html)

► Immigrants had to come by "continuous journey“ and Immigrants had to come by "continuous journey“ and enter with at least $200 cash on their persons. enter with at least $200 cash on their persons.

► The Canadian government forced Canadian Pacific to The Canadian government forced Canadian Pacific to stop this servicestop this service

► The Canadian government was also pressuring The Canadian government was also pressuring steamship companies to stop selling tickets to Indianssteamship companies to stop selling tickets to Indians

► a bill was passed denying all Indians the right to vote a bill was passed denying all Indians the right to vote ► prohibited to run for public office, serve on juries, and prohibited to run for public office, serve on juries, and

were not permitted to become accountants, lawyers or were not permitted to become accountants, lawyers or pharmacists pharmacists

► restrictions on Asian immigration were being enacted at restrictions on Asian immigration were being enacted at a time when Canada was accepting massive numbers of a time when Canada was accepting massive numbers of European immigrants (over 400,000 in 1913 alone - a European immigrants (over 400,000 in 1913 alone - a figure that remains unsurpassed to this day.) figure that remains unsurpassed to this day.)

Population and Labour Force Participation

EducationEducation

Canadian Social Trends, Visible Minorities in the Labour Force, Kelly Tran

Labour Force Participation for Labour Force Participation for WomenWomen

Labour Force Participation for Men

Socio-Economic Characteristics of Canadian-Born, Foreign-Born, Select Visible Minority Groups, for

Females and Males

► 1984: Royal Commission on Equality in Employment 1984: Royal Commission on Equality in Employment report coined the term “Employment Equity” to report coined the term “Employment Equity” to describe the Canadian approach to dealing with describe the Canadian approach to dealing with employment disadvantage. employment disadvantage.

► Requires that employers identify and remove Requires that employers identify and remove discriminatory policies and practices, and seek to discriminatory policies and practices, and seek to achieve equality in the workplace (Status of Women achieve equality in the workplace (Status of Women Canada, p. 4).Canada, p. 4).

► Commission maintained that employment barriers Commission maintained that employment barriers

which were created by systemic discrimination which were created by systemic discrimination could only be dismantled through specific could only be dismantled through specific legislationlegislation

Employment EquityEmployment Equity

““It is not that individuals in the It is not that individuals in the designated groups are inherently designated groups are inherently unable to achieve equality on their own, unable to achieve equality on their own, it is that the obstacles in their way are it is that the obstacles in their way are so formidable and self-perpetuating that so formidable and self-perpetuating that they cannot be overcome without they cannot be overcome without intervention…Equality in employment intervention…Equality in employment will not happen unless we make it will not happen unless we make it happen.”happen.”-Royal Commission on Equality in -Royal Commission on Equality in EmploymentEmployment

Purpose of the Employment Equity Purpose of the Employment Equity Act:Act:

► To achieve equality in the workplace so that no To achieve equality in the workplace so that no person shall be denied employment opportunities person shall be denied employment opportunities or benefits for reasons unrelated to abilityor benefits for reasons unrelated to ability

► To correct the conditions of disadvantage in To correct the conditions of disadvantage in employment experienced by women, Aboriginal employment experienced by women, Aboriginal peoples, persons with disabilities, and visible peoples, persons with disabilities, and visible minority people minority people

► To acknowledge that employment equity means To acknowledge that employment equity means more than treating persons in the same way but more than treating persons in the same way but also requires special measures and the also requires special measures and the accommodation of differences (Government of accommodation of differences (Government of Canada, 2003).Canada, 2003).

Ethnic and Racial InequalityEthnic and Racial Inequality

► Systematic discriminationSystematic discrimination: The institutionalized : The institutionalized systems and practices [that] result in arbitrary and systems and practices [that] result in arbitrary and extensive exclusions for persons who, by reason of extensive exclusions for persons who, by reason of their group affiliation, are systematically denied a their group affiliation, are systematically denied a full opportunity to demonstrate their individual full opportunity to demonstrate their individual abilities. (Abello 1984)abilities. (Abello 1984)

► Vertical MosaicVertical Mosaic: Initiated by John Porter (1965) in : Initiated by John Porter (1965) in The Vertical mosaic (used census data to argue that The Vertical mosaic (used census data to argue that there was a reciprocal relationship between there was a reciprocal relationship between ethnicity and social class in Canada. Defined as: ethnicity and social class in Canada. Defined as: where a persons ethnic background would have a where a persons ethnic background would have a significant impact on where he/she ends up in the significant impact on where he/she ends up in the larger system of class relations and social larger system of class relations and social inequality within Canada.inequality within Canada.

► People of British and Northern European origins People of British and Northern European origins control many of the economic and political resources control many of the economic and political resources in Canada, they give subordinate positions in the in Canada, they give subordinate positions in the labour market to those they consider themselves labour market to those they consider themselves superior too (Eastern Europeans, Asians, Africans).superior too (Eastern Europeans, Asians, Africans).

► Many studies since the Vertical Mosaic still support Many studies since the Vertical Mosaic still support that there is systematic discrimination within the that there is systematic discrimination within the Canadian labour market.1986 Employment Equity Act Canadian labour market.1986 Employment Equity Act introduced to challenge systematic discrimination in introduced to challenge systematic discrimination in the labour market against women, visible minorities, the labour market against women, visible minorities, aboriginal people and physically challenged.aboriginal people and physically challenged.

StatisticsStatistics

► Pendakur and Pendakur (1995)Pendakur and Pendakur (1995)

Comparison of Wages Earned For Men

Category Salary Percentage

White men born in Canada

$36,563

Visible minority born in Canada

$31,653 13.4% Less

Aboriginal men born in Canada

$28,725 21.4% Less

White immigrants $38,456 5.2% More

Visible minority immigrants

$28,285 22.6% Less

Comparison of Wages Earned For Women

Category Salary Percentage

White women born in Canada

$23,173

Visible minority born in Canada

$23,149 0.1% Less

Aboriginal women born in Canada

$19,887 14.2% Less

White immigrants $22,498 2.9% Less

Visible minority immigrants

$20,132 13.1% Less

ResultsResults► Pendakur and Pendakur ultimately introduced regression Pendakur and Pendakur ultimately introduced regression

techniques, which looked at other factors (Occupation, techniques, which looked at other factors (Occupation, industry of employment, household type, census industry of employment, household type, census metropolitan areas of residence, number of weeks metropolitan areas of residence, number of weeks worked, full time or part time status, knowledge of worked, full time or part time status, knowledge of French/English and level of education)French/English and level of education)

► They concluded that there should be some concern that They concluded that there should be some concern that visible minorities do face systematic discrimination.visible minorities do face systematic discrimination.

► It was also noted that, visible minority immigrant men It was also noted that, visible minority immigrant men face some form of systematic discrimination that cannot face some form of systematic discrimination that cannot be explained by any apparent difference in qualification.be explained by any apparent difference in qualification.

► Although it may seem that there is blatant discrimination Although it may seem that there is blatant discrimination it has not been necessarily proven that groups of people it has not been necessarily proven that groups of people with the same qualifications, gender, experience and with the same qualifications, gender, experience and occupation face discrimination in the labour market.occupation face discrimination in the labour market.

How does this discrimination take How does this discrimination take place?place?

► Submerged split labour market Submerged split labour market ► Non-acknowledgement of foreign credentials Non-acknowledgement of foreign credentials

Two reports that reported on Non-Two reports that reported on Non-acknowledgement of foreign credentials :acknowledgement of foreign credentials :

► Equality Now!Equality Now! By a special committee on By a special committee on Visible Minorities 1984Visible Minorities 1984

► Equality in Employment Equality in Employment 1984, a royal 1984, a royal commission reportcommission report

► Racism and racial inequality have been central to Racism and racial inequality have been central to the formation and reproduction of capitalist the formation and reproduction of capitalist relations or production in Canada.relations or production in Canada.

► Attempts to fix the problem of racism through Attempts to fix the problem of racism through education are thought to only “give the appearance education are thought to only “give the appearance of change without changing the status quo” (Bolaria of change without changing the status quo” (Bolaria and Li 1985, 29)and Li 1985, 29)

Class Activity: Employment Equity Class Activity: Employment Equity DebateDebate

► Formulate thoughtful arguments Formulate thoughtful arguments supporting your side of the debate.supporting your side of the debate.

► Should employment equity initiatives be Should employment equity initiatives be used in human resource practices?used in human resource practices?

► Suppose there exists a consensus that Suppose there exists a consensus that employment equity is a positive initiative. employment equity is a positive initiative. Should employment equity be a Should employment equity be a mandatorymandatory requirement of the private requirement of the private sector?sector?