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Social Psychology
IntroductionIntroduction
• Social Psychology = the scientific study of how we think about, influence, & relate to one another. Video on Demand - Discovering Psychology: Updated Edition - The Power of the Situation
Social Thinking
Attributing Behavior to Attributing Behavior to Persons or to SituationsPersons or to Situations
• Attribution theory theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition. Fritz Heider (1958)
–Dispositional vs. situational attribution–Fundamental attribution error the tendency for
observers, when analyzing another’s behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation & to overestimate the impact of personal disposition.
–Self-serving bias- people accept more responsibility for good deeds than bad; & for successes more than failures
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Attributing Behavior to Persons or to Attributing Behavior to Persons or to SituationsSituations
Dispositional vs. situational attribution
A teacher may wonder whether a child’s hostility reflects an aggressive personality (dispositional attribution) or is a reaction to stress or abuse (a situational attribution).
http://www.bootsnall.org
Dispositions are enduring personality traits. So, if Joe is a quiet, shy, & introverted child, he is likely to be like that in a number of situations. Video on Demand - Discovering Psychology: Updated Edition - Constructing Social Reality
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Fundamental Attribution Fundamental Attribution ErrorError
The tendency to overestimate the impact of personal disposition & underestimate the impact of the situations in analyzing the behaviors of others leads to the fundamental attribution error.
We see Joe as quiet, shy, & introverted most of the time, but with friends he is very talkative, loud, & extroverted.
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Effects of AttributionEffects of AttributionHow we explain someone’s behavior How we explain someone’s behavior affects how we react affects how we react
to it.to it.•Personal relationships•Political relationships•Job relation- ships•Self perception
Attitudes & ActionsAttitudes & Actions• Attitude A feeling based on beliefs.
Predisposes a persons reactions to objects, other people, & events. Attitudes: affect actions, often predict & follow behaviors e.g.
–Central route persuasion - attitude change path in which interest people focus in which interested people focus on the arguments & respond with favorable thoughts.
–Peripheral route persuasion attitude change path
in which people are influenced by incidental cues, such as such as a speaker’s attractiveness.
If we believe a person is mean, we may feel dislike for the person & act in an unfriendly manner.
imperfectly because other factors, including the external situation, also influence behavior. Attitude influence on behavior is BEST when other influences are weak & attitude is specific to the behavior, & we are keenly aware of our attitudes
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ActionsActions Can Affect Can Affect AttitudesAttitudesNot only do people stand for what they believe in
(attitude), they start believing in what they stand for. So… “fake it ‘til ya make it”
Cooperative actions can lead to mutual liking (beliefs).
Attitudes & ActionsAttitudes & ActionsActions Affect Attitudes -
& Attidudes Follow Behaviors• The Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon the
tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request….. b/c doing becomes believing
–“start small & build” – Small Request >>>> Large Request
– performing a trivial act makes the next act easier . Great for manipulations & mind control
– Works for good & bad deeds (Civil Rights & Nazism)DOING BECOMES BELIEVING
Attitudes & ActionsAttitudes & ActionsActions Affect Attitudes
• Role-Playing Affects Attitudes–Role -a set of expectations (norms) about a social position,
defining how those in the position ought to behave.• New roles may feel phony at 1st , but then become the NORM
200_Zimbardo_Stanford.mp4
• What we DO, we gradually BECOME 199_Stanford_situation.mp4
– Stanford prison study- Zimbardo (72’) assigned the roles of guards & prisoners to random students & found that guards & prisoners developed role- appropriate attitudes.
– Abu Ghraib
Attitudes & ActionsAttitudes & ActionsActions Affect Attitudes
• Cognitive Dissonance: Relief From Tension –when attitudes & actions are opposed, we experience tension. This is called cognitive dissonance.–Cognitive dissonance theory theory that we act to reduce
the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when 2 of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. EX: when our awareness of our attitudes & of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes.
–“Attitudes follow behavior”- we can not directly control of all our feelings, we can influence them by altering our behavior. Pretense becomes reality
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Cognitive Dissonance
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The greatest contribution of social psychology is its study of attitudes, beliefs, decisions, & actions
& the way they are molded by social influence.
Social InfluenceSocial InfluenceSocial Psychology.flv
Conformity & ObedienceConformity & Obedience
• Chameleon effect – we are NATURAL mimics, unconsciously mimicking others. We feel happier around happy people & vice versa ..\Learning\Sheila's Psych Video of the Chameleon Effect for Western Oregon Univ..mp4
• Mood linkage- studies of GROUPS confirm a sharing of up & down moods within groups. Mood contagion occurs in classrooms, movies setting, ball games etc
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Conformity & Obedience Conformity & Obedience Conformity - Free Intro to Psychology Video
Behavior is contagious, modeled by one followed by another. We follow behavior of others to conform.
Other behaviors may be an expression of compliance (obedience) toward authority.
Conformity Obedience
Conformity & ObedienceConformity & ObedienceGroup Pressure & Conformity
Obedience and Authority - Free Intro to Psychology Video
• Conformity adjusting one’s behavior or
thinking to coincide with a group standard.–Solomon Asch study 204_Social_Influence.mp4 -5:06
Conformity & ObedienceSolomon Asch Study
Conformity & ObedienceConformity & ObedienceGroup Pressure & Conformity
• Conditions That Strengthen Conformity– One is made to feel incompetent or insecure
– Group has at least three people
– Group is unanimous
– One admires the group’s status
– One has made no prior commitment
– Others in group observe one’s behavior
– One’s culture strongly encourages respect for social standards
Conformity & ObedienceConformity & ObedienceGroup Pressure & Conformity
• Reasons for Conforming–Normative social influence
influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain gain approval or avoid approval or avoid disapprovaldisapproval.
–Informational social influence influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept other’s opinions opinions about reality.
Conformity & ObedienceConformity & ObedienceObedience
• Obedience 204_Social_Influence.mp4 5:04-7:28
–Milgram’s studies on obedience
–What to know• Procedure• Results• Ethics• Follow up studies
Conformity & ObedienceConformity & ObedienceObedience
Conformity & ObedienceConformity & ObedienceObedience
Conformity & ObedienceConformity & ObedienceObedience
Conformity & ObedienceConformity & ObedienceObedience
Conformity & ObedienceConformity & ObedienceLessons From the Conformity and Obedience Studies
204_Social_Influence.mp4 7:28-
• Ordinary people being corrupted by an evil situation
Group Influence Group Influence Group Behavior - Free Intro to Psychology Video
Individual Behavior in the Presence of Others• Social Facilitation
stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others.
–Task difficulty
–Expertise effects
–Crowding effects
Group InfluenceGroup InfluenceIndividual Behavior in the Presence of Others
• Social Loafing the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable
–Reasons why?• Less accountability
• View themselves as dispensable
Group InfluenceGroup InfluenceIndividual Behavior in the Presence of Others
• Deindividuation the loss of self-awareness & self-restraint (abandoning self-restraints) occurring in group situations that foster arousal & anonymity.– We forfeit our restraint to the group actions. – Increase responsiveness to the group– People feel BOTH Aroused & Anonymous =
Dangerous Group Behavior - Free Intro to Psychology Video
Group InfluenceGroup InfluenceEffects of Group Interaction
• Group Polarization the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion with the groups
Group InfluenceGroup InfluenceEffects of Group Interaction
• Group Polarization the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion with the groups
Group InfluenceGroup InfluenceEffects of Group Interaction
• Group Polarization the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion with the groups
Group InfluenceGroup InfluenceEffects of Group Interaction
• Group Polarization the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion with the groups
Group InfluenceGroup InfluenceEffects of Group Interaction
• Group Polarization the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion with the groups
The Power of Individuals• Social control (power of the situation) vs
personal control (power of the individual) INTERACTINTERACT– Under much outside pressure individuals may react by doing
the opposite of what is expected, thereby reasserting a sense of freedom.
• Minority influence– Power of 1 or 2 to influence the majority– Holding strong to a position may
not be easy or popular but can be influential
Social RelationsSocial Relations
PrejudicePrejudiceHow Prejudiced Are People?
• Prejudice an unjustifiable (& usually negative) attitude toward a group & its members. Generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, & a predisposition to discriminatory action 211_Prejudice.mp4
• Stereotype a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people. Brains natural workings for categorization Stereotypes - Free Intro to Psychology Video
• Discrimination unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group & its members
PrejudicePrejudiceHow Prejudiced Are People?
PrejudicePrejudiceHow Prejudiced Are People?
PrejudicePrejudiceHow Prejudiced Are People?
PrejudiceHow Prejudiced Are People?
PrejudicePrejudiceHow Prejudiced Are People?
PrejudicePrejudiceHow Prejudiced Are People?
PrejudicePrejudiceSocial Roots of Prejudice
• Social Inequalities (eg. Haves vs. Have Nots)
• Us & Them: Ingroup & Outgroup–Ingroup The “us” people with whom we share a common i.d.
(Ingroup bias) tendency to favor our own group
–Outgroup “Them” – those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup
• Emotional roots of prejudice–Scapegoat theory theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing
someone to blame.
–xxx
–xxx
PrejudiceCognitive Roots of Prejudice
• Categorization-stereotyping/simplifying our world
–Outgroup homogeneity-simplification/all the same
–Other-race effect the tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races. AKA the cross-race effect & own-race bias.
• Vivid cases -ability to overgeneralize from vivid, memorable cases
• Just-world phenomenon
–Hindsight bias
AggressionAggression Aggression - Free Intro to Psychology Video• Aggression any physical or verbal behavior
intended to hurt or destroy. 198_Actor_Observer.mp4
– Varies too much across time & cultures to be considered an unlearned instinct.
Aggression : Aggression : The Biology of Aggression• Genetic Influences
– Animals are bred for aggressive traits– Searching for a genetic markers
• Neural Influences– stimulated produce or inhibit
aggression– No 1 spot (limbic+, frontal lobe-)
• Biochemical Influences– Hormones & other substances influence Neural system
(testosterone, alcohol)
AggressionAggressionPsychological & Social-Cultural Factors in Aggression
• Aversive Events (situation matters)–Frustration-aggression principle principle that frustration
(the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal) creates anger, which can generate aggression.
• Fight or flight reaction- prepares us for aggressive reactions• Ostracism: rejection- induced aggression
• Social & cultural influences – learning can alter natural reactions
–Aggression-replacement program• Trains how to control anger, & encourages more thoughtful moral
reasoning
AggressionAggressionPsychological & Social-Cultural Factors
• Observing models of aggression– TV, Video Games,
• Increase in sexual aggression over time– Easier access to sexually explicit movies
• “Rape Myth” perpetuated in Media• Pornography is associated with sex offenders, sexual aggression,
loss of satisfaction with one’s partner• Myth that viewing Porn provides an outlet for bottled-up impulses–
opposite is actually true… = an increase in punitive behavior toward women
–Desensitization= due to exposure not satisfaction
AggressionAggressionPsychological & Social-Cultural Factors
• Determining the exact cause of Violence is like asking what causes cancer
– many factors can create a predisposition to sexual violence : media
– Desensitization– Dominance motives, – Disinhibition by alcohol– History of child abuse
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Acquiring Social ScriptsAcquiring Social Scripts
The media portrays social scripts & generates mental tapes in the minds of the viewers. When confronted with new situations individuals may rely on such social scripts.If social scripts are violent in nature, people may act them out.
social scripts social scripts (mental tape for how to act, provided by our culture) learned then later enacted in real life
Media influences this “script”Since 1990s decrease in violence in the media, but not sex
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Do Video Games Teach or Release Violence?
The general consensus on violent video games is that, to some extent, they breed violence.Adolescents view the world as hostile when they get into arguments & receive bad grades after playing such games.
Do video games teach, or release violence?Greater impact than TV
Catharsis hypothesisCatharsis hypothesis?(We feel better if we “blow off Steam”) NO! Expressing anger & practicing violence = >in violence
Biopsychosocial: Biopsychosocial: Understanding of AggressionUnderstanding of Aggression
Attraction Attraction Attraction - Free Intro to Psychology Video Attraction - Free Intro to Psychology Video
The Psychology of Attraction
1. Proximity–Mere exposure effect
2. Physical attractiveness
3. Similarity
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The Psychology of The Psychology of AttractionAttraction
1. Proximity: Geographic nearness is a powerful predictor of friendship. Repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases their attraction (mere exposure effect).
A rare white penguin born in a zoo was accepted after 3 weeks by other penguins just due to proximity.
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Psychology of AttractionPsychology of Attraction2. Physical Attractiveness: Once proximity affords contact, the next most important thing in attraction is physical appearance.Positive:
similaritysymmetryaverage features
W- youthfulM- healthy looking Negative:
obesityplainness
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Psychology of AttractionPsychology of Attraction
3. Similarity: Similar views among individuals causes the bond of attraction to strengthen.
– Reward theory of attraction- we will like those whose behavior is similar to us & that we will continue relationships that offer more rewards than costs.
– In Econ this is called cost / benefit analysis
Similarity breeds content!
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Attraction: Romantic LoveAttraction: Romantic Love
Passionate Love: An aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship.
1. Physical arousal plus cognitive appraisal
2. Arousal from any source can enhance one emotion depending upon what we interpret or label the arousal
Two-factor theory of emotion
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Attraction: Romantic LoveAttraction: Romantic LoveCompanionate Love: A deep, affectionate
attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined.
Cou
rtship a
nd
Ma
trimo
ny (from
the co
llectio
n o
f We
rner N
ekes)
AttractionAttractionKeys to Gratifying & Enduring RelationshipsKeys to Gratifying & Enduring Relationships
• Equity a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it.
• Self-disclosure revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others.
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An unselfish regard for the welfare of others.
AltruismGroup AltruismGroup Altruism - Free Intro to Altruism - Free Intro to
Psychology Video Psychology Video
Altruism Altruism • Altruism Kitty Genovese
The Bystander Effect_The Death of Kitty Genovese.flv
• Bystander Intervention: the presence of bystanders turns people away from the path that leads to helping
–Decision Schema: 1. Notice the incident, 2. interpret as an emergency, 3. assume responsibility for helping
–Diffusion of responsibility: decreases individual responsibility
–Bystander effect - the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present.
Altruism
Altruism
Altruism
Altruism
Altruism
Altruism
Altruism
Altruism
Altruism
AltruismAltruismThe Norms of Helping
Reward for helping vs. Cost for helping
• Social exchange theory the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits & minimize costs. Cost/Benefit Analysis in ECON
• Reciprocity norm an expectation that people will help, not hurt those who have helped them.
• Social-responsibility norm an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them.
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ConflictConflict
Conflict is perceived as an incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.
Elements of conflict are the same at all levels. People become deeply involved in potentially destructive social processes that have undesirable effects.
Conflict & PeacemakingConflict & Peacemaking• Social Trap a
situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.
–Non-zero sum game
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Enemy PerceptionsEnemy Perceptions
People in conflict form diabolical images of one another.
George Bush“Evil”
Saddam Hussein“Wicked Pharaoh”
http://www.cnn.com
http://www.aftonbladet.se
Conflict & PeacemakingConflict & PeacemakingEnemy Perceptions
often lead to destructive behavior
• Contact- can be good or bad. It’s the type of contact that’s important. Noncompetitive & btwn parties of equal status= helpful– Mere exposure is not enough,
desegregation lead to self-segregation
not integration. Mirror-image perceptions get in the way. Continued conflict & misperception
lead to Self-fulfilling prophecy
Conflict & PeacemakingConflict & Peacemaking• Cooperation – 1st step to resolving conflict
– Superordinate goals shared goals that override differences among people & require their cooperation
• US/THEM: Isolation & competition = enemies of strangers• WE: Shared predicaments & goals = reconciled enemies
• Communication- discussion of a dilemma & negotiation increases cooperation
• Conciliation- small conciliatory gestures (eg. Smile, touch, word) may edge down tension…. So communication & understanding can begin
–GRIT
The End
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• Please feel free to contact me at [email protected] with any questions, concerns, suggestions, etc. regarding these presentations. Kent KorekGermantown High SchoolGermantown, WI [email protected]
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Definition Slides
Social Psychology
= the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.
Attribution Theory
= the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition.
Fundamental Attribution Error
= the tendency for observers, when analyzing another’s behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition.
Attitude
= feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events.
Central Route Persuasion
= attitude change path in which interest people focus in which interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts.
Peripheral Route Persuasion
= attitude change path in which people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness.
Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon
= the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.
Role
= a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
= the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes.
Conformity
= adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.
Normative Social Influence
= influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.
Informational Social Influence
= influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept other’s opinions about reality.
Social Facilitation
= stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others.
Social Loafing
= the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.
Deindividuation
= the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.
Group Polarization
= the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion with the groups.
Groupthink
= the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.
Culture
= the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.
Norm
= an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe “proper” behavior.
Personal Space
= the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies.
Prejudice
= an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.
Stereotype
= a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people.
Discrimination
= unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members.
Ingroup
= “Us” – people with whom we share a common identity.
Outgroup
= “Them” – those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup.
Ingroup Bias
= the tendency to favor our own group.
Scapegoat Theory
= the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame.
Other-race Effect
= the tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races. Also called the cross-race effect and the own-race bias.
Just-World Phenomenon
= the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.
Blame the victim
Good is rewarded, Bad is punished
Aggression
= any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy.
Frustration-aggression Principle
= the principle that frustration – the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal – creates anger, which can generate aggression.
Mere Exposure Effect
= the phenomenon the repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them.
Passionate Love
= an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship.
Companionate Love
= the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined.
Equity
= a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it.
Self-Disclosure
= revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others.
Altruism
= unselfish regard for the welfare of others.
Bystander Effect
= the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present.
Social Exchange Theory
= the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.
Reciprocity Norm
= an expectation that people will help, not hurt those who have helped them.
Social-Responsibility Norm
= an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them.
Conflict
= a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.
Social Trap
= a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.
Mirror-Image Perceptions
= mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
= a belief that leads to its own fulfillment.
Superordinate Goals
=.
GRIT= Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-
Reduction – a strategy designed to decrease international tensions.
1.One side announces its recognition of mutual interests & intent to reduce tensions
2. Initiation of one or more small, conciliatory acts. Without weakening one’s retaliatory capability, this modest beginning opens the door for reciprocates in kind.
3.Conciliations allow both parties to begin edging down the tension ladder to a safer rung where communication & mutual understanding can begin
