SOCIAL SCIENCESTANDARD SEVEN

TERM I

[PfrSTORY1,THE NORTH INDIAN KINGDOMS-THE RAJPUTS

The history of every countryis long and complex. Hence tounderstand history in a very easyand convenient manner, thehistorians have divided it intodifferent periods such as theAncient Period, the MedievalPeriodand the ModernPeriod.

The period of history, that youare about to learn is the Medievalperiod of Indian History. This periodlies between the 8th and the 18thcenturyA.D. and isclassifiedas TheEarly Medieval period (8lh-12lhcentury A.O.) and the LaterMedieval period (1S*1*"! 81h century)

In the forthcoming chapters youwill be learning about the historicalevents that took place during thisperiod in both Northand South India.This chapter deals with the Rajputswho belonged to the earlymedievalperiod.

The Ancient Indian historycame to an end with therule of Harsha and Pulakesin II.From the death of Harsha to the 12thcentury, the destiny of India wasmostly in the hands of variousRajputdynasties.

Scholars have different theoriesabout the origin of the Rajputs.

The populartheoriesare,

i) They are the descendants ofLord Rama (Surya vamsa) orLord Krishna (Chandra vamsa)or the Herowho sprang from thesacrificial fire (Agni Kulatheory),

ii) They belong to the ancientKshatriyafamilies,

iii) They are foreigners.

There were nearly 36 Rajput'clans. The majorclanswere

The PratiharasofAvanti.ThePalasof Bengal.

The Chauhans of Delhi and AjmerThe Tomars of Delhi

The Rathorsof Kanauj

The Guhilasor Sisodiyasof Mewar

The Chandellasof BundelkhandThe Paramarasof Malwa

The Senasof Bengal

The Solankisof Gujarat._j

Struggle for Supremacy

During the Rajput period therewere nearly 36 Rajput clans rulingover North India. Afew of themwerethe Pratiharas, Palas, Chauhans,Tomars, Chandelasand Paramaras.There was no strong central

TheRajputPeriod(647A.D-1200A.D.)

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authority.The Rajputs lacked unityandstruggled with one another. Theyalso neglected the frontiers of Indiaand gave way for the Muslims toinvade Indiaata later period.The Pratiharas 8th-!1th Century A.D.

The Pratiharaswere also knownas Gurjara Pratiharas as theybelongedto the Gurjara race.

They ruled over northern andwestern India from the 8th to the 11thcenturyA.D.

Nagabhatta I (725-740.A.D.)was the founder of the Pratiharadynasty with Kanauj as his capital.He defeated the Arabs of Sind. Healso captured Kathiawar, Malwa,Gujarat and several parts of theRajputana.

Among his successors,Vatsaraja and Nagabhatta II playeda vital role in consolidating theempire. Mihirabhoja was the mostpowerful Pratihara king. During hisperiod, the empire extended fromKashmir to Narmada and fromKathiawar to Bihar. He was able tostop the Muslim invasion underJunaid of Sind. Mahendrapala (885-908 A.D.) son of Mihirabhoja, wasalso a powerful ruler. He extendedhis control over Magadha and northBengal.

Declineof the PratiharasRajyapalawas the last Pratihara

king. During his period the vastempire was reduced to Kanauj. ThePratihara power began to declineafter Mahmud of Ghazni attackedthe kingdom in 1018 A.D. After thedecline of the Prathiharas theirfeudatories Palas, Tomars,Chauhans, Rathors, Chandellas,Guhilas and Paramaras becameindependent rulers.The Palas (8th -12th CenturyA.D.)

There was complete anarchy inBengal between 750-760A.D. Thechieftains of Bengal selectedGopala as the King of Bengal andBihar in order to put an end toanarchy.

Gopala (765-769.A.D.) soonrestored order and founded the Paladynasty. Gopala extended his powerover Magadha and the Pala dynastyruled over northern and easternIndia.

Dharmapala (769-815 A.D.) theson of Gopala, succeeded him. Hebrought Kanauj, Bengal and Biharunder his control and became themaster of Northern India afterdefeating the Pratiharas. He was astaunch Buddhist and foundedseveral monasteriesand the famousVikramasila University. He alsorenovated the Nalanda University.

Dharmapala's son Devapala(815-855 A.D.) who succeeded himkept the Pala territories intact. Healso captured Assam and Orissa.His successors were weak. Duringthe reign of (998-1038.A.D.) the Palas becamepowerfulagain.

/ \

Pratiharas-A bulwarkThe Pratiharas stood as a

bulwark of India's defence againstthe aggression of the Muslims fromthe days of Junaid of Sind(725.A.D.) to that of Mahmud ofGhazni.

V_

/

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The Pala dynasty starteddeclining after the death ofMahipala. The last Pala king wasGovinda Pala. By the middle of the12th century the Pala kingdom gaveway to the risingpowerof the Senas.

Tripartite Strugglefor Kanauj

The Pratiharas of Central India,the Palas of Bengal and theRashtrakutas of Deccan wanted toestablish their supremacy overKanauj and the fertile GangeticValley. Their Tripartite strugglelasted nearly 200 years andweakened all of them and enabledthe Turks to overthrow them.TheTomars of Delhi

The Tomars were thefeudatories of the Pratiharas. Theyroseto powerandfounded the cityofDelhi in 736 A.D. In 1043 A.D.,Mahipala Tomar capturedThaneshwar, Hansiand Nagarkot.

The Tomars became thefeudatories of the Chauhans whenDelhi was captured by them inmiddleof the 12th century.

The Chauhans of DelhiandAjmer

The Chauhans who were thefeudatories of the Pratiharasdeclared their independence in the1101 century atAjmer. Inthe early partof the 12th century they capturedUjjainfrom the Paramaras of Malwaand Delhi from the Tomars. Thusthey shifted their capital to Delhi.The most important ruler of thisdynasty was PrithvtrajChauhan.

Rathorsof Kanauj(1090-1194A.D.)

There was a lot of confusionafter the decline of the Pratiharas.Ultimately, the Rathors establishedthemselves on the throne of Kanaujfrom 1090 to 1194 A.D. Jaichandwas the last great ruler of thisdynasty. Hewas killed inthe battleofChandwar in 1194A.D. byMuhammadofGhori.

The Chandellas of BundelkhandThe Chandellas of Bundelkhand

established themselves in the 9thcentury. The Chandella ChiefYasovarman had his capital atMahoba.

Kanderiya Mahadeva Temple

Kalinjar was their important fort.The Chandellas built a number ofbeautiful temples at Khajuraho, themost famous being the KandariyaMahadeva Temple (1050 A.D.).Qutb-ud-din Aibak defeated,Paramal the last Chandella ruler in1203A.D.

The Guhllas or Slsodlyas ofMewar

The Rajput ruler Bapa Rawatwas the founder of the Guhila or theSisodiya dynasty with its capital atChittor During the period of RanaRatan Singh of Mewar, Ala-ud-din

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khilji invaded his territory anddefeated him in 1307 A.D. RanaRatan Singh's wife Queen Padminiperformed Jauhar. The Sisodiyarulers- Rana Sangha and: MaharanaPratap gave a tough fight to theMughal rulersof India.

The Paramaras of MalwaThe Paramaras were also the

feudatories of Pratiharas. Theyasserted their independence in the10thcentury and their capital was atDhara. Raja Bhoja (1018-1069) wasthe most famous ruler of this period.He constructed a beautiful lake(More than 250 sq. miles) near Bhopal.He set up a college at Dhara for thestudy of Sanskrit Literature. Thereign of the Paramaras came to anend with the invasion of Ala-ud-dinKhilji.

Natureofthe Rajputs

The Rajputswere great warriorsand chivalrous by nature. Theybelieved in protecting the womenand the weak. The women preferreddeath to dishonour. They wereeducated and were highly honouredin society. They took part in publiclife and wars. Child marriage andpolygamy were in practice. Womenperformed Sati and Jauhar toprotect themselves from the handsof the enemies and to avoiddishonour.

Religion

The Rajputs were staunchfollowers of Hinduism. They alsopatronized Buddhism and Jainism.It was during their period that theBhaktiCult started.

GovernmentThe Rajput government was

feudal in character. Each kingdomwas divided into a large number ofJagirs held by the Jagirdars. TheJagidars collected revenue from theallocated villages and gave a shareof it to the king. They also offeredmilitaryassistance to their kings.

Contributionofthe Rajputs

The Rajputs have contributedremarkably to the development oflanguage, literature, art andarchitecture of India.

Languageand Literature

During the Rajput period,regional languages like Marathi,Gujarati and Bengali were welldeveloped. The Bhakti saints andthe folk singers played a major rolein the development of regionallanguages.r

Lingaraja Temple

Some of the literaryworks of thisperiod are Kalhana's Rajatarangini,Jayadeva's Gita Govindam andSomadeva's Kathasaritasagar.Chand Bardai, the court poet ofPrithviraj Chauhan, wrote PrithvirajRaso in which he refers to themilitary exploits of PrithvirajChauhan. Bhaskara Charya wroteSiddhanta Shinomani, a book on

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North Indian Kingdoms

/•NalandChandellas

Paramarai BundelkhaiVd

ionark

Arabian SeaBay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

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astronomy. Rajasekhara was thecourt poet of Mahendrapala andMahipala.r

Sun Temple - Konark

His best known works wereKarpuramanjari and BalaRamayana.

ArtandArchitecture

Mural paintings and Miniaturepaintings became popular duringthis period.

Udaipur Palace

The Khajuraho group oftemples, the Lingaraja Temple at

Bhubaneshwar, the Sun Temple atKonark and the Dilwara Temple atMountAbu are the fine specimens oftemple architecture of theRajputs.

Dilwara Temple

The Khajuraho temples attracttourists from India and abroad. ThePalaces at Jaipur and Udaipur andthe forts at Jaisalmar, Chittor,Mandu, Jodhpur and Gwalior arefine examples of Rajputarchitecture.

Endof the RajputPowerDuring the Rajput period there

was nostrong military power in Indiato keep the warring princes in checkand to co-ordinate their activitiesagainst foreign invasions.Thispolitical situation enabled the Turksto establish their control over India.

Sati :Self-immolationofawidow on herhusband'sfuneral pyre.

Jauhar:Amass suicide ofwomen inorder toescapedefilementatthe handsofforeignvictors.The Rajput Literature - Gita Govindam: 'Song of the cowherd' Rajatarangini -'River of Kings',Kathasaritasagara-Oceanoftales'.Khajuraho temples: The Khajuraho temples were built by the Chandellas between the 10th and12thcenturiesA.D.They are regarded as divine poetry on stone.These temples were actually lostas theywere overrun byanearbyjungle till the early ig"1centuryandwere found .Therearearound30 temples inthe area inand around Bundelkhand.The exterior and the interior of these templeshavevery finesculptures

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EXERCISEI)Choosethe correct answer.

I.The Middle Period or the medieval period extended from the_century.

a) 8th -18th b) 1-8th c)18th-Present2.The founder of the Pratiharadynasty was_.

a) Mahendrapala b) Mihirabhoja c) Nagabhatta I3. Dharmapalafounded the famous Universityat_.

a)Nalanda b)Taxila c)Vikramasila

4. The most important ruler of the Chauhan dynasty wasChauhana)Jayapala b)Mahipala c)Prithviraj

5.The capital of the Paramaraswas at_.a) Delhi b)Malwa c)Dhara

II)Fill inthe blanks.1.The Pratiharaswere also knownas_.2. Gopalaextended hispower over_.3. The Nalanda Universitywas renovated by_ÿ

4. Raja Bhojaconstructed a beautiful lake near_5. Bhaskaracharyawrote SiddhantaShiromani, a bookon_.

Ill) Matchthe following.1. Khajuraho Temples - MountAbu2. Chand Bardai - Chandellas3. Rajasekara - Prithviraj Raso4. SunTemple - Karpuramanjari5. DilwaraTemple - Konark

IV) Answer the following questions briefly.1. How isthe Medieval Periodof IndianHistoryclassified?2. Nameany four RajputClanswhich ruledover North India.3. Write a noteon the nature of the Rajputs.4. Whatwas the contribution of the Chandellas to temple architecture?5. Who was the founder of Guhila dynasty? Where was its

capital?V)Answer indetail.

1. Write a detailed account of the Pratiharas.2. Whatwere the contributionsof the Rajputs invarious fields?

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FormativeAssessment

I. Rearrange the jumbled words:

1.Founderof the Guhiladynasty2.Chandellachief3. Last Pratihara king4. Last Chandella ruler5. Mostfamous Paramara ruler

-WABAPARAL- RYAANOSVAM-ALPAYAARJ-MPLARAA-JAHABAORJ

II. WHO AM I ?1. I renovated the Nalanda University - Who am I?2. I constructed a beautiful lake near Bhopal -Who am I?3. Iwas the last great ruler of Rathor dynasty -Who am I?4. Iwrote the book Rajatarangini -Who am I?5. I am the son of Mihira Bhoja -Who am I?

III. Cross Word:

1 6

7 8

2

3

4

5

Across:1. The last Pala ruler.2. The ruler who strengthened the Pala dynasty.3. The Prathihara ruler who extended his kingdom upto the Magadha Empire.4. The ruler who consolidated the Prathihara Empire.5. The most powerful ruler of the Prathiharas.Down:6. The founder of the Vikramasila University.7. The son of Dharmapala.8. The founder of the Pala dynasty.

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IV. Mind Mapping :Write a paragraph on the Prathiharas using the given hints.

Location y >period Important

rulers

RacePrathiharas

Invasions

Declinereasons

Contributions

Group Activity:Write the names of all the rulers belonging to different clans on the board oron the flash cards.

2. Draw the following tabular column on the board.3. Divide the class into groups and ask a child from each group to pick a name of the

ruler,and fill it inthe relevantcolumn.

Prathiharas Palas Tomars Chauhans Rathors Chandelas Guhilas Paramaras

VI. Things to do:1. Mark the following places on the outline map of India.

Ajmer, Nalanda, Kanauj, Bundelkhand, Indraprastha.2. Enact a skit on the theme - 'United we stand and divided we fall' keeping

in mind the political conditions during the Rajput Period.

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2. THE KINGDOMS OF THE DECCAN

The southern part of India iscalled the Deccan or theDakshinapatha. The Deccan wasseparated from Northern India bythe Vindhya and Satpuramountains, the Narmada and Taptiand the dense forests. Hence, thesouthern region was not affectedmuch by the historical happenings inNorth India. The medieval periodwitnessed the rise of the Chalukyasand the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan.With the decline of the Chalukyastheir feudatories namely theHoysalas, Kakatiyas and Yadavasasserted their independence. Thisperiod also saw the extension of theDelhi Sultanate namely the Khiljisand the Tughluqs intoSouth India.

The Chalukyas(6th -12th centuryA.D.)

The Chalukyaswere a dominantpower in the Deccan.Their period isdivided as follows: the EarlyWestern Chalukyas - 6,h-8,h centuryA.D., the Later Western Chalukyas10th-12th century A.D. and theEastern Chalukyas-7th-12thcentury.A.D.

Early Western Chalukyas (6th"#centuryA.D.)

The Chalukyas rose to power inKarnataka in the 6th century A.D.Their capital was Vatapi, (modernBadami)in the Bijapur district. TheChalukya power had a humblebeginning under Jayasimha andRamaraya. Pulakesin-I (543-566.A.D) was the realfounder of the

Early Western Chalukyas.Pulakesin II (610-642 A.D.) was thegreatest ruler of this dynasty. Hedefeated Gangas, Malavas andGurjaras. He successfully opposedHarsha's attack in the north anddefeated him in637A.D. Inthe southhe was constantly struggling withthe Pallavas. Pulakesin II defeatedthe Pallava King Mahendravarma Iafter which he crossed the Cauveryand made friendly alliances with theCholas, Cheras and Pandyas. In642.A.D., Narasimhavarman Iinvaded the Chalukya kingdom.Pulakesin II lost his life during thewar.

Vikramaditya-I, Vijayaditya andVikramaditya-ll were the otherimportant rulers of this dynasty.They had to struggle with thePallavas and the Rashtrakutas.Dantidurga, founder of theRashtrakuta Empire overthrewKirtivarman-ll, the last of theChalukya Kings of Badami. TheChalukyas were not very significantfor well over two centuries.

Later Western Chalukyas ofKalyani (10* -12th centuryA.D)

The Chalukyas rose to poweragain at Kalyani during the secondhalf of the 10th Century andcontinued to rule till the end of the12th Century A.D. Tailapa II (973-997A.D) the founder of this dynastybrought the Rashtrakuta rule to anend. The important rulers ofthis dynasty were Someshwara-ll,Jayasimha-ll and Vikramaditya-VI.

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YADAVA|Ellol fathigumpha

iTIYASAKUTASWaranaa

)ian Sea

Dwgrasamu

richi Bay of BengalyMamallapuram

Indian Ocean

Deccan Kingdoms

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Someswara IVwas the last ruler of

Vishnu Vardhana, a brother ofPulakesin-ll, was the founder of theEastern Chalukya Empire of Vengi.The Eastern Chalukyas outlived themain Badami dynasty by manygenerations. They had matrimonialalliance with the later ImperialCholas.

One of their descendantsnamely Kulothunga Chola (1071-1122 A.D.) was enthroned as aChola ruler. He merged theChalukya kingdom with the CholaEmpire and started the Chalukya-Chola lineof rulers.

Contributionsofthe Chalukyas

The Chalukya kings were thefollowers of Hinduism. They alsopatronized Jainism. Ravikirti, thecourt poet of Pulakesin-ll whocomposed the Aihole Inscriptionwas a Jain. The Chalukyas weregreat patrons of architecture. Theyhadbuiltaround 70 Vishnu templesin Aihole. Hence Aihole has beencalled the 'Cradle of Indian Templearchitecture". Other importanttemples of this period are theVirupaksha temple at Pattadakaland the group of temples at Badami.

Pattadakal: It was a historical place knowneven to the ancient Greeks and Romans.Thereare as many as 10 temples at Pattadakalbelongingto the Chalukya rulers.The Virupaksha temple: This temple was builtby Lokamahadevi.the queen of Vikramaditya11.In front of the Hall of the Priests or Antaralathere is a pillared Mandapam or a meetingplacefor the people.

The Virupaksha temple is built onthe model of the Kailasanathatemple at Kancheepuram.

Telugu literature developedduringthis period.

Temple at Aihole

Pattadakal group of Temples

The Rashtrakutas(8th -10* centuryA.D.)

The period of the Rashtrakutaascendancy (753-975A.D.)constitutes perhaps the mostbrilliant chapter in the history of theDeccan.The Rashtrakutaswere thedescendants of the Rathors of theNorth. Kannada was the mothertongueof the Rashtrakutas.

The term "Rashtrakutas"means designated officers-in-charge of territorial divisions calledRashtras. The members of thefamilywere district officers undertheearly Chalukyas of Badami.

this dynasty.EasternChalukyasofVengi(7u,-12lhcenturyA.D)

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The greatness of theRashtrakutas started withDantidurga. He occupied Ellora in742 AD and became a feudatory ofKirtivarman of Badami. He capturedMaharastra, Gujarat and most of thedistricts of central and northernMadhya Pradesh. He subjugatedthe Cholas of Srisailam country(Kurnool) and then besieged Kanchiin 750 A.D. He entered intomatrimonial alliance withNandivarman II Pallavamalla ofKanchiandgave hisdaughter Reva inmarriage to him.After strengtheninghis power, Dantidurga attacked hissuzerain Kirtivarman-ll andproclaimed himself the paramountruler of the Deccan in 753A.D.Rashtrakuta territory extendedaround Nasik in the NorthernDeccanwith Malkhedas itscapital.

Dantidurga died in 756A.D. andwas succeeded by his uncleKrishna-I (756-775A.D.). He madeSilharas as his feudatory. He alsoinvaded Gangavadi. Govinda-ll(775- 780A.D.), the son of Krishna Iinvaded the kingdom of Vengi andentered into alliances withthe rulers of Gangavadi, Kanchi,Vengi and Malwa

Dhurva (780-792 A.D.) whosucceeded Govinda-ll, was an ableruler. Heannexed Malwa and madeChakrayudha of Kanauj to accepthis overlordship. He defeated thePallava ruler Dantivarman. The kingof Ceylon also accepted hissuzerainty. He defeatedVijayaditya-llof Vengi and supportedBhima, the half brother ofVijayaditya-ll. Thus the Rashtrakuta

power became invincible during histime.

Govinda-ll (792-814A.D.) wassucceeded by his fourteen year oldson Amoghavarsha-I (814-880 A.D). His cousin Karkadefeated Vijayaditya-ll of Vengi andthe Ganga ruler Rajamalla-I.Krishna ! (936-968 A.D.) was thenext famous ruler. He defeated theCholas at Takkolam and capturedTanjore. He went as far asRameshwaram. Karka-ll (972-973.A.D.), the last ruler of theRashtrakutas was defeated byTailapa-ll, the Chalukya ruler ofKalyani.This marked the downfall ofthe Rashtrakutas.

Significanceof the Rashtrakutas

The Rashtrakuta rulers inflictedsevere defeats on many northIndian rulersand changed the wholecourse of the history of northIndia.They subjugated thePalas,Pratiharas,EasternChalukyas,and Cholas andadvanced as far as Rameswaram.

Ellora:The Ellora caves wereexcavated during the reign of theChalukyas and later by theRashtrakuta Kings.Hindu .Buddhistand Jain deities are found in thesecave temples. The Kailasanathatemple found here is the world' slargest temple hewn out of a singleblock of rock and is the mostimposing.

Contributions

The Rashtrakutas were greatpatrons of art and architecture.Krishna-I built the magnificent

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Kailasanatha temple at Ellora. TheElephanta caves near Mumbaiwerecompleted by the Rashtrakutas.Amoghavarsha was a great patronof literature. He wroteMarga inthe Kannada language. Histeacher Jinasena wroteParsavaudaya, a biography ofParsava.

The Hoysalas were originallyfeudatories of the later WesternChalukyas of Kalyani. Vinayaditya(1006 -1022A.D.) carved out a pettyprincipality of Mysore and ruled overit with Sosavir as his capital.Vishnuvardhana was the firstdistinguished ruler of Vinayaditya'sfamily. He shifted his capital toDwarasamudra. He capturedGangavadifromKulothunga Chola.

Gangavadi served as a bufferstate between the Chalukyas andthe Chola Empire. The nextimportant ruler /ira Ballala-ll (1173-1220 A.D.) defeated Billama V ofthe Yadava Dynasty. He assertedthe independenceof the Hoysalas.

Narasimhan-ll (1220-1235A.D.)lost the territory between Krishnaand Tungabhadra to Singhana, aYadava ruler. But he defeatedMaravarman Sundara Pandya andrestored Rajaraja-lll to the Cholathrone and he erected the pillar ofvictory at Rameshwaram.

Ballala I! (1291-1342 A.D) wasthe last great ruler of this dynasty. In1310A.D. he was defeated by MalikKafur. He struggled hard against the

Turkish garrison. He fell a victim tothe Sultans of Madurai in 1342A.D.His son Ballala continued hisstruggle with the Muslims. With hisdeath the Hoysala Kingdomcame toend.

Contributions

The Hoysalas paved the way forthe rise of Mysore into a bigKingdom. The Hoysalas were greatpartons of art, architecture andliterature. They constructed anumber of temples atDwarasamudra and Belur. Scenesfrom Ramayana and Mahabharatawere depicted in those temples.Hoysalas encouraged Karmadaliterature. Nayachandra, Kanti,Raghavanka and Nemichandrawere the greatwriters of this period.

The KakatiyasofWarangal(12,h -14th CenturyA.D.)

The Kakatiyas were thefeudatories of the Later WesternChalukyas of Kalyani. Prola-ll (1110-1158 A.D.) the Kakatiya rulercaptured the territory between theKrishna and the Godavari from theChalukyas and ruled over it withHanumakonda as his capital. Hisson Prataparudra-I (1158-1196.A.D.) shifted the capital toWarangal. The next remarkableruler was Ganapathi (1199-1261.A.D.). He captured territoriesupto Kanchi from the Cholas. Heinvaded Kalinga and WesternAndhra. Ganapati was succeededby his daughter Rudram (1261-1291.A.D.). Peace and prosperityprevailed in the country during herreign.

The Hoysalasof Dwarasamudra(11th -14,hCenturyA.D.)

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She abdicated the throne infavour of her grandsonPrataparudhra-ll (1291-1326 A.D.).During his rule Malik Kafur invadedWarangal in 1309A.D. After offeringa stiff resistance, Prataparudra-llyielded and paid him an immensebooty.

Ulugh Khan, the son of Ghias-ud-din Tughluq captured Warangalin 1323A.D. and sent PrataparudraIIto Delhi. Missuccessors continuedtheir struggle with the rulers of theTughluq dynasty. In 1327A.D.Mohammad-bin-Tughluq capturedWarangal. Vinayakadeva the lastnominal ruler of this dynasty was putto death by Muhammad Shah I, theBahmani Sultan in 1362 A.D. Afterhis death, the Kakatiya dynastycame to anend.

The famous Kohinoor Diamondwhich was unearthed in Kollur onthe banks of the Krishna riverbelongedto the Kakatiyas._

Contributions

The Kakatiyas encouragedliterature, art and architecture. Thethousand Pillar temple atHanumakonda stands as aneverlasting contribution of theKakatiyas.

The Thousand Pffiar tempfe at Hanumakonda

THEYADAVAS OFDEVAGIRI(12ÿ-14* CenturyA.D.)

The Yadavas of Devagiriclaimed their descent from the epichero Lord Krishna. They wereknown as Sevunas because theyruled over Sevuna, the region fromNasik to Devagiri(Daulatabad).Their ancestors were the vassals ofthe Rashtrakutas and the LaterWestern Chalukyasof Kalyani.

BhjUama-V (1175-1190A.D.) theYadava ruler took advantage of thedeclining powerof the LaterWesternChalukyas of Kalyani, defeatedSomeswara-IV and declared hisindependence. He also came intoconflict with Vira Balalla-ll (1173-1220A.D.),a Hoysala ruler. In thebattle of Lakkundi, Bhillama V losthis life.

BhillamaV was succeeded byhisson Jaitrapala (1191-1210 A.D.) Hedefeated Kalachuris, Gurjaras andKakatiyas. Jaitrapala wassucceeded by his son Singhana(1210-1247A.D.) who defeatedMahadeva, a Kakatiya ruler.Singhana was the mostdistinguished ruler of this dynasty.He defeated Vira Ballala-ll theHoysala ruler and extended hisdominion beyond the River Krishna.He invaded Gujarat many times andannexed Kolhapur which belongedto Silharadynasty.

Singhana was succeeded by hisgrandson Krishna (1247-1260 A.D).He was succeeded by his brotherMahadeva (1260-1271 A.D) whoannexed north Konkan and put anend to the Silhara dynasty. He also

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defeated the Kakatiyas and theHoysalas.

Ramachandra Deva (1271-1309A.D.) was the last great ruler ofthis dynasty. Ala-ud-din-Khiljidefeated him and made him as avassal of the Delhi Sultanate.Sankara Deva (1309 - 1312 A.D.)the son and successor ofRamachandra Deva failed to payhisarrears. So, Malik Kafurdefeatedand killed him in 1312 A.D.Harapala, brother-in-law of SankaraDeva raised the flag against theKhiljis. Mubarak, son of Ala-ud-dinKhilji defeated and killed Harapala.Thus the Yadava dynasty came toan end.

Contributionof theYadavas

TheDevagiri was builtduringthe reign of the Yadavas. It was oneof the strongest forts in India. TheDelhi Sultans later added a JumaMasjid and Chand Minar inside it.The Yadavas also patronized thestudy of science and astronomy.

Endof the DeccanKingdoms

The constant struggle amongthe rulers of the Deccan kingdomsweakened their rule. Further theattacks on them by the Sultans ofDelhi ever since the rule of Ala-ud-din Khilji ledto their decline.

The Elephanta Caves : The Elephanta Caves were hewn out of rocks bythe Rashtrakuta Kings. They are located on a small island nearMumbai.The Portuguese named it so as they discovered a huge elephantsculpture here. The temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva and contains manysculptures of gods and goddesses.

EXERCISE

I)Choosethe bestanswer.

1.The Virupaksha temple is built on the model of the_temple.

a) Kailasanatha b) Brihadeeswara c) Hoysaleswara

2.The Rashtrakuta power became invincible during the time of

a) Dandidurga b) Govinda c) Dhurva

3. Vishnuvardhana the Hoysala ruler shifted his capital from Sosavir to

a) Dwarasamudra b)Warangal c)Devagiri

4.The Kakatiya dynasty came to an end with the death of

a)Prataparudra-ll b)Vinayakadeva c)Rudramba

219

5.The mostdistinguishedYadhava rulerwas_.a)Jaitrapala b)Singhana c) Krishna

II) Fill inthe blanks.

I.The greatest king of the Early Western Chalukyas was

2. Kulothunga Chola merged the Chalukyan Kingdom withthe_Empire.

3. The descendants of the Rathorsof the Northwere the_.4. Krishna Ibuilt the_temple at Ellora.

5. Ballala IIIwas the lastgreat rulerof_dynasty.

Ill) Matchthe following.

1. Pulakesin I

2. Virupaksha Temple

3. Hoysalas

4. Kakatiyas

5. Yadavas

- Devagiri

- Dwara samudra

- Warangal

- EarlyWestern Chalukyas

- Pattadakal

IV) Answer the following questions briefly.

1. What separated Deccanfrom North India?

2. Why dowe say that the Chalukyaswere great patronsof architecture?

3. Write a short noteon Dhurva,the Rashtrakuta ruler?

4. What doyou know about the architecture of the Hoysala period?

5. What ledto the end of Deccan Kingdom?

V)Answerthe following in detail.

1. Given an account of the early western Chalukyas.

2. Givea detailed account of Dantidurga,the Rastrakuta ruler?

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FormativeAssessment

I. Test your memory arid fill in the blanks.1. The capital of the early western Chalukyas _ at _ p2. Founder of the Rashtrakuta empire D_n_id_r_a.3. The court poet of Pulakesin II Ra _ iki

__i.

4. The Cradle of Indian temple Architecture A_h

__e.

5. One of the strongest forts of Yadavas D_va_i_i fort.

II. Prepare an album on Art, Architecture and paintings belonging to the DeccanKingdoms.

III. Conduct a debate on "Our Dynasty is the best".Dividethe class intogroups as Chalukyas/ Rashtrakutas/ Hoysalas/ Kakatiyas/Yadavas. Two students from each group can participate and claim that theirdynasty isthe best.

IV. Preparea poster:Preparea posteronany one of the Deccanrulerswhom you think isthe best.

V. Group activity:Know more about the topic

1. Write the name of the Ruler/ Book / Author/ monument on small strips of paper.Foldand keep it ina container.

2. Ask a child from each group to come forward, pick a chit and say a few wordsabout the topic.

VI. Things to do:Onthe outline mapof Indiamarkthe following places.Vatapi, Vengi, Kalyani, Dwarasamudra, Malkhed.Aihole, Ellora,Warangal.

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3. THE SOUTH INDIAN KINGDOMS

The ancient Tamizhagam wasdivided into three political unitsunder the Cheras, Cholas and thePandyas. Their period of existenceis known as the Sangam Age. TheKalabhraswho rose to power duringthis period ruled nearly for threecenturies from 300-600 A.D. In thischapter we will study in detail aboutthe Later Pallava dynasty, ImperialCholasand the Pandyas.

There isa controversy overtheoriginof the Pallavas. Some of the viewsare-they were of Persian origin orthe feudatories of the Satavahanasor the natives of Tondaimandalam.There were two branches ofPallavas namely, the early and laterPallavas.

LATERPALLAVAS(570-903A.D.)

Simhavishnu was the first rulerof the later Pallava dynasty. Hedestroyed the Kalabhras and firmlyestablished the Pallava rule inTondaimandalam with his capital atKanchi. Heseized the regionsof theCholas. His kingdom extended fromAndhra Kingdom, Vishnukundin upto the river Cauvery. He assumedthe title 'Avanisimha' or the "Lion ofthe Earth'.

MAHENDRAVARMAN-I(600-630A.D.)

Mahendravarman-I was the sonof Simhavishnu. Conflicts arosebetween the Chalukyas and thePallavas during this period.He lost the northern parts of thePallava Kingdom to Pulakesin II.

Though a follower of Jainism, heembraced Saivism due to SaintAppar's influence. He was aversatile scholar. Hetook up the titleslike Chitrakarapuli and VichitraChitta for his excellence in building,painting and music. He constructedthe cities of Mahendramangalamand Mahendravadi.

NARASIMHAVARMAN-I(630-668A.D.)

Narasimhavarman-Iwas the firstson of Mahendravarman I. He wasknown as Mamalla which means agreat wrestler. He assumed the titleVatapi Kondan for destroying theChalukya capitalVatapi. Hesent twoexpeditions to Ceylon, to restore hisfriend Manavarman to the throne ofCeylon. During his period HieunTsang visited the Pallava capitalKanchipuram. Narasimhavarmanwas a great builder. The monolithicrathas at Mamallapuram standtestimony to his architectural skill.

O Hieun Tsang: Hieun Tsang visited the Pallava capital Kanchipuram. According to him Kanchiwas about 6 miles in circumference. There were more than one hundred Buddhist monasteriesand manyJain temples here. Kanchiwas the greatest centreof education inthe south.

O Vatsyayana was a panditof Kanchi. Dharmapalawent from Kanchi to Nalanda. Dandithe authorof "Dandialangaram" a poetfrom North Indialived in Kanchi.

THE PALLAVASPoliticalHistory

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RAJASIMHA ORNARASIMHAVARMAN- II(691-728A.D.)

Narasimhavarman II, the son ofParameswaran I was one of themost famous rulers of the Pallavas.His reign was marked by peace andprosperity. He built several finetemples including the Kailasanatha

i

Kailasanatha Temple-Kanchi

A Pallava Coin

temple at Kanchi, the Shore templeat Mamallapuram and theTalagirisvara temple at Panamalai.The famous Sanskrit scholarDandin, author of Dandialankaram(Sanskrit Grammar work) spentmany years in his court. Traderelations was established evenwithChina.

Parameswaran-ll(728-73 1A. D.),the son ofNarasimhavarman - II came topower in 728 A.D. He was defeatedby the Chalukya rulerVikramaditya-ll. Hedied ina battlewith the Gangas. The Simhavishnuline of rule came to an end with thedeath of Parameswaram-ll as hisson did notsucceed him.

Nandivarman-ll Pallavamalla(731-796 A.D.) was the son ofSimhavishnu's brotherHiranyavarman. He was chosen bythe Pallava ministers, the membersof ghatika (college of learning) andthe common peopie to succeedParameswaran-ll. Nandivarman IIwas aworshipper of Vishnu. He builtthe Vaikunta Perumal temple atKanchi. The great Vaishnava SaintThirumangai Alwar was hiscontemporary.

Declineof the Pallavas

The successors of Nandivarman -II were not very strong andpowerful. They had to face Pandyaaggressions. The last Pallava rulerAparajitha (885-903 A.D.) wasdefeated by Aditya-I , a Chola ruler.The Pallava rule atTondaimandalam thus came to anend with hisdownfall.

Administrationof the Pallavas

The Pallavas had a wellorganized system of administration.The Pallava region was divided intofour divisions namely the Rashtrasor Mandalams, Vishayas orKottams, Nadus and Urs. The Kingwas the head of the Centraladministration.

223

He was assisted by Ministersand Secretaries. There were civiland criminal courts.

Thevillage was the lowestunitofadministration. The Uravai or thevillageAssemblies were in charge ofthe village Administration. Variousvariyams played an important role intaking care of the needs in thevillages. There were 20 variams likethe Erivariyam, Thottavariyam, andKovilvariametc.

Variyams were Executivecommittees.

ÿ_J

The Pallavaswere great patronsof learning. Mahendravamnan-lwrote Mattavilasa Prahasana andBhagavadviugam. Bharavi wroteKiratharjunyam. Avantl SundariKathasana was written by Dandin.The works of Alwars andNayanmars belong to this period.Nandi Kaiambhagam andPerundevanar's Bharatavenbawere the other books which

The Pallava rulers beganthe Dravidian style of templearchitecture. Itsdevelopment can be

Monolithic Rathas- Mamaliapuram

seen in four styles. The first stylewas the Rockcut temple which wasintroduced by Mahendravarman I.

This style of temples wereexcavated at places likeMahendravadi, Mammandur,Dalavanur, Thiruchirappali,Siyamangalam, Thirukazhukundram,etc.

The second style is representedby the Monolithic rathas andmandapas found at Mamaliapuram.The third style is the structuraltemple in the Rajasimha style. Eg.Kailsanatha temple at Kanchi, theShore temple at Mamaliapuram,etc.The last style is also the Structuraltemples continued by the laterPallavas.Eg. Vaikundaperumaltemple, the Muktheeswara temple,etc.

The Pallava rulers also paidconsiderable attention to the finearts like music and painting.Mahendravarman assumed the titleof Sankirtanajati for hismastery inmusic. Exquisite paintings of thePallavas are found in theKailasanatha temple at Kanchi.The Chotas

The Cholas were an antiqueruling family. References to theCholas are made in theMahabharata, the inscriptions ofAsoka and the works ofMegastheneseand Ptolemy.

Durina the Sanoam Aqe, the- "w' 3 ' '

Cholas ruled Tiruchi and Tanjoreregion. Their capital was Uraiyur.Tiger was their emblem. Theirgreatest ruler Karikala built Kallanaiacross the riverCauvery nearTrichy.

Contributionsof the PallavasLiterature

belongedto this period.

Pallavaartandarchitecture

224

The Chola rule declined as theybecame feudatories of the rulers ofUraiyur.

LaterCholas or Imperial Cholas

The Cholas who emerged topower in the middle of the ninthcentury were known as later Cholasor ImperialCholas.Theywere calledas Imperial Cholas because theirkingdomextended to a major portionof south India, Srilanka andKadaram (including Sumatra andMalaya).

Vijayalaya (850-871 A.D) laidthe foundation for the rise of laterCholas.

Aditya I (871-907 A.D) son ofVijayalaya became the ruler ofTondaimandalam as well asCholamandalam. He defeatedGangas and Kongu country.Parantaka-I, son of Aditya-Idefeated the Pandya ruler and tookup the title-Maduraikondan. He wasdefeated by the Rashtrakuta rulerKrishna-Ill in the battle of Takkolam.Parantakadied in 955A.D.r Successors of Parantaka-I >

1.Gandaraditya 949 -957A.D.

2.Arinjaya 956- 957A.D.

3. Parantaka-II 956 -973A.D.

4.Aditya 956-966A.D.

5. Uttama Chola 965-985 A.D.v >

QThe later Cholas were well-versed in maintaining andauditing of accounts.

QFree hospitals called 'Aathularsalai' were setup at Thanjavurand many more places.

\___/

Rajaraja-I (985-1014A.D.)

Rajaraja-I was the mostpowerful ruler of the Chola Empire.He was a great conqueror. Hedefeated the Cheras, Pandyas andthe Chalukyas. He defeatedMahinda-V of Ceylon and built aSiva temple at Anuradhapuram. Heeven conquered Maldives. Thus thepower of Cholas extended beyondSouth India.

Rajaraja I defeated the Cheraruler Bhaskaravarman atKanthalursaalai (Trivandrum) andSathyasraya, ruler of Kalyani andrestored the throne of Vengi toSakthivarman. He gave hisdaughter in marriage toVimaladitya, brother ofSakthivarman. He capturedGangavadi,Adigaipadi, Nolambadi,in the Mysore region and RaichurDoab.

Rajaraja-I assumed the titlesMummudiChola, Jayamkondan andSivapadasekara. He was a followerof Saivism. Devaram was collectedand codified only during his period.He constructed the BrahadeeswaraTemple at Tanjore in 1010 A.D. Hediedin1014A.D._Varipotthagam

The Varipotthagam was a bookcontaining all revenue records.During Rajaraja's reign a revenuesurvey was undertaken in 1001A.D. by Senathipati Kuravan, arevenueofficer._

ÿ

Rajendran-I(1012-1044A.D.)

Rajendran further expandedand consolidated the empire.

225

He captured Idaidurainadu (RaichurDoab),Vanavasi (Kadamba capital),Kollipakkai (areas in Hyderabad)andMannai Kadakkam (Malkhed).

Brahadeeswana Temple - Tsnjore

Heconquered the whole of Ceylon(llamandalam). He also defeatedthe Pandyas, the Cheras and theWestern Chalukyas. Rajendran - 1defeated Mahipala, ruler of Bengaland in memoryof hisexpedition, he-founded the city 'GangaikondaCholapuram'. His greatestachievement was his conquest ofSrivijaya, Kadaram and the placesbetweenthe Nicobar Islandsand theMalaya Peninsula. He earned thetitles Gangaikondan, PandithaCholan and Kadaram Kondan. TheChola Empire reached its zenith ofglory under Rajendra I.

Immediate successors ofRajenrfra-JRajadhiraja IRajendra IIRajamahendraVirarajendraAdirajendra

1018-1054A.D.1056-1064A.D.1060-1063A.D.1063-1070A.D.1067-1070A.D.

Kulottunga-I(1071-1122A.D.)

Kulottunga-I who was born to

Ammangadevi, the daughter ofRajendra-I and Rajaraja of Vengistarted the Chalukya Chola line ofrulers. He united Vengi Kingdomwith the Chola Empire.

Kulottunga-Idefeated thewesternChalukyas. He also capturedKalinga. During his reign Srilankadeclared its independence. He hadvery close relationshipwith Srivijayaand sent trade missions to their landin 1077A.D.

Kulottunga-I was a greatadministrator. He measured thelands and regulated land revenue.As he removedexcise duties hewascalled as 'Sungam ThavirthaCholan'. He patronized great literaryscholars like Jeyamkontfan,Ottakkuthar, Pugazhendi andKambar.Disintegrationof the Cholas

The Chola Empire began todisintegrate due to the rise offeudatories like the Kadavarayasand the emergence of the PandyaEmpire. Rajendra-I11 (1246-1279A.D.) was the last Chola ruler. TheChola Kingdom was annexed to thePandya Empire with the defeat ofRajendra-lll by JatavarmanSundarapandya-ll.

CholaThe Cholas set up a highly

efficient system of administration.The empire was divided intoprovinces called Mandalams. TheMandalamswere further divided intoKottams, Districts called Nadu orValanadu andVillages called Urs.

The Utharamerur inscription of

226

Parantaka-I gives a detailedaccount of the villageadministration. Each village had aVillageAssembly called UrorSabha,which looked after theadministrationof the village.

The members of the villageAssembly were elected by theKudavolai System. The names ofthe eligible personswere written onpalm leaves and put into a pot.A boyor a girl would pick up thirty names.The chosen persons were declaredelected.

There were Variyams such asSamvatsara Variyam, Eri variyam,Thotta variyam, Pancha variyam,Pon variyam and Puravuvarivariyam to carry out the differentfunctions of the village. It'smembers were called asVariyaperumakkal. The number ofVariyams and it's members variedfrom village tovillage.

There were many castes andsub-castes in the Chola society. Thepractice of Sati and Devadasisystem were prevalent. The womenwere in the habit of saving moneycalled 'Sirupadu'.

The weaving industry and metalworks were developed. Guilds wereprevalent. Commercial contactswere established with China,Sumatra, Java andArabia.

The Chola kingswere patrons ofSaivism.They were tolerant towardsother religions likeVaishnavism andBuddhism. Temples and Mattswere

the centres of learning. Detailsabout these learning centres arefound in the inscriptions atEnnayiram, Thirumukkudal andThirubuvanam.LiteratureThe development of Tamil literaturereached its zenith during the Cholaperiod.The two master piecesof thisage are the Ramayana composedby Kambar and the Periyapuranamor Thiruttondarpuranam bySekizhar. Seevaka Chinthamaniwas written by Thiruthaka Devar.Nambiandar Nambi compiledPanniruthirumurai, a saivite work.Nalayiradivyaprabhandam aVishnavite work was compiled byNathamuni. Muvarula, KulothungaPillai Tamil, Thakayagaparani werewritten byOttakkuthar. Jeyamkondarwrote Kalingathuparani.Commentators like llampuranar,Nachinarkiniyar andParimelazhagar belonged to thisperiod.

Art andArchitectureThe Dravidian style of art and

architecture reached its perfectionunder the Cholas. The chief featureof the Chola Temples is the Vimana.More than seventy temples arefound in the regions between theLower Krishna and the Gulf ofMannar. Thiruchirappalli,Srirangam, Tanjore, Kumbakonam,Chidambaram, Thiruvannamalai,Trivandrum, Suchindram and Udipiare the chief centers of Chola art.

The Chola temples built at anearly stage were known for theirsimplicity. Example: VijayalayaCholeswaram temple atNarttamalai and Aivar koil temple atkodumbalur.

Socio-Economic Conditions

Religionand Education

227

Gradually the temples becamemore imposing. The finestexamples are the BrahadeeswaraTemple at Tanjore and Siva templeat Gangaikonda Cholapuram. Theheight of the Vimana of theBrahadeeswara temple rises tonearly 216 ft. over the Garbagraha.Ithas 13tiers. The Subramanyatemple at Tanjore, Airavatesvaratemple at Darasuram and theKampahareswara orThirubhuvaneswara temple atThirubhuvanam inTanjore whichwere built later were more gracefuland less imposing.OWorld Heritage sites: The Brahadeeswara

temple at Tanjore,Siva temple atGangaikonda Cholapuram andAiravatesvara temple at Darasuram havebeen declared as World Heritage Sites bythe UNESCO.

Sculptures

Portraits, icons and decorativesculptures are the main features ofChola sculptures. The portraits arefull of grace and beauty.The iconsofRajaraja-I are remarkable. The

Nataraja - Bronze Idol

sculptures of Shiva, Vishnu,Brahma, eight armed Durga in theShiva and Vishnu temples areafewexamples of Cholasculptures.

The Cholas are also well knownfor their bronze images. TheNataraja idol in the NageswaraTemple at Kumbakonam is thelargest and the finest .The bronzeidol of Arthanareeswarar is anotherimportant specimen of the Cholaperiod.

Paintings

The Cholas are known for theirpaintings aswell as fine murals(paintings done directly on walls).The paintings of the Chola periodare found at Tanjore, Thirumayam,Kanchi Kailasanatha Temple andNarttamalaiVishnu Temple.

MusicandDance

Music developed into a fine artunderthe Cholas.This developmentprovided the basis for the later dayCarnatic Music. Bharatanatyam as afine art also developed duringthis period.

Impactof ImperialCholasThe Imperial Cholas who ruled

from 850A.D. to 1279A.D. played asignificant role in the Tamil countryfor about 430 years. They havemade an impressive impact onPolity, Tamil literature, Templearchitecture, musicand dance.Theywere the only imperial power whofounded an overseas empire andspread the glories of the Tamilculturefar andwide.

ÿWorld HeritageDay:TheWorld Heritage Dayis celebrated every year on 18"* April.Thisday is intended to make people aware ortheir social and cultural Heritage.lt alsoinstills the value to care and preserveall theheritagesites.

228

Important places of the Pallava period w

s

•Vat

Pullalur® Iÿ •jMylapore

•KanchipuramSiyamangalam#ÿ •Mamallapuram

TellartiPalanimalai# /

Arabian Sea Bay of BengalTrichyTan

Ceylon

Indian Ocean

229

Important places of the Chola period

•Kalyani

•Kanchi•Utharamerur

Arabian Sea Bay of Bengal

gi Konda Cholapuram

CeylonIndian Ocean

230

The Pandya Empire

The Pandyas occupied the regioncomprising of the modern districts ofMadurai and Tirunelvelli, part ofTrichy and sometimes even parts ofTranvancore. We come to know ofthe Pandyas from the writings ofMagasthenese, Pliny,the ancientTamilliterary works and the accounts ofHiuen-T-sang and Marco-polo.Thehistory of the Pandyas can bedivided as the Early Pandyas, FirstPandya Empireand Second PandyaEmpire.

The early Pandyas

FirstPandya Empire

The Pandya king Kadungonrestored the position of the Pandyasin the last quarter of the 6lhCentury.A.D. by overthrowing theKalabharas. The dynasty foundedby him is generally referred to as theFirst Pandya Kingdom (550-950.A.D.)

The most important rulers of thisperiod were Arikesari Maravarman,Ranadhiran, MaravarmanRajasimha-I, Varaguna-I andSrimara Srivallabha.

The Pandyaempire extended toTanjore, Tiruchirapalli, Coimbatoreand Salem.

Decline of the First PandyaEmpire

The successors of SrimaraSrivallabha had to face theonslaught of the Pallavas and theCholas. In the 10th and the 11thcenturies the Pandyas madeseveral attempts to revive their pastglory. The opposition from thePallavas and the Cholas let to thedecline of the FirstPandya Empire.

The SecondPandyaEmpire

From the 13th century onwardsthe Pandyas progressivelydetached themselves from theChola rule and reassertedtheir independence. Inthe civilwarwhich broke out betweenVikrama Pandya and Virapandya,Vikrama Pandya captured powerwith the support of Kulothunga-lllthe Chola Emperor.

Jatavarman Kulasekara-I (1190-1216 A.D.) succeeded his fatherVikrama Pandya. He ruled overMadurai, Ramanathapuram,Tirunelveli and Kanyakumari. Heappointed his brother, MaravarmanSundara Pandya as hissuccessor.

Maravarman Sundara Pandya-I(1216-1238 A.D.) defeatedKulottunga Chola-lll in 1219A.D. Asthe Hoysalas came to the support ofthe Cholas, he restoredthe throne tothe Chola ruler Rajaraja-lll andassumed the title 'SonaduValangiaruliya Sundara Pandya'.

The Early Pandyas belonged tothe Sangam Age. A remarkablefeature of this period was themaintenance of a flourishing TamilLiterary Academy or Sangam atMadurai.The capital of the Pandyaswas Madurai and their emblem wasfish. With the riseof the kalabhras,theSangamAge declined.

231

Maravarman Sundara Pandya-ll(1238-1253 A.D.) recovered fromthe Chola ruler Rajendra-lll some ofthe territories which he had lostearlier.

Jatavarman SundaraPandya-I (1253-1268 A.D.)succeeded Maravarman SundaraPandya-ll. He extended the empirefrom Nellore and Cuddappahdistricts in the North to CapeComorin inthe South. Hetook upthetitles Emmandalamum KondaruliyaMaharajathiraja, Sri Paramesvaranand PonveinthaPerumal.

Jatavarman SundaraPandya-I's son MaravarmanKulasekaran-I (1268-1308 A.D.)enlarged his kingdom. He invadedCeylon and captured Kollam in theChera land. He assumed the titleKollam Konda Pandya. The powerof the Pandyas starteddecliningafterhim.

Declineof the Pandyas

A war of succession broke outbetween Sundara Pandya and ViraPandya, the sons of MaravarmanKulasekaran-I. With the help of Ala-ud-din Khilji's commander MalikKafur, Sundara Pandya ascendedthe throne.

The Tughluqs who succeededthe Khiljis, extended their hold overSouth India and declared thePandya empire as a part of theTughluq Empire.

The decline of Tughluq powerled to the establishment of theSultans of Maduraiwhich ultimately

resulted in the complete decline ofthe Pandya EmpireAdministration

The Pandya Empire wascalled as Pandya Mandalam. TheMandalam was divided intoValanadu and further into Urs. TheKing was assisted by the Ariyans(Ministers) and the Army Chief.Special officers were appointed tocollect taxes and maintainaccounts.

Localself Government

Village administration waslooked after by five Variyams,namelyAranilaya Variyam, NeernilaiVariyam, Nanaya Variyam,Varithandal Variyam and NeedhiVariyam.

Occupation

Agriculture and Trade werethe main occupations of the people.The agriculturists were called asBoomiputirar. Many slaves wereemployed to carry on different tasks.The Pandyas were famous forpearl diving. The pearls of thePandya empire were famous allover the world. The famous ports ofthe Pandyas were Korkai andThondi.

Literature

Manickavasagar's composedThiruvasagam, Andal's composedThiruppavai, Nammalvar'scomposedThiruppallandu, Villiputhurar wroteMahabharatha, AdhiveeraramaPandya wrote Naidadham,Srikaviraya wrote books namelySeyur Murugan ula and Rathingiriula. Thus the Pandyas contributedgreatly to the progressof literature.

232

Important places of the Pandya period

Arabian Sea Trichjfc-Madurai

Bay of Bengalarijore

Thewkasi

[orkai

KanyakumariCeylon \D

Indian Ocean

Art and Architecture

The Pandya contribution to artand architecture is noteworthy. Thespecial features of the Pandyatemple architecture are theGopuras, Prakaras, Vimanas,Garbagrahas and Gateways.

The Pandya period marked areawakening in the field of rock-cuttemples. More than 50 rock cuttemples were excavated in thePandya Kingdom at several placeslike Kunnakudi, Anaimalai,Sithannavasal, Thiruparankundram.Kalugumalai,Malaiyadikurichi.Thiruchirappalli,etc.,

Structural temples wereconstructed by the Pandya rulers atKovilpatty, Tiruppathur, Madurai,

Srivilliputhur and other places.Kulasekara Pandya builtarthamandapa, manimandapa andsannati in every temple of hisempire. Public meetings, socialgatherings, religious keerthans,recitalsand Katha-Natakawere heldinthe sabha mandapasof temples.

Sculptures

The Pandya sculptures arebeautiful and ornamental. Thesculptures of Somaskandar, Durga,Ganapathy, Narasimha andNataraja are good specimens of thisperiod.

Many sculptures are also foundatKalugumalai,Thiruparankundram,Thirumalaipuram, Narttamalai andKunnakudi.

233

PaintingsAmong the fine arts, painting

was greatly developed by thePandyas. The mural paintings ofSrimaran Srivallabha Pandyaof thefirst Pandya periodare seen in theSithannavasal cave temples. The

paintingsof lotus, bathing elephantsand playingfish are noteworthy.

The Pandya rulers have thus lefta unique and everlasting impact onthe Tamil society and South Indianhistory.

Sithanftavasal Cave Temple

Uttaramerur inscriptions: It laid down thequalifications for those who wished to becomea member of the Sabha. He must be honest, aland owner from which land revenue iscollected, in the age group 35 and 70 years,having a knowledge of the Vedas and wellversed in administrative matters. Members ofthe village if found guilty were punishedseverely. They could not take part in theelections.

The lostwax technique: The lostwax technique was used bythe Chola craftsmen to makebronze statues.First the image was made inwax.Then itwas covered in clay and allowed to dry.Atiny hole was made in the clay cover. Next.it was heated and the molten wax was drained outthrough the hole.Bronze (an alloy of copper and metal)was melted and poured into the claythrough the hole.Once the metal was coated and solidified the clay cover was carefully removed

andthe imagewas cleanedandpolished.

EXERCISE

I)Choosethe correct answer.I.ThePallavas under_overthrew the Kalabhras and

establishedtheir supremacy overThondaimandalam.

a) SimhaVishnu b) MahendravarmanI c) Narasimhavarman II

2. Narasimhavarman Iassumedthe title_.a)Vatapikondan b)Jayankondan c)Kadaramkondan

3.The Kallanaiacross river Cauvery was builtby_.a) Rajendra I b)KarikalaChola c)Rajaraja Chola

4. Parantaka I,the son ofAditya Idefeated the Pandya rulerand took upthe title_.a) MaduraiKondan b) Mudikondan c)KadaramKondan

5.The PandyaEmpirewas called Pandya_.a)Mandalam b)Valanadu c)Uravai

6.Andal composed_.a)Devaram b)Thiruppavai c)Ramayanam

234

.11) Fill inthe blanks.

1.During the period of Narasimhavarman-I

__visited

Kanchipuram.

2. Monolithic Rathasare found at_.3._was called SungamThavirtha Cholan.

4.The Chola kingswere patronsof_ .5.Thiruvasagamwas composed by_.6.The paintingsof Srivallabha Pandyaare seen inthe_ cave

temples.

Ill)Matchthe following.

1.Uravai - Sanskrit Grammarian

2. ShoreTemple - Ramayana

3. Kambar - Village Assembly

4. BrihadeeswaraTemple - Greekwriter

5. Megasthenese - Tanjore

6. Katyayana - Mamallapuram

IV)Answer the following questions briefly.

1.Write ashort noteon the originof the Pallavas.

2.Write a noteonthe administrative divisionsof the Pallavas.

3. Mentionthe sources of informationabout the Cholas.

4. Which are the chief centres of the Cholaart and architecture?

5.What doyou knowabout Jatavarman Kulasekara Pandya I?

6. Namea few occupations of the Pandyas.

V) Answer indetail.

1. Discuss the contributions of the Pallavas to art, architecture and finearts.

2. Explain indetail about the Chola administration.

3. Givean account of the Pandya contribution to temple architecture.

235

FormativeAssessment

I. Play and Learn:Onegroup of students can take the nameof each king.The other group can take upthe titles. Nowthe rulers can acquire their titles. (The name / title can be written onstrips of paper)

Rulers (Group - 1 ) Titles (Group-2)

Simha VishnuNarasimha VarmaParantakaRaja Raja IRajendra IKulothunga IJatavarman Sundara PandyanMaravarmari Kulasekaran I

MamallaMadurai KondanMummudi CholaKadaram KondanAvanisimhaPonveintha Perumal.Kollam Konda Pandya.Sungam Thavirtha Cholan.

II. Design a newspaper dating back to the rule of Pallava / Chola / Pandya.

HeadlinesLocal newsNeighbouring KingdomsEntertainment

Newspaper Format Literary activitiesShort storyAdministrationSports

111.Find the Author of the given work

Sekizhar Bharavi Dandi Ottakkuthar

Andal Jeyamkondar

Books Authors1. Dandi alankaram _2. Kiratharjunyam _3. Periyapuranam _4. Thiruppavai _5. Kalingathuparani _6. Muvar Ula _

236

IV. Design an invitation card:Subject: Raja Raja I assumed the title 'Mummudi Chola'Details to be included in the card.

1. Date of the function.2. Venue.3. Chief Guest.4. Programme.5. Felicitation.

V. Things to do:1. Mark the following places on the outline map of India.

Mamallapuram, Tiruchirapalli, Kanchipuram, Tarijore and Madurai.

2. Collect pictures and prepare an album on the art and architecture of theSouth IndianKingdoms.

3. Request your school authorities to take you on a study tour to a historicalsite connectedwith Pallavsor Cholasor Pandyas.

237

SOCIAL SCIENCESTANDARD SEVEN

TERM II

135

J HISTORY L

1.ARAB AND TURKISH INVASIONS

The rise and growth of Islam hasbeen regarded as one of the mostimportant events in World history.Prophet Muhammad (570-632 A.D)was the founder of Islam. Islamgrewup in the deserts of Arabia. Its firstconverts were the Arabs. The Arabsmade Islam a powerful force in thepolitics of Asia. The Persiansstrengthened Islam and the Turksextended it both towards the Westand the Eastand made Islamas oneof the foremost religions of theWorld.

Arab conquestof Sindand Multan712A.D.

Commercial contacts prevailedbetween India and Arabia for a longtime. There were many causes forthe conquest of Sind. The Arabswere attracted by the rich ports ofSind and so they wanted to extendtheir political and religious controlover it. They were angry with theruler of Sind who failed to check thepirateswho plunderedthem.

Muhammad-bin-Qasim wassent by Al-Hajjajj the Governor ofIraq with the permission of CaliphWalid to conquer Sind. He marchedagainst Dahir the ruler of Sind,defeated him in the Battle of Rewarand captured Sind. Healso capturedMultan. He got so much of wealthfrom Multan that he called MultanThe Cityof Gold.'.

Administrative System

Muhammad-bin-Qasim dividedSind and Multan into a number of

Iqtas or districts. Arab militaryofficers were appointed as heads ofthe Iqtas. Local Hindu officers wereallowed to administer the sub¬divisions of the districts. The ArabsimposedJizya on non- muslims.

Endof Muhammad-bin-Qasim

Caliph Sulaiman, succeededCaliph Walid after his death. Hewasan arch enemy of Al-Hajjaj, theGovernor of Iraq. He dismissedMuharrimad-bin Qasim as he wasthe son-in-law of Al-Hajjaj. He senthim as a prisoner to Mesopotamiaand tortured himto death.

Sind and Multan remained aspart of the Caliph's empire for morethan 150 years. Their powergradually declined.

EffectsofArab Conquest

The conquest of Sind sowedthe seeds for the coming of Islaminto India.TheArabs learnt the art ofadministration, astronomy, music,painting, medicine and architecturefrom our land. Indian Philosophy,numerals and astronomy weretaken to Europe by the Arabs.

'-N

Qasim and hisDefence ForcesMuhammad-bin-Qasim had an

army of 25,000 troops including6000 Syrian horses, 6000 Camels,3000 Bactrian Camels, an artilleryforce of 2000 men with fivecatapults andadvancedguards. v

136

Turkish InvasionThe ExpansionofTurks into India

The Turks got the upper handover the Caliphs of Baghdad in the8th and 9th centuries.They were moreaggressive than the Arabs. Theycompleted the work begun by theArabs and extended their dominionbeyondSindand Multan into India.

Heroic DefenceofWomen

Rani Bai, the wife of Dahir andthe other women of Sind put up aheroic defence within the Fort ofRewar. When their attempt failedthey performed Jauhar to save theirchastity and escape from the handsof the invaders.

Indianimpact

Brahma Siddhanta, a Sanskritwork of Brahma Gupta wastranslated into Arabic. Arabic worksmention the names of Indianscientists like Bhala, Manaka andSindbad. Dhanawas appointed as achief Medical officer in a hospital atBaghdad. Manaka, a physiciancured a serious disease of CaliphHarun-al-Rashid.v___/

Mahmudof Ghazni

Sabuktigin the ruler of Ghazniwas succeeded by Ismail. He wasdethroned in998A.D. by his brother,the famous Mahmud of Ghazni. Heinvaded India in 1000 A.D. He wasthe first Turkish invader. Mahmuddefeated Jaipala, the ruler of theHindu Shahi dynasty, Fateh Daud ofMultan and Anandpala of Nagarkot.Healso crushed theChandelas.therulers of Mathura, Kanauj andGwalior. After each expedition he

returned toGhazrii with enormouswealth.

Mahmud's important expeditionin Hindustan was against theSomnath temple in 1025A.D. whichwas situated on the coast ofKathiawar.As the ruler of Kathiawar,Raja Bhima Dev, and his followersfled from the place, he easilyplundered the temple and returnedto Ghazni with a rich booty whichexceeded twenty lakhdinars.

Estimateof Mahmudof Ghazni

Mahmud of Ghazni was one ofthe greatest Muslim rulers of Asia.He was a great patron of art andletters and he patronised scholarslike FirdausiandAlberuni.c-*\

Sir Henry Elliot in his book "TheHistory of India" refers to theseventeen expeditions ofMuhammad of Ghazni. He saysthat after every expeditionMuhammad returned to Ghazni withcountless wealth and enormousbooty beyondall calculations.

V_J

Endof Ghazni's rule inIndia

Mahmud's successors wereweak. So Ala-ud-din Husain ofGhori invaded Ghazni, plunderedand burnt it. By 1186A.D. the powerof the House of Ghazni declined andthat of Ghori roseup.

Muhammadof Ghori

Muhammad was the thirdimportant Muslim invader ofHindustan. He became the ruler ofGhori, a mountainous regionsituated between Ghazni and Herat.

137

Hence, he was popularly known asMuhammadof Ghori.

As an ambitious andenterprising ruler, he started hisattacks on India in 1176 A.D. Hecaptured Multan and Uch. Hesubjugated lower Sind in 1182A.D.In 1185A.D., he invaded Punjab andcaptured the Fortress of Sialkot. In1186A.D. hebesieged Lahore.

FirstBattleofTarain (1191A.D.)In 1189 A.D. Muhammad of

Ghori captured the fortress ofBhatinda and advanced into thekingdom of Prithviraj Chauhan, theRajput ruler. Prithviraj marchedagainst him with a large force anddefeated Muhammad of Ghori in theBattle of Tarain in 1191 A.D.Prithviraj also recovered Bhatinda,which was earlier occupied byMahmudofGhazni.

SecondBattleofTarain(1192A.D.)

Muhammad of Ghori re-enforced himself and marchedagainst Prithvirajfor the second timein 1192 A.D. He gave a crushingdefeat to the combined forces of theRajput rulers under Prithviraj atTarain. Prithviraj was imprisonedand later put to death. The SecondBattle of Tarain marked thebeginning of the Turkish rule in theheartof Hindustanfor the first time inIndianhistory.

Muhammad of Ghori appointedQutb-ud-din Aibak as hiscommander.

_ÿ

Tactics of Muhammad

Muhammad divided his armyinto five divisions. Four armies weresent to attack the Rajput army on allsides. The fifth army was kept inreserve.The Rajputs fought withgreat gallantry.When they becameexhausted, the fifth army was sent.They attacked with vigour andÿdefeated the Rajputs._

ÿ

RajputUprisings

Between 1193 and 1198 A.D.there were many Rajput uprisings.Qutb-ud-din Aibak put them downand brought many of their territoriesunder his control. Delhi was madethe capital of Muhammad of Ghori'sterritory in India.

Battleof Chandwar (1194A.D.)

Muhammad of Ghori marchedagainst Jaichandra, the greatestRajput ruler of Kanauj who washaving a vast part of Indian Territoryunder his control. In the Battle ofChandwar, Jaichand was struck inthe eye by an arrow and he waskilled by Muhammad of Ghori. Thevictory at Chandwar helpedMuhammad of Ghori to extendfurther into India.

Conquestof Bengaland Bihar

Muhammad-bin-Baktiyar Khilji,one of the commanders ofMuhammad of Ghori, destroyedVikramasila and NalandaUniversities in 1202-1203A.D.

He also captured Nadia inBengaland partsof Bihar.

His invasions

138

Deathof Muhammadof Ghori An EstimateMuhammad of Ghori went back

to Ghazrii in order to check hisCentral Asian enemies. While hewas engaged in evening prayer, hewas assassinated on 25th March1206A.D., by some Shia rebels andKhokhars.

Muhammad of Ghori wasconsidered to be the real founder ofthe Turkish Empire in India becauseof his various conquests andannexations of the Rajput territory inNorth India.

EXERCISE

I)Choosethe bestanswer.

1.Muhammad-bin-Qasimwas sent to conquer_.a)Sind b) Delhi c) Ghori

2. Mahmud of Ghazni defeated_ the ruler of Hindu Shahidynasty.

a)Jaichand b)Jaipala c) Rajya Pal

3. Somnath temple was plundered by Mahmud of Ghazni in

a) 1025A.D. b)1027A.D. c)1001A.D.

4. In the First Battle of Tarain Muhammad of Ghori was defeated by

a)Sabuktigin b)Ghiyasuddin c) Prithiviraj

5.The Commander of Muhammadof Ghori was_.a) Qutb-ud-dinAibak b)Balban c)Nasir-ud-din

II)Fill inthe blanks.

1. ProphetMuhammadwas the founder of_.2. Muhammad-bin-Qasim invaded Sind in_A.D.

3. Inthe Second BattleofTarain Muhammadof Ghori killed_.4. Muhammad-bin-BaktiyarKhilji captured Nadia in_.5. Muhammad of Ghori was considered to be the real founder of a_Empire in India.

139

Ill)Matchthe following.

1. Al-Hajjaj

2. Multan

3. Sabuktigin

4. SomnathTemple

5. Firdausi

City of Gold

Governor of Iraq

Kathiawar

Scholar

RulerofGhazni

IV)Answer the following questions briefly.

1. Write a noteon the administrative system ofArabs in Sind?

2. Who dismissed Muhammad-bin-Qasim and Why?

3. Whowere the rulersdefeated by Mahmudof Ghazni?

4. What were the regions invadedand captured by Muhammadof Ghori?

5. Why was the Battleof Chandwar important inthe historyof India?

V)Answer indetail.

1. Write indetail about theArab conquest of Sind and Multanand its effectson India.

2. Give an account of the Firstand Second BattleofTarain.

140

FORMATIVEASSESSMENT\__

1. Group Discussion:

Divide the class into groups. Ask each group to discuss the topic."TheArabs made Islam-a powerful force in the politics ofAsia". Then achild from each group can comeforward to share what they discussed.

2. Findmore:

Readabout Qasim and his defence forces and the tactics of Muhammadof Ghorigiven inyour lesson.

Findout details of the presentday defence forces of India.

i. Army

ii. Navy

iii. Air force

iv. Training centers

3. Oratoricalcompetition:

Imagine yourself to be Muhammad of Ghori. Your soldiers have losthope after their defeat in the First battle of Tarain at the hands ofPrithviraj Chauhan. How would you instill confidence in them to fightagain?

• The pupilwho is motivated best wins

4. Debate:

Which of the conquests - Arab or Turkish had a lasting impact onmedieval History.

5. Preparecharts:

The class can be divided intogroups. Eachgroup can preparea chart onthe following topics.

i. Indian impacton theArabs

ii. Administration

iii. Astronomy

iv. Music

v. Art andArchitecture

6. Things to do:

Collect information about the foreigners who invaded India duringmedieval period.

141

2. SULTANATE OF DELHI

The period from 1206 A.D. to1526A.D. came to be known as theSultanate period. During this periodthe Mamaluk, Khilji,Tughluq, Sayyidand Lodi dynasties ruled over India.With the death of Muhammad ofGhori,his commander Qutb-ud-din-Aibak came to power and foundedthe Mamalukdynasty.

MAMALUKDYNASTYQutb-ud-dinAibak(1206-1210A.D.)

The rule of Qutb-ud-din Aibak,the commander of Muhammad ofGhori marked the beginning of theMamaluk ruleand the establishmentof Sultanate period in India. Heassumed sovereign powers on 24thJune 1206 A.D. He did not issuecoins or readthe khutba in his name.He was the founder of the Turkishdominion in India.t >

The term Mamaluk was theQuranic term for a slave.

Task of SavinghisEmpire

Qutb-ud-din's immediate taskswere

• to prevent Ala-ud-dinMuhammad, the Shah of Khwarizmfrom occupying Ghazni and Delhi.

• to prevent the Rajputs fromrecoveringtheir principalities.

• to put downAli Mardan KhanofBengal, Qubacha andYalduz.

In order to save his infantTurkish Empire, he made manymatrimonial alliances and shifted hiscapital to Lahore. He successfully

put down his enemies and firmlyestablished his holdover India.

An Estimate

Qutb-ud-din Aibak was a piousMuslim. His administration waspurely based on his militarystrength. Local administration wasentrusted to native officers. He builtQuwat-ul-lslam mosque at Ajmerand Dhai DinkaJhonpara mosqueatDelhi. He started the construction ofQutb Minar at Delhi. He patronizedHassan Nizami and Fakhre Mudir.He was called as Lakh Baksh orGiver of Lakhs for his generosity. Hedied in November 1210A.D. after hefell from his horsewhile playing polo.

Iltutmish(1211-1236A.D.)

Iltutmish was born in the llbaritribe of CentralAsia.As a boy hewassold asa slave to Qutb-ud-dinAibak.Aibak made him as his son-in-law.He killed Aram Shah, the son ofAibak and became king in 1211A.D.

Conquest of Iltutmish

Iltutmish was surrounded byenemies on all sides. He put themdown and strengthened his position.As Yalduz considered himself to bethe successor of Muhammad ofGhori, Iltutmish defeated him andput himto death. He drove out Nasir-ud-din Qubacha, the ruler of Uchand Multanfrom Punjab in 1217A.D.He captured Bhakkar, whereQubacha took shelter. Bengal wasalso brought under his control.

142

MAMALUK DYNASTY J

• Lahore

•Devagiri

Bay of BengalArabian sea

• Dwarasamudra

|Mamaluk Dynasty

•Mai

Indian Ocean Srilanka

143

Iltutmish put down the revolt ofthe Khilji Maliks of Bengal in 1230A.D. Iltutmish refused to give shelterto Jalal-ud-din Mangabarni, theShah of Khwarizm who wasattacked by Mongols. This pleasedChengiz Khan and so he did notinvade India. In this way Iltutmishsaved Delhi from Mongol invasion.In Rajputana, Iltutmish recapturedRanthambore and Mandor. Hedefeated Udai Singh, the ruler ofJalor and made him a feudatory.Thangiri, Ajmer, Sambha, Nagur,Kalinjar and Gwalior were capturedby him.

Iltutmish re-established hisauthority over Badaun, Kanauj,Benaras and Katchar-the doabregion between the Ganga and theYamuna.

Qufb Minar

Qutb Minar was built in honourof Sufi Saint Khwaja Qutb-ud-dinBaktiyar kakiwho died in Delhi.Theconstruction started by Aibak wascompleted by Iltutmish

Endof IftutmishIltutmish undertook an

expedition against Bamiyan.Henominated his daughter Raziah ashis successor before his death. Hefell illand died in 1236AD.

AdministrationIltutmish set up Iqtas under

Iqtadars. The army was maintainedby 'A Corps of Forty' or Chahalgan.He was the first Turkish ruler tointroduceArabic coinage.

EstimateIltutmish was a successful

general and administrator. Hecompleted the work of Aibak. Hebuilt up the Turkish Kingdom inNorth India.

Coinsof iltutmishThe silver tanka of Iltutmish

weighed 175 mgs and had anArabic inscription on it. Iltutmishalso introducedcopperJital.

Sultana Raziah(1236-1240A.D.)Raziahwas the first woman ruler

of Sultanate period. She defeatedand killed Firoz Shah who ascendedthe throne after the death ofIltutmish. She successfully restoredthe prestige of the Turkish Kingdomin India. Her rule ended in 1240A.D.because of a conspiracy by theTurkish nobles. The successors ofRaziah were weak and henceBalban roseto power in 1265A.D.

Successorsof RaziahBahramShah 1240-1242A.D.Alaud-dinMasid 1242-1246A.D.Nasir-ud-dinMahmud 1246-1264A.D.Balban 1265-1287A.D.

Balban(1265-1207A.D.)Balban an llbari Turk became

the ruler in 1265A.D.after the deathof Nasir-ud-dinMahmud.

144

He believed in the Divine RightTheory of Kingship. He introduced

a form of salutation to theking by kissing hisfeet inthe court.

S S

According to Lanepoole,"Balban, a slave, water carrier,huntsman, general, statesman andSultan-is one of the most strikingfigures among the notable men in

Jhe long lineof Kingsof Delhi".

Internalpolicies

Balban curtailed and destroyedthe 'Corps of Forty' by giving themsevere punishments and promotingjuniors to important positions. Heintroduced a well organised spysystem.

A separate military departmentcalled Diwan-i-arz was established.Many military posts were set up atBhojapur, Patiali, Kampil andJalali.Balban suppressed TughrilKhan, who declared hisindependence and recoveredBengal.

Balban was a great patron oflearning. He patronized AmirKhusrau who iscalled as the 'Parrotof India' and Amir Hasan. Balbanwas the most successful ruleramong the slave kings.

Balban was shocked when his

son Mahmud was killed during anencounter with the Mongols.He never recovered from the sorrowand died in 1287A.D.

Endof the Mamaluk DynastyBalban was succeeded by

Kaiqubad his grandson who wasvery incompetent. The nobles madeKayumar, the infant son of Kaiqubadas ruler. Jalal-ud-din Khilji, thecommander of Balban became theregent of the infant king. He killedKaiqubad and Kayumar andbecame the ruler of Delhi. ThusMamaluk Dynastywas brought to anend and the Khilji Dynasty wasfounded.

KHILJIDYNASTYJalal-ud-din FirozKhilji(1290-1296A.D.)

In 1290 A.D. Jalal-ud-din FirozKhilji ascended the throne of Delhi.Hefollowed the policy of peace afterhe became the ruler. He wanted torule without bloodshed. Hence, hewas called as Clemency Jalal-ud-din.

Domestic Policies

Jalal-ud-din suppressed a revoltby Malik Chhajju at Kara. Heappointed his nephew and son-in-lawAla-ud-din Khilji as the Governorof Kara. Theft and robbery becamecommon during his reign. Though anumber of thugs and robbers werearrested, Jala-ud-din forgave themand even set them free in Bengal.He arrested and killed Sidi Maula, areligious leader who tried to seizethe throne.

x-* ÿ>

DivinerightTheoryThe ruler was considered as a

representativeof Godon earth.

An Estimateof Balban

Endof Balban

145

Mongol Invasion

Jalal-ud-din defeated andarrested the Mongols who tried toadvance upto Sunam in 1292 A.D.He pardoned them as they sued forpeace. A few of the Mongols stayedback in Indiaafter the invasion.

Jalal-ud-din's policy of peacewas not liked by the young Khiljis.Ala-ud-din Khilji the son-in-law ofJalal-ud-din treacherouslymurdered him and came to powerafter his returnfrom Devagiri.

Ala-ud-din Khilji ascended thethrone in 1296A.D. He consolidatedhis hold over North India andinvadedSouth Indiaalso.

Ala-ud-din Khilji sent a strongarmy under hisgenerals Ulugh Khanand Nusrat Khan to conquer Gujaratand they succeeded in doing so.Ranthamborewas captured and itsruler Hamir Deva was killed. Chittor,Malwa, Mandu, Ujjain, Dhar,Chanderi, Marwar and Jalor werealso captured.

Ala-ud-din Khilji was the firstSultan who invaded South India. Hesent his most trustworthy general,Malik Kafur against the rulers of thesouth. Ramachandra Deva, theYadava ruler of Devagiri,Prataprudra-ll of Warangal and ViraBallala-lll, the Hoysala ruler weredefeated and madevassals of Delhi.

Malik Kafur helped SundaraPandya against his rival ViraPandya. He reached as far asRameswaram and built a mosquethere. The kingdoms of the southaccepted the overlordship ofAla-ud-din khilji and agreed to pay tribute tohim.

The Mongol InvasionAla-ud-din successfully repelled

the Mongol invasion more than adozen times. He renovated theexisting forts and outposts. Heconstructed new forts and stronglygarrisoned them to strengthen hisfrontiers.

Domestic Policies of Ala-ud-dinKhilji

Ala-ud-din believed in the DivineRight Theory of Kingship. Heintroduced four ordinances toprevent frequent rebellions. Heconfiscated religious endowmentsand free grants of lands,reorganized the spy system,prohibited social parties and use ofwine.

A permanent standing army wasorganized by Ala-ud-din. Heintroducedthe system of brandingofhorses and descriptive roll ofindividual soldiers to preventcorruption.

The prices of essentialcommodities were fixed which wasless than the usual market rates.Black marketing was strictlyprohibited. Revenue was collectedin kind and not in cash. He postedseveral horsemen and clerks in newposts. The postal system was good

EndofJalal-ud-din

Ala-ud-din Khilji(1296-1316A.D.)

Conquests inthe North

Conquest inthe South

146

Empire of Ala-ud-din Khilji

•Lahore

Delhi •

• Devagiri

•Warangal

Bay of BengalArabian sea

•Maqurai

Indian Ocean Srilanka

] Ala-ud-din Khilji's Kingdom

147

during his period. He followed aharsh policy towards the Hindus.Jizya, grazing tax and house taxwere imposedon them.

An Estimate

Ala-ud-din was the first to raiseastanding army, to regularize themarkets and to capture regionssouth of the Vindhyas. He built AlaiDarwaza, fort of Siri and the Palaceof a thousand pillars. He wasundoubtedly a great conqueror anda nobleadministrator. Hewas a manof determination.

Endof the Dynasty

Ala-ud-din died in 1316A.D.Dueto weak successors like Qutb-ud-dinMubarak Shah (1316-1320 A.D.)and Nasir-ud-din Khusrav Shah(1320A.D.), the Khilji dynasty cameto an end. Finally in 1320 A.D. agroup of nobles led by Ghazi Malik,the Governor of Punjab, invadedDelhi and captured the throne.Ghazi Malik assumed the title ofGhiyas-ud-dinTughluq and foundeda new lineof rulersat Delhi knownasthe Tughluq Dynasty.

TUGHLUQ DYNASTYGhiyas-ud-din Tughluq(1320-1325 A.D.)

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq or GhaziMalikwas the founder of the Tughluqdynasty. From a humble origin heascended the throne by his abilityand hardwork in 1320A.D.

Domesticand ForeignPolicies

Ghiyas-ud-din restored order inhis empire. Lot of importance wasgiven to agriculture, irrigation,judicial, police and postalarrangements. Warangal, Utkala orOrissa and Bengal were broughtunder his control. He captured andimprisoned the Mongol leaders whoinvaded North India.

Endof his ruleWhile attending a reception for

his victories at Bengal the pavilionon which he stood gave way andGhiyas-ud-dinwas crushed to deathin 1325 A.D. The crown princeJunakhan succeeded him.

Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq(1325-1361A.D.)

PrinceJunakhan took upthe titleMuhammad-bin-Tughluq in 1325A.D. when he ascended the throne.He stood for political andadministrative unity of India. HecapturedWarangal in 1327A.D.

Domestic Policies

Mohammed-bin-Tughlug raisedthe taxes in the Doab region to fill uphis empty treasury. To avoid heavytaxes the people ran away to theforests.As cultivationwas neglectedsevere famines occurred. Herealized his mistake and sanctioned

r \MarketingSystem

Officers like Diwan-i-riyasatand Shahana-i-mandi wereappointed to regularize the market.All merchants were required toregister themselves in the office ofthe Shahana-i-Mandi and sell theirgoods at fixed rates.

v_/

148

Empire of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq

NA

Multc

•Delhi#Mathura« Kanauj

Gwalior »Banaras

Devagiri

Arabian sea Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean sriianka

| Rajputana

ÿ Extent of Muhammed-bin-Tughlaq's Empire

149

loans and dug canals to overcomefamine but itwas too late.

Mongolswere often invadingtheIndian frontiers. Inorder to protecthis capital, he transferred his capitalfrom Delhi to Devagiri. He orderedboth the government officials andthe common people to shift toDevagiri. The people faced untoldmiseries. Due to practical difficultieshe ordered them to return back toDelhi.

Copper currency system wasintroduced by the Sultan. Theofficial machinerywas notappointedto mint coins. So, people startedminting coins in huge numbers. Thevalue of coins fell so low that theSultan withdrew the copper tokencurrency.

Coins of Mohammed-bin-Tughluq

Mohammed-bin-Tughluq raisedan army of 3,70,000 men in order toconquer Tranoxiana, Khurasan andIraq. He disbanded them afterrealizingthat itwas notpossible.

Mohammed-bin-Tughluq'spolicy of giving huge presents toTamashirin, the Mongol leader, toavoid a Mongol invasionwas a greatburdenon hisexchequer.

An EstimateThe domestic policies of

Mohammed-bin-Tughluqwere goodbut hisoperative measuresended ina failure. His character of takinghasty decisions and inoperativepolicies were responsible for thedeclineofthe DelhiSultanate.

FirozTughluq(1351-1388A.D.)Firoz Tughluq, the son of the

younger brother of Ghiyas-ud-dinTughluq ascended the throne in1351A.D.

Administrative Reforms

FirozTughluq introduced a lot ofreformswhich were beneficial to thepeople. He cancelled all Taquavi(agricultural) loans granted byMohammed-bin-Tughluq. Heincreased the salary of the revenueofficers. Unlawful and unjustcesses were abolished. Hecollected four important taxes suchas Kharaj-1/10 of the produce of theland, Khams-1/5 of the warbooty,Jizya-Poll Tax and Zakat-Tax onmuslims for specific religiouspurposes. He gave importance topublic works. He excavated manyirrigation canals, constructed 50dams, 150 wells and 100 bridges.He built the towns like Firozabad,Fatehabad, Jaunpur and Hissar.Firoz prohibited all kinds ofmutilations and torture. The Koraniclaws were followed. He imposedJizya on the Brahmans.

An Employment Bureau,Marriage Bureau, (Diwani-i-kherat)and hospitals (Dar-ul-shafa) wereestablished.

150

Diwan-i-lstibqaq was established togive financial help to the poor.Liberal grants were given toscholars and religious institutions.

In 1353A.D. and 1359A.D. Firozbesieged Bengal. He capturedJainagar and destroyed theJagannath Temple at Puri. Hemadethe rulers of Nagarkot and Tatta topaytributes.

Firoz proved his greatness byhis benevolent reforms andcontributed to the materialprosperity of his people. The Sultanhimself wrote his autobiographycalled Futuhat-i-Firoz Shahi. Hepatronized the scholar Zia-ud-dinBarani. During his period a numberof Sanskrit books on medicine,science and arts were translatedinto Persian. Kutab- Feroz Shahiwas a book which dealt withPhysics.

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq Shah II,Abu Bakr Shah, Nasir-ud-dinMohammed Tughluq were thesuccessors of Firoz. They were notvery strong and powerful. By the endof the fourteenth century, most of theprovinces under them becameindependent. Punjab and Delhialone remained in the hands of theTughluqs.

The Sultans of the TughluqDynasty however, continued to ruleupto 1414 A.D. It was during theirperiod that the invasion of Timurtook place.

Timur's invasion(1398A.D.)The ruler of Samarqand, Timur

was attracted by the fabulous wealthof Hindustan. He invaded Indiaduring the period of Nasir MahmudTughluq. He crossed the river Indusand reached Delhi. The Sultan andhis Prime Minister Mallu Iqbalopposed Timur. Timur defeatedthem and occupied Delhi in 1398A.D. Timur inflicted untold miserieson the people by plundering andmassacring them. His invasion ledto the decline of the TughluqDynasty.

THE SAYYID DYNASTY(1414-1451A.D.)

The Sayyid dynasty rose toprominence in Delhiwith the declineof the Tughluq dynasty. KhizrKhan(14 14- 142 1 A.D.) theGovernor of Multan took advantageof the chaotic conditions in Indiaafter Timur's invasion occupied thethrone of Delhi in 1414 A.D. andfounded the Sayyid dynasty . KhizrKhan, the founder did not assumeany royal title. Though he broughtPunjab, Dilapur and parts of Suratunder his control, he lost Jaunpur,Malwa, Gujarat, Khandesh, Bengaland Deccan. He died in 1421A.D.and was succeeded by his sonMubarak Shah (1421-1434A.D.) Hesuppressed the Khokhars and thelocal chiefs of the Doab region. Hisreign is notable for the fact that forthe first time Hindu nobles wereappointed in the court of Delhi. Hebuilt a city called "Mubarakbad" onthe banks of the river Jamuna. Hewas murdered in 1434A.D.

ForeignPolicy

An Estimate

LaterTughluqs

151

Mubarak's nephew, MuhammadShah (1434-1445 A.D.) succeededhim. He put down the ruler of Malwawith the help of Bahlol Lodi theGovernor of Lahore. For the helprendered by Bahlol Lodi he wasconferred with the title Khan-i-Khanan. Muhammad Shah died in1445AD.

Muhammad Shah wassucceeded by Ala-ud-dinShah(1445-1457 A.D.). He was avery feeble ruler. Bahlol Lodi theGovernor of Lahore occupied Delhiin 1457A.D. and allowed Ala-ud-dinShah to retire to Badaun where hedied in 1478 A.D. The SayyidDynasty came to an end in1457.A.D.

The Lodi Dynasty was foundedby Bahlol Lodi. Itwas the last of theruling dynasties of the Sultanateperiod. He was a shrewd politicianwho clearly realized his limitations.He always took steps to satisfy hisnobles. He conquered Mewat,Samthal, Sakit, Etawa and Gwalior.Hediedin 1489A.D.

Punjab to Bihar. He built the city ofAgra which became an importantadministrative and cultural center ofthe Lodi's. Heorganized an efficientspy system. He improvedagriculture and industry. During hisperiod several Sanskrit booksdealing with mathematics,medicine,astronomy and yoga weretranslated into Persian.

r

Ibrahim LodiTomb

He enjoyed"Shehnai"music. Areputedwork on music titled "Lahjat-i-Sikandar Shahi was preparedduring his reign. Hewas an orthodoxMuslim and put serious restrictionson the Hindus. He was the greatestruler of the Lodi Dynasty. Hedied in1517A.D.

LODI DYNASTYBahlolLodi{1451-1489A,D.)

Endof LodiDynastyBahlol Lodidid not take his seat

on the throne but sat on the carpetin front of the throne along with hisnobles in order to get theirrecognitionandsupport._ÿ

Bahlol's son Sikandar Shahi(1489-1517 A.D.) ascended thethrone under the title of SikandarShah. He extended his empire from

Ibrahim Lodi (1517-1526 A.D.)succeeded Sikandhar Lodi. He wasan uncompromising and intolerantruler. Ibrahim Lodi humiliated manyof hisnoblesand killedsome of themcruely. Dilwar khanLodi the son ofDaulat khan Lodiwas treatedcruelyby Ibrahim Lodi. In order to takerevenge on him, Daulat khan Lodiinvited Babur the ruler of Kabul to

152

invade India. Babur accepted hisinvitation, invaded India anddefeated Ibrahim Lodi in the firstbattle of Panipat in 1526 A. D. TheLodi dynasty came to an end withthe defeat of IbrahimLodi.

Administration under the DelhiSultanate

The Sultanate of Delhi whichextended from 1206 A.D. to 1526A.D., for a periodof about 320 years,was a Theocratic as well as aMilitary State. Administration wasbasedon Islamic laws.

( \MinisterstoSultanWazir

Prime Minister and FinanceMinister.

Diwani-I-RisaltForeignAffairs Minister.

Sadr-us-SuddarMinisterof IslamicLaw.

Diwan-l-lnshaCorrespondence Minister.

Diwan-I-ArizDefenceorWar Minister.

Qazi-ul-quzart

MinisterofJustice. >

CentralAdministration

The Sultan was the head of theempire. He enjoyed vast powers.There were six ministers to assisthim. Many officials were alsoappointed to take care of theadministration.

The empire was divided intoseveral Iqtas. Iqtas wereadministered by Iqtadars or

Governors. Iqtas were divided intosmaller units called Shiqqs,Parganasand the Villages.

The head of the Shiqq wascalled Shiqqdar. Important officialsof the Pargana were the Amil orMunsif, the treasurer and thequanungo.

LocalAdministration

The village was the smallest unitof administration. Local hereditaryofficers and the Panchayats in eachvillage carried out the villageadministration. The Panchayatlooked after education, sanitation,justice, revenue etc. The CentralGovernment did not interfere in thevillage administration.

RevenueAdministration

Land revenue was the mainsource of income. So, a lot ofimportance was given to agricultureand irrigation. Trade tax, House tax,Horse tax, Mines tax, etc. weresome of the taxes collected duringthe Sultanate period.

JudicialAdministration

The Sultan was the highestjudicial authority. Qazi-ul-quzar wasthe Chief Judicial officer. There wasa Quazi in every town. Usuallysevere punishments were given tothe criminals.

MilitaryAdministrationThe Sultan was the

Commander of the army. The fourdivisions of the army were the Royalarmy, Provincialor Governor's army,Feudalarmy andWar Time army.

ProvincialAdministration

153

Social lifeof the Sultanateperiod

The important characteristic ofthe society was the division ofpeople on the basis of theirnationality as foreign Muslims,IndianMuslimsand Hindus.

The people were mainlyinvolved in agriculture and industry.Textile industry was the primaryindustry. Sugar industry, paperindustry, metal work, stone cutting,pearl diving, ivory and sandal workswere the other industries of thisperiod.

/"-"NTextiles

Indian textiles was in greatdemand in foreign countries.Bengal and Gujarat were famousfor their quality fabrics. Cotton,woollen and silk of differentvarieties were produced in largequantities. The clothes werestudded with gold, diamonds,pearls,silver and stones.

Delhi Sultans had a genius forarchitecture. There was a blend ofIndian and Islamic styles. The threewell developed styles were -Delhi orImperial Style, Provincial Style andHindu architectural style.Qutubminar, Quwat-ul-lslammosque, the tombs of Nasir-ud-dinMuhammad and Balban were builtbythe Mamaluk rulers.

Siri the new town in Delhi,Dargah of Hazrat Nizam - ud - dinAulia and the Alai Darwazabelongedto Khilji period.

The rulers of Tughluq period didnot give importance toornamentation. Their buildingsweresolid and strong. Some buildingsbear mark of Hindu features. Thepalace and the tomb of Ghiyas-ud-dinTughluq,Adalabad Fort built byMuhammad-bin Tughluq and thecities of Tughluqabad andJahanpanah stand testimony to thearchitectural skill of the Tughluqperiod.

The Lodi Garden and MotiMasjid in New Delhi and the tomb ofSikandar Lodiare some examples ofLodiarchitecture.

Literature

The Delhi Sultans were greatpatrons of learning. Great scholarsnamely Alberuni, Amir KhusrauandZia-ul-Barani adorned theircourt. Many Sanskrit works weretranslated into Arabic. A lot ofvernacular literature was alsoproduced during this period. Urdulanguage originated during theSultanate period.

'scholars of sultanateÿPERIOD

Alberuni an Arabic andPersian Scholar served underMahmud of Ghazni. He learnt andtranslated two Sanskrit works intoArabic. He was impressed by theUpanishadsandBhagavatGita. In

ÿ his work Tarikh-ul-Hind, he;

Economic conditions of thepeople

CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE DELHISULTANATEArt andArchitecture

154

/ \

referred to the socio-economicconditions of India.

Amir Khusrau was a greatPersian poet. He is said to havewritten four lakh couplets. Hewasa great singer and was given thetitle 'Parrot of India'. He used a lotof Hindiwords in hisworks.

v_y

Disintegration of the DelhiSultanate

Impactof TurkishConquest

The Turkish conquest of Indiahad its impact on various fields.

1)lt paved the way for acentralized politicalorganization.

2)lt restored contacts with therestofAsia and partsofAfrica.

3)A permanent army wasestablished.

4)Trade developed due to theuniform legal system, tariffregulationsand currency.

5)Persian became the courtlanguage and brought uniformity inadministration.

The disintegration of the DelhiSultanate had begun during theTughluq period. The invasion ofTimur and the incompetent andintolerant nature of some of theSayyid and Lodi rulers led to thecrumbling of the DelhiSultanate.The first to break freefrom Delhi in the South were therulers of the Vijayanagar andBahmaniKingdom.

Khandesh, Bengal, Sind,Multan, Gujarat, Malwa, Jauripur,Kashmir, Assam and Orissa alsoasserted their independence.

Further the defeat of IbrahimLodi in the first Battle of Panipat in1526A.D. by Babur ended the Lodidynasty and brought the downfall ofthe Delhi Sultanate in India. TheDelhiSultanatewhich began in 1206A.D. and lasted for about 300 yearscame to an end with theestablishment of Mughal rule inIndia in 1526A.D.

EXERCISE

I) Choosethe correct answer.

1.The Mamaluk rulewas founded by_.a)Balban b) lltutmish c)Qutb-ud-dinAibak

2.The first Turkish ruler to introduce Arabic coinage was

a) lltutmish b)AmirKhusrau c)Amir Hasan

3.The poet known as the "Parrot of India"was_.a) AlBeruni b)Kaiqubad c)Amir Khusrau

4.The founder of the Sayyid Dynastywas_.a) Khizr Khan b) MuhhamadShah c) Daulat khan Lodi

155

5. Babur the ruler of Kabul was invited by_ to invadeIndia.

a)BahlulLodi b) Ibrahim Lodi c) DaulatkhanLodi

II) Fill inthe blanks.

1. Quwat-ul- IslammosqueatAjmer was built by_.2. The first woman rulerof the Sultanate period was

3. The founder oftheTughluqdynasty was_4. Bahlol Lodioccupied the throne of Delhi in_5. Sikhandar Shah Lodienjoyed_music.

Ill) Matchthe following.

1. Qutb-ud-dinAibak Divine RightTheory

2. Balban Muhammad-bin-Tughluq

3. Jalal-ud-din Firoz Khilji Rulerof Samarqand

4. PrinceJuna khan Lakh Bakor Giver of Lakhs

5. Timur Policyof Peace

IV) Answer the followingquestions briefly.

1. HowdidQutb-ud-dinAibaksave his infantTurkish Empire?

2. Howwas Balbanable to destroy the "Corpsof Forty"?

3. Write a short noteonAla-ud din Khilji'sarmy.

4. What were the publicworks introduced by FirozTughluq?

5. Giveashort account ofTimurs invasion.

V) Answer indetail.

1. Howdid IItutmishputdown hisenemies and strengthen his position?

2.Describe in detail the conquests ofAla-ud-din Khilji in North and SouthIndia.

3. Give an account of the domestic policiesof Mohammed-bin-Tughluq.

4. Write indetail about the administrationof the DelhiSultanate.

156

FORMATIVEASSESSMENTV__

/

1. Narrate inclass:

The class should be divided into groups. A representative from eachgroup should pose as Qutb-ud-din Aibak and narrate how the Turkishrulewas established by him/her in India.

2. Findout:

Findmoreon the Divine RightTheory of Kingship-the countries and thekingswho followed it.

3. Enact:

i. The achievements of Ala-ud-din Khilji, a man of determinationwho made hisdynasty strong. (Or)

ii. The benevolent reforms and greatness of FirozTughlaq.

4. Prepare:

Prepare an album (or) a power point presentation on the Art andarchitecture of the Delhi Sultanate.

5. Learn Urdu words:

Persons Things

Father PencilMother PenBrother NotebookSister PaperTeacher Ink

6. Things to do:

Mark the following on the outline map of India .i. Extent of Muhammad - bin-Tughluq's Empire.

ii. Places: Multan, Mathura, Kanauj, Gwalior, Delhi, Banaras.

157

SOCIAL SCIENCESTANDARD SEVEN

TERM III

TEXTBOOK TEAM

ChairpersonsHistory & Civics

Dr. Bharathi Manoharan,Associate professor,LadyWillingtonTeachers College,Triplicane, Chennai - 600005.

Geography & Economics

Dr.P. Arul,Associate Professor,Government Arts College,Kumbakonam, Thanjavur District

ReviewersDr.Thanappan,Associate professor,PresidencyCollege,Chennai -600 005.

Tmt.S. Karpagavalli,HeadMistress,Government HighSchoolSooradimangalam, Kancheepuram.

Dr.B. Gobu,Assistant Professor,Government Arts College,Kumbakonam, Thanjavur District.

Thiru. S. Vadivel,Assistant Professor,Government Arts College,Kumbakonam, Thanjavur District

AuthorsThiru J.Arul George Peter,LecturerDIET,Munanjipatti,Tirunelveli District.

Tmt.Usha Narayanan,PG.Assistant,J.G.H.V.Mat.Hr.Sec. School,W.Mambalam. Chennai - 600033.

Thiru. R.Vijayan,PGAssistant,Govt. Girls Hr.Sec. School,Ami,Thiruvannamalai District.

Mrs. HannahNirmala,PG Assistant,St.John's Mat. Hr.Sec.School,Baba Nagar,Villivakkam, Chennai-49.

Thiru.P. Shanmugam,PGAssistant,Govt Hr. Sec. School, Kangeyam,Tiruppur District - 638701.

Thiru.V. Suresh kumar,B.T. Assistant,SBOA Mat. Hr . Sec .School,Annanagar West Ext, Chennai - 101.

Thiru.M. Saravanan,BTAssistant,Govt Hr.Sec.School, Thirucherai,Thanjavur District - 612 605.

Tmt.S. Pushpalatha,PG. Asst. Ecomonics,Kamala Subramanian Mat. Hr . SecSchool, Thanjavur - 613 005

Laser Typeset, Layout,Illustrations

M.Vijayasarathy, T. Raghu

160

J HISTORY L

1.THE VIJAYANAGAR AND BAHMANl KINGDOMS

Rise of the Vijayanagar andBahmani Kingdoms

A large number of provincialgovernors and feudatories, both inNorthand South India declared theirIndependence with thedisintegration of the DelhiSultanateafter the reign of Muhammed-Bin-Tughluq. Bengal and Multan werethe first to break away from Delhi.Gujarat, Malwa, Mewar, MarwarandKashmiralso became independent.

Further to this, Vijayanagar andthe Bahmani kingdoms rose toprominence in the Deccan andSouth India.

The Vijayanagar Empire(1336-1672A.D.)

Harihara and Bukka servedunder the Hoysala King ViraBallala III. The founded the city ofVijayanagar on the southern banksof Tungabhadra in 1336 A.D. withthe help of Saint Vidaranya and hisbrother Sayana when the Hoysalaswere put down by Muhammad-bin-Tughluq. Their capital was Hampi.Vijayanagar empire was ruled byfour important dynasties namely theSangama, Saluva, Tuluva andAravidu.

Harihara I became the ruler in1336A.D. He captured Mysore andMadurai. He was succeeded byBukka-I in 1356 A.D. His empireextended from the region south ofthe river Tungabhadra uptoRameswaram.The important rulers

of Vijayanagar Empire wereHarihara-JI, Devaraya-1, Devaraya-JIand Krishnadeva Raya.

KRISHNADEVA RAYA(1509-1529A.D.)

Krishnadeva Raya of the Tuluvadynasty was the most famous kingof the Vijayanagar Empire.

jr

Krishnadeva Raya

According to Domingo Paes, aPortuguese traveller, "KrishnadevaRaya was the most feared andperfect king there could possiblybe".

CONQUESTSKrishnadeva Raya was a great

warrior. He conqueredSivasamudram in 1510A.D.,Raichurin 1512A.D.,Orissa andWarangal in1523 A.D. and a large part of theDeccan. His empire extended fromthe river Krishna in the north to theriver Cauvery in the south and the

161

Arabian Sea in the west to the

Krishnadevaraya was an ableadministrator. He constructed largetanks and canals for irrigationpurposes. He improved the navalpower as he understood theimportance of overseas trade. Hemaintainedfriendly relationshipwiththe Portuguese and Arab tradersand increased the revenue of hisgovernment.

Krishnadeva Raya was a greatscholar. A group of eight scholarscalled Ashtadiggajas adorned hiscourt. He was a patron of art andarchitecture. He built beautifultemples and palaces. The Vijayanagar Empire reached its zenith ofglory during Krishnadeva Raya'speriod._TheAshtadiggajas

Allasani Peddanna, NandiThimmana, Tenali Rama, BhattuMurthy, Puna Vira Bhadra,Dhurjathy, Mallana and PanajiSurana.

v_s

BATTLEOFTALIKOTA(1565A.D.)

The successors of KrishnadevaRaya were weak. During the rule ofRamaraya, the combined forces ofAhmednagar, Bijapur, Golcondaand Bidar declared war onVijayanagar. In the battle of Talikotain 1565 A.D. Ramaraya wasdefeated. He and his people weremercilessly killed. Vijayanagar wasplundered and left in ruins.

The Glories of the VijayanagarEmpireAdministration

The Vijayanagar rulers had awell organized administrativesystem. The king was the fountainheadof all powers inthe state.Therewas a Council of Ministers to assistthe King in the work ofadministration.

The Empire was divided into sixProvinces. Each Province wasunder a Governor called Naik. TheProvinces were divided into districtswhich were further divided intosmaller units namely Villages. TheVillage Assembly carried on theadministration of the villagesthrough its hereditary officers likeaccountants, the weightsmen,watchmen and officers incharge offorced labour. The Centraladministration maintained contactwith the villages through an officercalled Mahanayakacharya.

TheArmy

The army consisted of theinfantry, cavalry and elephantry. Thecommander-in-chief was in chargeof the army.

RevenueAdministration

Land revenue was the mainsource of income. The land wascarefully surveyed and taxes werecollected based on the fertility of thesoil. Great attention was paid toagriculture and the construction ofdams and canals.

Judicial Administration

The king was the supremejudge. The civil cases were decided

Bay of Bengal in the east.

Contributions

162

on the basis of Hindu Law. Severepunishments were inflicted on theguilty. Fines were collected fromthosewho violated the law.

PositionofWomenWomen occupied a high position

and took an active part in political,social and literary life of the empire.They were educated and trained inwrestling, in the use of variousweapons of offence and defence, inmusic and fine arts. Some of themreceived education of high order.Nuniz writes that the kings hadwomen astrologers, clerks,accountants, guards and wrestlers.

Social life

We get a clear picture of the lifeof the Vijayanagar people from thewritings of the foreign travellers. Thesociety was well organized. Childmarriage, polygamy and sati wereprevalent. The kings allowedfreedom of religion.

Economicconditions

The empire of Vijayanagar wasvery rich and prosperous. Theagricultural production wasincreased by their irrigationalpolicies. Numerous industries suchas Textiles, mining, metallurgy andperfumery existed. They hadcommercial relations with theislands in the Indian Ocean, theMalay Archipelago, Burma, China,Arabia, Persia, South Africa,Abyssinia and Portugal.

The chief articles exported werespices, cereals, cotton, silk, opium,indigo, sea pearls, saffron, ginger,sugar, coconuts, etc. The articles

imported were horses, elephants,copper, coal, mercury, China silkand velvets. Goa, Diu, Cochin andQuilon were the important portsthrough which active trade wascarried on the Western sea coast ofIndia.

Contribution to Architecture andLiterature

The rulers of Vijayanagar weregreat patrons of art and learning.The Hazara Ramasami temple andVittalaswamy temple are fineexamples of this period. The bronzeimage of Krishnadeva Raya is amasterpiece. Many scholars werepatronized by the Vijayanagarrulers. Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu andKannada literature were developed.Sayana wrote commentaries onVedas. Krishnadevaraya wroteAmuktamalyada in telugu. HisSanskrit works were UshaParinayam and JambavathiKalyanam.

Decline of the Empire

The rulers of the Aravidudynasty were weak andincompetent. Taking advantage oftheir weakness the provincialgovernors became independent.

The rulers of Bijapur andGolconda annexed some areas ofVijayanagar. The Nayaks becamefree in the south. Thus by 1614A.D.Vijayanagar dynasty declined.

THE BAHMANI KINGDOM(1347-1526A.D.)

The Bahmani kingdom was themost powerful Muslim kingdom that

163

Ahanv

Bidar"rJ Waranaal J

(Mysore •yellore

Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms

Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms

Arabian sea

Indian Ocean rilanka

Bay of Bengal

164

rose to prominence in the Deccan in1347A.D. and lastedtill 1526A.D.

PoliticalHistory

The founder of this dynasty wasHasan Gangu Bahmani. He was aTurkish officer of Devagiri. Heestablished the independentBahmani kingdom in 1347 A.D. Hecaptured the entire territories fromMahur in north-east to Telangana inthe south. He defeated the Hinduruler of Warangal and annexedKolhapur, Goa, Mandu and Malwa.Thus his kingdom stretched from theArabian sea to the Bay of Bengaland included the whole of Deccanupto the river Krishna with its capitalatGulbarga.

Muhammad Shah-I (1358-1377.A.D.), the next ruler was anable general and administrator. Hedefeated Bukka-I the ruler ofVijayanagar and Kapaya Nayaks ofWarangal.

Muhammad Shah-ll (1378-1397.A.D.) ascended the throne in1378A.D. He was peace loving andhence he developed friendlyrelations with his neighbours. Hebuilt many mosques, madarasas(aplaceof learning)and hospitals.

On the death of MuhammadShah-ll, Feroz Shah Bahmani(1397-1422 A.D.) became the ruler.Hewas a great general. HedefeatedDeva Raya I, the Vijayanagar ruler.He recruited a number of Hindus inhis services.

Towards the end of his rule, helost the northern and southern

provinces of his kingdom toVijayanagar.

(1422-1435 A.D.)succeeded Feroz Shah Bahmani.He was a cruel and merciless ruler.He conquered the kingdom ofWarangal and changed his capitalfrom Gulbarga to Bidar. He died in1435A.D.

Muhammad Shah-Ill (1463-1482 A.D.) was another notableBahmarii ruler. He became theSultan at the age of nine in 1463A.D.Muhammad Gawan became theregent of the infant ruler. Under hisable guidance the Bahmanikingdom became very powerful.Muhammad Gawan defeated therulers of Konkan, Sangameshwar,Orissa and Vijayanagar. During thisperiod the Bahmani kingdomstretched from one sea shore to theother and from the river Tapti to theriverTungabhadra.

->Muhammad GawanHe was a very wise scholar

and able administrator. Heimproved the administration,organized finances, encouragedpublic education, reformed therevenue system, disciplined thearmy and eleminated corruption.

Muhammad Gawan fell avictim to the jealousy of Deccanmuslims. He was falsely accusedby them and so was persecutedand sentenced to death in 1481 byMuhammadShah III.

165

The FiveMuslimDynasties Contribution to Education, Artand ArchitectureMuhammad Shah-Ill died in

1482.Hissuccessors were weak andthe BahmaniKingdom disintegratedinto five kingdoms namely Bijapur,Ahmednagar, Berar, Golconda andBidar.

The Sultans followed a Feudaltype of administration. The kingdomwas divided into many provincescalled Tarafs. Each Taraf was undera Governor called Tarafdar or Amir.The Governors were powerful andsupplied the king with men andequipments during times ofwar.

The Bahmani Sultans gavegreat attention to education. Theyencouraged Arabic and Persianlearning. Urdualso flourished duringthis period. Numerous mosques,madarasas and libraries were built.The most famous monuments of theSultans were the Juma masjid atGulbarga, the Golconda fort, theGolgumbaz at Bijapur and theMadarasasof Muhammad Gawan.

Declineof BahmaniKingdom

There were many causes for thedownfall of the Bahmani kingdom.The constant wars between theBahmani and Vijayanagar rulers,inefficient and weak successors ofMuhammad Shah III and rivalrybetween the Bahmani rulers andforeign nobleswere a few causes forthe downfall of the Bahmanikingdom.

''Golgumbaz N

Golgumbaz in Bijapur is calledthe whispering gallery. This is so,because when one whispers inone corner, a lingering echo isheard inthe opposite corner.

ÿ

Administration

EXERCISEI)Choosethe correct answer.

1.TheVijayanagar Empirewas founded inthe year_.a) 1337A.D. b)1336A.D. c)1338A.D.

2.The brothers Harihara and Bukka served under the Hoysala King

a)Vira Ballala-lll b)Narasimhan-ll c)Billiama-VI

3.The mostfamous kingof theVijayanagar empire was_.a) Harihara b) Bukka c) Krishnadeva Raya

4. The Muslim kingdom that rose to prominence in the Deccan in 1347A.D.was the_kingdom.

a) Slave b)Vijayanagar c) Bahmani

166

5. MuhammedGawanwas the Regentof

a) MuhammadShah-Ill b) HasanGangu c)Ahmad Shah

II)Fill inthe blanks.

1.A group of eight scholars called_ adorned the court ofKrishnadeva Raya.

2. The Vijayanagar Empire reached its zenith of glory during the period of

3. Ramarayawas defeated and killed inthe Battleof.4. The BahmaniKingdomwas founded by_5. The BahmaniSultans encouragedArabic and_learning.

Ill)Matchthe following.

1.Vijayanagar - Bijapur

2. BattleofTalikota - Ushaparinayam

3. Krishnadeva Raya - Gulbarga

4. Juma Masjid - Southern bank of Tungabhadra

5. Golgumbaz - 1565A.D.

IV)Answer thefollowing questions briefly.

1. Whenwas theVijayanagar kingdomfounded and bywhom?

2. Whowere the important rulersof the Vijayanagar Empire?

3. Write ashort noteonthe BattleofTalikota.

4. When and bywhom was the Bahmanikingdomfounded?

5. Name the five Muslim kingdoms that arose in Deccan at the end ofBahmani rule.

V) Answer in detail.

1. Discuss indetail about the glories of the Vijayanagar Empire.

2. Giveanaccount of the political historyof the BahmaniKingdom.

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FORMATIVEASSESSMENTv_/

1. Makea comparison:Compare the village administration of the Vijayanagar Empirewith the presentdayvillage administration system ofTamilnadu.

2. BestTalent Show:Narrate a story to prove the intelligence of Tenali Rama, one of theAshtadiggajas.

3. Discuss:Domingo Paes says " Krishnadeva Raya was the most feared and perfectking". Discusswhy hesaid so.

4. Justify:The best place to go on a study tour is-The Vijayanagar Empire or BahmaniKingdom-Have a group discussion. Let the students judge which group wasmoreconcerning andwhy?

5. Focus:Women occupied a high position in the Vijayanagar Empire. Name a fewwomen of todaywho are ina very high position.1.Political 2. Social 3. Sports

6. Things to do:I. Collect pictures and prepare an album on the various contributions of

theVijayanagar and Bahmanikingdomto artand architecture.

ii. Onthe outline mapof Indiamarkthe following places.1. Berar2. Bidar3. Golkonda4. Ahmednagar5. Vijayanagar

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2. BHAKTIAND SUFI MOVEMENTS

The Bhakti Movement ofmedieval India was a wide spreadmovement that embraced the wholeof India for several centuries. Thesaints of the Bhakti movementadvocated Bhakti or devotion to Godas a means of attaining salvation.Its main objectives were to reformthe Hindu religion and foster friendlyrelations between the Hindu andMuslim communities. Thepreachers of this movementbelonged to different places anddifferent times.

BhaktiCult inSouth India

Saivism and Vaishnavismrevived and gained great impetusthrough the Bhakti Cult during thePallava, Chola and Pandya periodbythe Nayanmarsand theAlwars.

There is a popular verse whichsays

"Bhakti arose first in SouthIndia, Ramananda spread it to thenorth and Kabir made it popularamongthe masses".

Nayanmars

There were 63 Nayanmars whopopularized the fame of Siva andSakti. The most famous amongthem were Appar, Sundarar,Thirugnana Sambandar andManikavasagar.

Appar was born around 600A.D.in South Arcot district. Initially hewas a follower of Jainism. Dueto the

influence of his sisterThilagavathiyar, he became adevotee of LordShiva.

He is said to have composed49,000 pathigams (10 stanzas) ofwhich only 311 pathigams areavailable.

Manikavasagar was firm in hisfaith of worship of one supreme Godand declared that the way to reachGod was love and not rituals. Hiswork is called Tiruvasagam.

Sambandhar is said to havesung about 16000 devotionalpathigams of which only 384pathigams are available.

Sundaramoorthy Nayanar wasborn during the last decades of the 8thcentury A.D. in South Arcot district.He composed 38000 pathigams,ofwhich only 100 pathigams areavailable.

The most popular works of thisperiod are Sekhizar's"Periyapuranam" (Biographies ofNayanmars), Devaram (a collectionof hymns and Thiruvasagam. Thesehymns are great devotional,philosophical and literaryworks.

Alwars

The glory of Lord Vishnu weresung by 12 Alwars. The mostfamous among the Alwars wereNammalwar, Perialwar and Andal.

compiled the 4000hymns sung by the Alwars andnamed it as Nalayira DivyaPrabhandam.

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Impactof the BaktiCult

Bakthi cult gave rise to theconstruction of magnificent templesat Tanjore, Chidambaram andGangaikonda Cholapuram. Manybronze sculptures of Gods,Goddesses and Bakthi saints weremade and taken out in processionsduring festive occasions.Devotional songs were sung invernacular languages.

Early history of the BhaktiMovement

One of the earlier exponents ofthe Bhakti movement wasSankaracharya. He was born atKaladi in Kerala. He preachedAdvaita philosophy or the worship ofone God (Monotheism). He saidBrahma or the Supreme spirit isalone real. Sankaracharya taughthis followers to love truth, respectreason and realize the purpose oflife.

Exponents of the MovementRamanujar a great exponent of

the Bhakti movement, was born atSriperumbudur.

litRamanufa

He was a great Vaishnaviteleader of the 12th century A.D. Hetaught that salvation lies only in

devotion to God. Hedowntrodden toVaishnavism

invited theembrace

Ramananda was the follower ofRamanuja. He believed in theexistence of God. He saw humanityas one large family and all men asbrothers. His disciples came fromall religions and castes. He startedpreaching in the language of thepeople.

Vallabhacharya (1479-1531A.D.) was a devotee of Krishna whotaught that an individual could attainsalvation through Bhakti.

Sasava was the founder ofVirasaivism. His followers wereknown as Virasaivas or Lingayats.They challenged the idea of casteandtheory of rebirth.

Chaifanys was born in Bengal in1485 A.D. He propagated Krishnacult. He believed that one canrealize the presence of God onlythrough loveanddevotion.

Kabir (1425-1518 A.D.), afollower of Ramanandawas the firstto preach Hindu-Muslimunity. Kabiris regarded as the greatest of themystic saints. His followers arecalled Kabirpanthis. His teachingshave beencollected in a book calledBijaka. His poems particularlyDohas had a great appeal to thecommon man.Hesaid that Ram andRahimwere the same. He preachedagainst idol worship and castesystem.

Kabir -Atypical poemof him.O servant where dost thou seekme? Lo! Iam besidethee

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1 am neither in temple nor inÿmosque,Iam neither inKaabhaor KailashNeither am I in rites andceremoniesnor inyoga and remunerationIf thou art a true seeker, thou shallatonce see me;thou shall meet me in a moment oftimeKabir says;0 SadhulGod is breathof all breath.

Kabir

GuruNanak another well-knownSaint of the Bhakti Movement wasthe founder of Sikhism. He was adiscipleof Kabir.

Guru Nanak

He was born in 1469 A.D. inTalwandi near Lahore. He preachedunity of God, goodwill and co¬operation among Hindus andMuslims. He advocated truth,

honesty, kindness and condemnedorthodox beliefs and idolatry or idolworship.

MirabaiMirabaia saint of this movement

was born in1498A.D. Shewas the

ÿ

LWC23Mirabai

daughter of Rathor Ratna Singh ofMewar and wife of the ruler ofUdaipur. She was a devotee ofKrishna. She was very popular inRajasthanfor herbhajans.

MaharashtrasaintsThe Maratha region produced a

number of Bhakti Saints namelyGnanadeva, Namdeva, Eknath,Tukaram, Tulsidas and Ramdas.Gnanadeva wrote a commentary onBhagavat Gita called Gnaneswari.Chokamela was the first dalit writerof India. Eknath opposed castedistinction.

Guru Ramdas's work wasDasabodha. Tulsidas was theauthor of Ramcharitmanas.

The Sufi Movement

Sufism was a reform movementwhich originated in Persia andbecame popular in India in the 12thcentury A.D. The followers of thismovementwere called asSufis.The

Guru Nanak(1469-1538A.D.)

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Sufis protested against materialismof the Caliphate as a religious andpolitical institution and turnedtowards asceticism and mysticism.They regarded Prophet Muhammadas a perfect human being. Sufisminsisted that God could be reachedonly through meditation, love anddevotion. They opposed rituals andwere tolerant towards otherreligions. The Sufis organizedthemselves into communities andwere controlled by a master knownas Shaikh (in Arabic) Pir or Murshid(in Persian). The Sufis belonged to12 orders called as Silsilas. Theword Silsila means a "chain"signifying a continuous link betweenmaster and disciple. The ChistiSilsila is the most important Sufiorder in India as they adaptedsuccessfully to the localenvironment and the features ofIndiandevotional tradition.

ImportantSufiSaintsof India

Some of the most important SufiSaints of India were Khwaja Muin-ud-din Chisti, Baba Farid andNizam-ud-dinAuliya.

Khwaja Muin-ud-dinChisti cameto India around 1192 A.D. andstayed at Ajmer. According to himthe greatest form of devotion to Godwas through service to humanity. Hededicated his entire life to theservice of mankind. He waspopularly known as 'Gharib Nawaz'or protector of the poor. Heencouraged singing of devotionalsongs and qawalis at gatherings. Hedied in 1235 A.D. The place wherehe was buried in Ajmer is an

important placeof pilgrimage.The Hindu customs of breaking

coconuts and lighting of lamp arefollowed here.

'Sufism-Name DerivationN

Suf means wool. The coarsewoolen clothes worn by the Sufis isan emblem of simplicity. It was asilent way of protest against thegrowing luxuriesof the world.

Safa meaning purity.Suffawas the platformoutside the

Prophets mosquewhere a group ofclose followers assembled to learnaboutthe faith.\_J

Baba Farid, the disciple ofKhwaja Muin-ud-din Chistipreached the unity of God andbrotherhood. He encouragedpeople to live a simple life. Hecomposed many verses in Punjabiwhich are recited by both the Hindusand the Muslims. Sultan Balbanwasa devotee of Baba Farid.

Nizam-ud-din Auliya was apopular saint who came fromBadayeen and settled in Delhi. Hebecame the disciple of Baba Farid.He was against class and castedistinctions.

He was popularly referred to asMehboob-i-illahi (Beloved of God)by his devotees. His dargah is atDelhi . It is visited by both the Hindusand Muslims.

Saint NagoreAndavar

Saint NagoreAndavar belongedto the 16thCentury A.D. He waspopularly called as Meeran Sahib orQadirWali.The shrine at Nagore is

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dedicated to him. The Kandhuri Ursfestival celebrated at Nagore isattended by people of all religions.Although the Nagore Dargah isdedicated to a Muslim saint, Hinduinfluence is seen in the architecturalstyle of the Dargah and the ritualsperformed, e.g. applyingsandalwood paste, givingprasadam,tonsuring the headetc.'--- >

The Dargahor atombThe Dargah or a tomb of a

Shaikh became a centre ofdevotion for his followers as theybelieved that the Shaikh wasunited with God and becomecloser to Him in death. Sothe followers visited the Dargahseeking material and spiritualbenefits.

s._

y

Impact of the Bhakti and SufiMovements

The Bhakti and Sufi Movementstried to end the exploitation of themasses by the priestly class.They

created awareness about the evilsof superstitious beliefs. It paved theway for equality and brotherhood.The Bhakti saints preached againstritualism, idol worship, caste-system, priestly domination anddifference of religions. Theybelieved that through love anddevotion one can realize thepersonal presence of God. Theyencouraged good will and co¬operation among the Hindus andMuslims.

The Sufi Saints taught that thereisone God and all human beingsarehis children. They emphasized onleading a pure life and serving thepoor and needy. They condemnedritualsandsacrifices.

Hindi, Punjabi, Bengali, Telugu,Kannada and Tamil literature wereenriched by the Bhakti and Sufisaints.

EXERCISE

I)Choosethe correct answer.

I.The Bhakti movement spread during thein India.

a) Medieval b) Ancient

2.Shankaracharyawasbornat _a)Kaladi b)Talwandi c)Mewar

period

c) Modern

inKerala.

3.Gurunanakwas the founder of_.a)Sikhism b)Virasaivism c)Vaishnavism

4. Sufism originated in_.a) Iraq b)Turkey c) Persia

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I)Fill inthe blanks.

1. Shankaracharya preached_philosophy.

2. Ramanuja, an exponent of the Bhakti movement was born at_near Chennai.

3. Basavawas the founder of_.4. Gnanadevawrote a commentary on Bhagavat Gita called_.5._festival is celebrated at NagoreDargah.

II)Matchthe following.

1. Nayanmars - DalitWriter

2. Mariikavasagar - Vaishnavites

3. Alwars - Tiruvasagam

4. Mirabai - Saivites

5. Chokamela - Devoteeof Krishna

III)Answerthe following questions briefly.

1.What were the mainobjectives of the Bhakti movement?

2. What was the impactof the Bhakticult insouth India?

3. Write a short noteon Kabir?

4. Namethe Maratha Saintsof the Bhaktimovement.

5. What did the Sufists insist?

IV) Answer indetail.

1. Give a detailed account of the exponents of the Bhakti movement inIndia.

2. Write indetail about the Sufi movement in India.

3. What was the impactof the Bhaktiand Sufi movement in India.

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FORMATIVEASSESSMENTv_

1. Group Discussion:Discuss if the social evils condemned by the Bhakti saints are stillprevalent? If so suggest some ways to prevent it.

2. Act:With the help of your Tamil language teacher find out a few incidents whichhappened in the life of Bhakti / Sufi saints of Tamilnadu and act out it in theclassroom.

3. Sing:Memorise a few poems / dohas of the Bhakti and sufi saints and sing it inclass.

4. Collect:Collect stories of Bhakti / Sufi saints published in the Newspapers /Magazines and read it in class.

5. Things to do:1. Collect pictures of the Bhakti and sufi saints and prepare an album.2. Prepare a chart on the twelve Alwars along with their literary works.

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