Social Outcomes in Family Policy-Ungaria

8/2/2019 Social Outcomes in Family Policy-Ungaria

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Social outcomes of family policies

Edited by Johanna Giczi


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The project WORKCARE SYNERGIES is a support action with the aim of disseminating research ndingsofpreviousEUFrameworkProgrammeprojectsintheeldofwork-careinthe followingEUcountries:Austria,Britain,Denmark,Hungary,Poland,ItalyandPortugal. Fordetailsabouteventsandcontentsvisitourprojecthomepage: www.workcaresynergies.eu

Project Objective WORKCARESYNERIGESdealswithtranslating(i.e.collect,summarize,make understandableandaccessible)existingresearchndingsforinterestedactorsatlocal level.ItaddresseslocalNGOs,policymakers,tradeunions,laborrepresentatives, regionalorganizationsandservices,companiesaswellasotherlocalactorsand interestedparties.Localdisseminationeventswillpresentselectedndingsandinitiate theirdiscussioninalocalcontext.

Project Team Bognrkos(communicationexpert,ImageFactory) GbosAndrs(researcher,TRKI)

GicziJohanna(researcher,ELTE) SikEndre(Headofresearch,TRKI)

Local Objective What?TheHungarianteamwilltranslate(i.e.collect,summarize,make understandableandaccessible)ndingsfromexistingresearchprojectswithintheEU FrameworkProgrammesandinitiatetheirdiscussioninalocalcontext.

Mainsubthemes: (1)Socialoutcomesoffamilypolicies; (2)Workingtimeexibility,socialcohesionandwok-carebalance.

Why? TosupportthepresentpolicydebatesinHungaryonthereformoffamily andemploymentpoliciestocreateincentivesforincreasingtheextremelylowlabor marketparticipationofmotherswithyoungchildrenbyprovidingevidences(i)onhow workingtimeexibilityaectswork-lifebalanceand(ii)onhowthebenetssystemand theinstitutionalchildcareinuencelabormarketparticipationandthinkingfurther(iii) howthesepolicytoolscaneasedecisionsonemploymentandfertility,aswellashowcan theypromotesocialcohesionbyenhancinglabormarketparticipationofsocialgroupsat riskofpovertyandsocialexclusion.


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1. Overview

Severalmeasureshavebeentakenrecentlytofacilitatethecoordinationofchildrearingandwork;these

measuresaectedprimarilythesystemoffamilysupport:

Supportforschool-orlabourmarkettrainingduringparentalleave 1;

Introductionofgrandparentalchildcareallowancetoreleasetheparentscapacitytowork;

Maternityleave,childrearingsupport(GYES-GYET 2)andtheexemptionoftheemployerfromhealthcarecontribution(EHO 3)payment,whenanursingfeeispaidalongwiththeemployment

Since2005,theageofthechildbywhichtheparentmay,whilestilltakingchildcareassistance(GYES),seekevenfulltimeemployment,wasloweredtojustoneyearofageinsteadofthepreviousoneandahalf;andsince2010thelengthoftimeofdeliveringchildcareassistancepaymentwasloweredfromthreeyearstojusttwoyearsofageofthechild;

Therehavebeenchangesintheregulationofdaycareforchildrenaswell,withtheaimtoincreasesupplyofnurserieswithouthavingtodevelopmunicipalnurseriessignicantly;forexample,thereisadierentprocedurenowtocreateintegratednursery-kindergartengroups

Therunningofthefamilysupportsystemdoes,however,aectanumberofareaswhethertheseeectsare

intentionalornot.Encouragingchildplanningbypartlyundertakingthecostofchildrearingthecoordinationoffamilyandwork;

Increasingtheeconomicactivity,especiallythatofwomen;

Promotinggenderequality;

Assistingtheoptimaldevelopmentofthechildbyacombination ofcommunity-andhomechildrearingpatterns;

Fightingsocialexclusionandpovertyofchildrenandparentvia;

Directmoneytransferandin-kindbenets;

Increasingtheparentsparticipationinthelabourmarket;

Operatingfulltimechildcarefacilities.

Table1presentsperformanceandinstitutionalindicatorsofthefamilysupportsysteminaninternationalcomparison.

1|Parentalleavewillgiveexemptionformwork,inreturnforthewithdrawalofthewage.2|BothGYESandGYETareamonthlysupport,theamountofwhichwillfollowchangesoftheocialminimumofretirementpension.3|EHOisacontributiontohelathcare,tehamountofwhichhasbeen,since2010,27%ofthekindsofincomeassetbythelaw.


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Sources:Thesystemofindicatorsofsocialprogress,CSOwebsite:http://portal.ksh.hu/pls/ksh/docs/hun/thm/index.htmlEUROSTATwebsite,queries:http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/statistics/search_database

www.pisa.oecd.org/dataoecd/15/13/39725224.pdfhttp://tdp.gak.hu/hir/100304/munka-3-even-aluli-gyerekkelEurostatyearbook2010,http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/product_details/publication?p_product_code=KS-CD-10-220www.oecd.org/document/4/0,3343,en_2649_34819_37836996_1_1_1_1,00.html


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Questions:

InwhatwaysdoestheHungarianfamilysupportsystemhelpwomensemployment,andinwhatwaysdoesitstandinitsway?

Whateectscanbeseenatotherareas,whichmustbeconsideredbythepolitivalpracticeaimedatemploymentpromotion?

2. Family policy and womens employment

Asasystemsupportinglengthyabsencefromwork,theHungarianfamilysupportsystemstartedin1967.Itsfrequentchangeshaveprimarilyaectedthescopeofthegrantees,thegrantsthemselveshavenotchanged.Thepreconditionofchildcareallowance(GYED)hasalwaysbeenanemployedstatusbeforeit;thecircleofthoseeligibleformaternityleaveandchildcareallowance/childcarefee(GYES-

GYED),andchildrearingsupport(GYET)wasamendedseveraltimes.EmploymentwhileonGYEDhasalwaysbeenforbidden,butfrom1990takingapart-timejobwhileunderGYESwaspermitted,providedthechildwasolderthan18months.GraduallyfulltimeemploymentwithGYEShasbecomepossible:from1999,forjobspermittingworkathome,andfromJanuaryof2006alltimerestrictionswerelifted,providedthechildwasolderthan12months.NowitisonlyGYEDchildcareandprenatalassistancethatcanbeconsideredasprogramsnancingtemporaryabsencefromwork.

2.1. Employment while rearing small children

OneconsequenceofthemanydecadesoldchildcaresystemisthatthereareveryfewHungarianmothersinemployment.Forinternationalcomparison:theemploymentrateofmotherswithatoddlerarealmostthelowestinHugary(Fig.1);also,thelast15yearshaveseenadecreaseintheratioofmotherswithsmallchildrenbothinabsolutetermsandinrelationtochildlesswomen(BlintsKll2008).Onereasonforthereducedvalueofthisindicatoristhedomesticsystemoffamilysupports,becausetheHungariangovernmentsupportsmotherswithsmallchildrenforextremelylongperiodsoftimeinaninternationalcomparisonthroughthesebenets(GYES,GYEDandGYET)whilstparalleltothistheratioofthoseworkingwhilebeingsupported

showadecreasingtrend.TheemploymentratioofHungarianmothersrearingchildrenaged0-2yearsisthelowestintheEuropeanUnion,whilethatofthosewithchildrenaged3-5yearsisthesecondlowest(BlintandKll2008).


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Source:Frey(2005).

Source:HCSOWomenandMeninHungary,2008


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Hungary,therefore,haslabourreservesinthissegmentthatmustnotbeignored.Thereasonsarecomplex,sotheproposedsolutionsmustalsobecomplexandexible.Themostimportantamongthesecomplexreasonsincludecashallowancebenets,whichactsasastrongcounter-stimulustoenterthelabourmarketagain;underdevelopedsupportservicesaimedatenteringthelabourmarket;rigidformsofworkandinexiblelabourmarketingeneral;humanresourcepotentialoftheparents;sectoralandregionaldisparitiesoflabourdemand;oreventheprevailingsocialnorms.

Source:HCSOWomenandMeninHungary,2008

Traditional family roles and low employment

ThemajorityofHugariansarrathertraditional-minded,whenitcomestoemploymentofwomenrearingsmallchildren.Researchconductedamongparentsofsmallchildrenshowsthat,whenworkandfamilyaresetagainsteachother,threequartersofHungarianswillclearlyputfamilyrst.Hungariansputmostoftheburdenthatcomeswithasmallchildontheshoulderofthemother.Thehusbandhasadutyto,viahiswage,ensurethelivelyhoodofhisfamily;thewifesresponsibilityistocarryouttasksintheirhome-in2000thisstatementwasagreedwithby70percentofHungarianwomenand76percentofthemen(Pongrczn2005).


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2.2. The eect of family support on female employmentHungary international comparison

FemaleemploymentrateislowestintheMediterranean;yetthereisnosubstatntialdierencebetweentheshareofmothersrearingchildrenandthosewhohavenosmallchildren.InHungarymanywomenareemployeduntiltherstchildarrives,theiremploymentrateisneartheEuropeanaverage.Oncetheyhavehadthatchild,however,Hungarianmothersdisappearfromthelabourmarket(Fig.3 4).DatafromtheCzechRepublicandSlovakiashowasimilarpicture.IntheseCentralEuropeancountries(asinHungary)theemploymentrateoffemaleworkersandmotherswithchildrenshowadierencebetween50-60percentage

points,andonlyaquarterofmotherswithaninfantareemployed(KllandScharle2009).

4|CountrynamesfollowtheEUnamingprotocolhereandonallgurestofollow:anabbroviationofthecountrynameinitsociallanguage(HUMagyarorszg,ATsterreich,FISuomi).g |Motherswithasinglechildof0-4years(withoutstudents).Note:horizontalvaluesorderedbyrateofemployment.

Source:guretakenoverfromKllandScharle(2009).OriginalsourceEU-LFS2005Q2.Note.Mothersarewomenaged15-45livingtogetherwithatleastonechildaged0-4.Studentsexcluded.

Fig.3:Employmentrateofwomenandmothers 5aged15-45withintheEU(%)

Employment and low educational level

Fromthepointofviewofthelabourmarketwomenwith(small)childrenrepresentgreatpossibilities;wemustalsoconsiderthepotentialofthepopulationwithlow-leveleducationthough.Thosewitheightorlessclassesofelementaryschoolbehindthemhavereceivedthekindofscantyknowledgewithwhichtheywillndveryfewopportunitiesonthelabourmarket.IncomparisontotheEUaverage,inourcountryonethirdofthispopulationareemployed.Itfollowsthatmotherswithsmallchildrenwhoarealsopoorlyeducatedwillexperiencethelowestrateofemployment.ThisisnodierentinotherEUcountries,yet,otherthantheCzech,Hungaryhasthelargestgapbetweentheemploymentrateofchildlesswomenandlow-educated

motherswithinfants/toddlers(Fig.4).


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a)HighEducationLevels

b)LowEducationLevels

Source:guretakenoverfromKllandScharle(2009).OriginalsourceEU-LFS2005Q2.Note.Mothersarewomenaged15-45livingtogetherwithatleastonechildaged0-4.Studentsexcluded.Onthehorizontalaxis,countriesareorderedbymothersemploymentrate.


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AccordingtotheOECDfamilydatabase,ofallmembercountriesHungaryspendsmostonbenetssupportingthestayingathomeoftheparentswiththeirsmallchildren.Theindicatorusedisperchildborn,settingexpenditureagainstpercentageofpercapitaGDP.TheHungarianlevelofexpenditureisnearlythreetimestheOECDaverage,ortwicetheSwedishone.Grossallowancevaluesspentonpaidparentalabsenceassistancetermofleavetakenbytheparent,inweeks,multipliedbytheratioofexpenditureoveraverageearnings-isalsohighestinHungary.(Blints

Kll2008:3).

TheHungariansystemsupportsaboutquarterofamillionpeople,byroughly120millionforintspermonth.IncomparisontodataofOECDcountries,totalexpenditureonachild-measuredasapercentageofGDP-isthehighestinHungary;theguresareaboutthreetimestheOECDaverage,twicethatofAustria,andone-halftimestheexpendituresregisteredinSweden.InherentinthestructureoftheHungaraianbenetssystemisthatitactuallyrewardsmotherswhostayhomewiththeirchild.Thiscomplexsupportsystemhasalsocontributedtothefactthatwhilethelate-1980s(1987)saw16.8percentofHungarianchildrenaged0-3yearsattendingacrcheornurseryschool,by2006thisgurewasjust8.5percent(Kll2009).

Astheintroductionpointedout,theHungariansupportsystemhasundergoneseveralchanges,thetwomostimportantchangestookplacebetween1995and1998,andin2006.Intherstcasetheearningsreplacementrateoftransferswentdownbyabout40percent(GYEDwasdiscontinued,aswas,forthehigh-incomelayer,GYES)andin2006motherswithchildrenagedoveroneyearwereenabledtotakeonevenfulltimeemploymentandreceiveGYES,whichhadbecomeasubjectiverightbythen.Inneithercasewereresearchresultsindicatingagrowthoffemaleemploymentinthewakeofthereforms(Kll2009).Theresearcherdoesopinethoughthatbehindthiswecanbasicallyndtheuniquenatureofthemeasurestaken,andthatthecomplexityofthedecisionenvironmentwasgrosslyignored.Additionalcosts,suchasthehighcostofentryintothelabourmarket(includingthelackofpart-timeandotherexibleformsofwork),quantitativeandqualitativeproblemsofthepaletteofdaychildcareservices,andinthiscontext,therisingvalueofhomechildcareascomparedtoinstitutionalcare,andtheassociatedprevailingsocialnormsoftenoverridethe

gainsobtainedfromwork(Kll2009).

Inthiscontext,analysisresultscoveringtherangeofEuropeancountriessuggestthat-especiallyinCentralandEasternEuropeanmemberstates-daytimechildcarewillmostlikelyhelplow-skilledwomenenterthelabormarket,whilecashtransferswill,lookingattheirpresenceonthelabourmarket,typicallyaectmembersofthisgroupinanegativeway.

Incontrasttothis,highereducationsectorsarenotexperiencingthenegativeeectsofcashtransfers,orthattheextentandavailabilityofthenurserynetworkwouldaecttheiravailabilityforthemarket.Ifdaycarefacilitiesweretobenancedbythesamecashinsteadoftransferringthemasallowances,itwouldmostly

bewomenwithsecondaryeducationwhowouldseeanincreaseintheiremploymentrate(KllScharleand2009).

Theroleofthefamilysupportsysteminincreasingemploymentofmotherswithchildren:EuropeanandHungarianexperiences


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Possible shifts in the practice of social policies

Employment,however,isnotallowedwhileonGYED(childcarefee),whichwilllethewomanwhoisabletoashatleast180daysofemploymentbeforegivingbirthtakeajobonlyafterherchildreachedtheageoftwowhilstthosetakingGYES(childcareallowance)cangoworkayearearlieroncetheirchildgottobeoneyearold.

InordertofacilitateearlierreturntoThelabormarket,thoseonGYEDoughttobeabletotakeapart-timejob.ThiscanbemadeattractivetoparentsbycompensatingGYEDsdiminishingamountof

supportwithtime(asitnowrunsthatway)bytheextensionofitsperiodofeligibility.

Theuseofchildcareallowanceandsupport(GYES-GYET)allowsonetoworkaparttimejob20hoursaweekeventoday.Suchpairingsofpaidworkandchildrearingmayonlybeexcercised,however,ontheconditionthatnormativestatesubsidizedsupervisionofthechild(nursery,kindergarten,familyday-care)donottoexceed4hoursperdayinthemeantime.Unfortunately,thisruledoesnottakeintoconsiderationthetimeneededtoreachtheworkplaceandofthechildcareinstitution,nordoesitlookatwhetherthereisaneedtocoverthe20hoursofworkaweekintwoten-hourshifts,andnotinvefourhourshifts.

Itisnotenoughtostimulatethesupplysideforemploymentthough-employersalsomusthaveaninterestinprovisionofwork.Giventhat,fromthepointofviewofsocialsecurity,thosetakingGYES-GYED-GYETareconsideredascoveredbythatsecurity,itisunnecessarytomaketheiremployerspayasocialsecuritycontributionafterthemprovidedthatthepartiesagrrenottoreceiveanyextrabenetsfortheiremployment.Suchanarrangementwouldrenderevennon-registeredemploymentvisible.

Intermsoftheemploymentofwomenwithsmallchildrentheavailability,aordabilityandexistenceofthechildcaresystemisofcriticalimportance.Thecoordinationoffamilyandworkcommitmentswouldbemadeeasieriftheopeninghoursofchildcareweretofollowthatoftheworldoflabour.Toachievethisweneed,intherstplace,childcareinstitutions,particularlynurseries.Developmentofthechildcarenetwork,creationofmoreexibleopeninghours,runningandmakingavailablealternativechildcareservices(suchasfamilydaycare,orhomechildsupervision)couldcontributetofewermotherswithsmallchildrengiveuponemploymentbecauseofunresolvedchildsupervision,andchoosetoextendchildcareleave.Source:Frey2005.


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3. Family policy and other forms of social output

3.1. Parenting

Familysupportassuchusecommunityresourcestoreducetheindividualseortsthatgowithhavingachild;thustheyhaveanimpactonthedecisiontotakethatresponsibility.International(e.g.:HatziusandGauthier1997,Sleebos2003,Bjrklund2007)anddomesticresearchresults(e.g.:

Gbos,GlandKzdi2009,Kapitny2008,SpderandKapitny2009)suggestthatthesebenetsdoincreasefertility.AnalysisofHungariandatabetween1950and2006indicatesthateverypercentofincreaseinthevalueofcashfamilysupportresultedina0.2-0.25percentraiseinfertility.However,itisalsotruethatevenanaidamountdoubledwouldraisetotalfertilityratenothigherthan1.6-ascontrastedbytodays1.3.Increasingcashsupportisthereforeapossiblewaytogo,butitsresultsdonotprovideanyindicationontheeectsofotherassistance

frameworks,suchasthedevelopmentofinstitutionsaimingatalleviatingwork-familyconict,attheexpenseofsaidcashtransfers(Gbos,GlandKzdi2008).TheconstantlydeterioratingdemographictrendobservedinHungarysuggeststhatrearrangingthestructureofcashpaymentassistancealonewillnotresultinhigherfertility,becauseoftheuncertaintyaswellasthequestionablestabilityofthevalueoftheHungarianfamilypolicysystemsnotevenatahigherlevelofexpenditure(BlintsKll2008).

Your child or your work?

Ontheleveloftheindividual,theundertakingofhavingachildandhavingajobhaveanexchangeeect,astheparentsthemother,especiallyarecertaintospendsometimeawayfromthelabourmarket;considerinthefulllifecyclethismeanslesstimespentatwork,andalowerwage.Dependingonwhatdecisionsarebroughtandinwhatsortofsocial-economicbackgroundisbackingthemthecostofexchangecanbeveryhigh(pickthechildORyourcarreer)andalsoquitelow(whenabsencefromthelabourmarketisshort,withaminimumofwageloss).Whilethe1980ssawaEuropewithmorechildrenbornwheremotherstendednottohaveajob,onlyfathersdid,themid1990sbroughtradicalchangesinEuropeansocietiesandintheinstitutionalstructureofthewelfarestate.Asaresult,therelationshipbetweenlevelsofwishingchildrenandwantingtoworkhasgraduallychanged:mostEuropeancountriestodayhavemorechildrenbornwherewomenaremoreactiveeconomically;whilefertilityislowestwherewomensemploymentguresarelowest(Fig.5).


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Fig5.FertilityandfemaleemploymentrateinEurope,2005

Source:EUROSTATdatabase,http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/statistics/search_databaseNote:Totalfertilityrateisthesumofage-specicfertilityrates,expressingthatifagivenfemalecohortweretogivebirthinaccordancewithage-specicratesforthecurrentyear,howmanychildrenwouldthenafemalebelongingtothatcohortgivebirthto.Dependingonagecompositionofthefemalepopulation,simplereproductionofthepopulationwouldbeachievedbyafertilityrateofaround2.1to2.2.

ItalsoappearsthattheNordiccountries(Denmark,Sweden,Finland)andtheUnitedKingdom,wherethesocialenvironmentandinstitutionalstructurealsoallowsforwomentoreconcileacareerandhavingchildren,thereisanappreciableincreaseinfertilityaswell.Thecompatibilityofthesetwodimensionsoflifemaybeensuredbymoreexibleemploymentpossibilities,andbythecreationof(marketorcommunitydriven)possibilitiesforchilddaycare.AnexcellentexampleofthisisSweden,wherethekindergartenandnurserynetworkisextremelywell-functioninganddailysupervisionofchildreniseasiertosolve,buttheyalsohavewidespreadso-calledlong(days6hours)part-timeemploymentaswell.

Parentingisnotonlyinuencedbysocialincentivesintra-familyrolesdistributionalsohasaneect,as

researchershavefound.Thereisacloserelationshipbetweenparentingandthedivisionoflaboramongchildrenwithinthefamily:wheretheburdenofchildrearingandfamilyaredividedbetweenmenandwomen(suchastheUnitedKingdom,France,FinlandandSweden),familiestendtobebraver,undertakingtheincreasedloadthatcomewithanotherchildmoreeasily.


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3.2. Child development

Youngmothersreturningtoworkearlyhaveanegativeeectonchildrenscognitiveandinparticularpsychosocialdevelopment,especiallyifthemotherofthechildrestartsworkbeforethechildreachesoneyearofage.Theserisksaremuchsmaller,however,iftheyreturntoemploymentlater-yetresearchresultsforbetween1-3yearsofagearecontradictory(Benedek2007,Blask2008).Bythattimeapositiveeectofmaternalemploymentmayshow,butitisclearlyseenthat,undercertaincircumstances(dierencesbetweenpreferencesofthemotherandthetensionbetweenhercurrentwork,highstress,lowpay,monotonouswork

etc.)thenegativeeectsarestronger(Blask2008).Afterthethirdandfourthyears,timespentwiththechildathomehasratherpositiveeects;atthesametimeonaccountoftheireectonthechildspersonalitydevelopment-institutionalcare,educationand integration into society grow more andmoreimportant.However,itisonly14%ofHungarianmotherswithachildinitsthirdyearareemployednotdoesthisratioriseabove45%evenforthosewithafour-year-oldospring(BlintsKll2008).

90percentoftheHungarianpopulation

doesbelievethatnurseriesareabadidea,reservingthatoptionforchildcareasalastresortonly6.Two-thirdsoftherespondentsagreethatifthemotherisworking,onlyintheabsenceofanyothersolutioncannursery be considered to accommodate thechild.Thewishtopossiblyavoidnurseryissostrongthatmotherswithsmallchildrenwillbereluctanttousetheservicesofanurseryeveniftheirjobisatstake.Hungarians

fundamentallybelievethatachild3yearsofageneedsitsmother-anditsmotheronly.

3.3. Parent employment, family assistance and child poverty

OneinveHungarianchildrenliveinpoverty7(aguresimilartotheEuropeanUnionaverage),butincomparisontotheadultpopulation(otherthantheCzechRepublic)Hungaryhasthehighestchildpovertyrisk.Thefamilysupportsystemisoneofthemosteectivetooltoghtchildpoverty,andinaEuropeancomparisonHungarydoeshavesatisfactoryindicatorvaluesinthisrespecttoo.Butforthesofteningeectofsocialcashtransfers(whichweremainlyfamilybenets,andwerecalculatedwithoutpensionsgures),

ratioofchildreninpovertyin2008wouldhavebeentwicetheactualgures(thatbeing47%atthattime).

6|SzondaIpsosMEH(2008).http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:ISns0DNNCJsJ:www.hetek.hu/hatter/200807/penzt_es_eletet+szonda+ipsos+any%C3%A1k+a+munkaer%C5%91piacon&cd=6&hl=hu&ct=clnk&gl=hu


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IncomparisonwiththeEU,bywayofthesesocialexpendituresHungaryexecutedthefthhighestpovertyreductionprogram(Gbos2010).

Lookingatchildpovertyrisk,evenmoreimportantthanwelfarecashtransfersistheemploymentofparents.In2007ofahundredchildrenwithjoblessfamilies,73livedinpoverty,thesamegurebeingonly68intheEU(Trki2010).

Equallyimportantdeterminigfactoristhemothersemployment.HalfofHungarianchildrenliveinhouseholdswherethemotherworksfulltime,andnearlythesamenumberinonewherethemotherdoes

nothaveajobatall.However,only7percentoftheformergrouplivesinpoverty-whileitisnearlyathirdofthelatterthatarepoor.Overall,threequartersofchildrenlivinginpovertyliveinfamilieswherethemotherisinactive.

Ofotherdeningcharacteristicsofchildpoverty,wecanquotethenumberofparentsandsiblingslivingwithchildren,characteristicsoftheirresidence(settlementsize,region),theparentsschooling,orethnicity.Aconsiderableobstacletoimprovementofthesituationisthefactthatmanyofthesefeaturesthatincreasetheriskofpovertyalsoveryoftengotogether,thereforewithoutacomplexinterventionpovertyanditsmechanismsoftransmissionarehardtoabolish.

4. Summary and policy dilemmasEmployment and other social impacts of the family support system summary

Institutional(mainlynorthern)countriessolvingthework-familyconictbysuccessfulcommunitytoolsarecharacterisedbyhighfemaleemploymentguresononehand(includingmotherswithchildren),andarecharacterizedbyhighfertilityrateontheother.Meanwhileasaresultofthedualwagefamilymodelmostlytheriskofchildreninpovertyislow.

Incontrast,Hungaryhasextremelylowemploymentratesformothersof(small)children,thereasonbehindwhichformanintervowensystem:lowlevelofhumancapital,labormarketinexibilityandhigh

entrycosts,decienciesofphysicalandhumaninfrastructureofinstitutionalchildcare,thetypicallywork-disincentiveeectsofcashgrants,andtheprevailingsocialnormsinthiseld.

Itisbecauseofthehighcomplexityandmulti-dimensionalityofdeterminantsthatleadtothefailureofincreasingfemaleemploymentbyreformingonlythecashtrasnferelementsofthefamilypolicyinHungary.Forthisreasonitisimportanttondawidersetoftoolsforsocialpolicypracticetouse.

Theriskofpovertyoffuturegenerations,theirsocialintegrationandfutureperformancearecloselylinkedtothepresenceofmothersinthelabormarket,butexchangeeectsmustbeexpectedinthiseldalso.Whilethemothersearlyreturntothelabormarketwillincreasetheircareerperspectives,as

wellasthehouseholdandthechildrensresources,thedateofreturnwillhaveaneectonthechilds

7|Taking60percentofthemedianofequivalenthouseholdincomeasthepovertytreshold.


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development.Afoglalkoztatottsgnvelsnekegyiklegfontosabbmertsibzistjelentikagyermeketnevelnk.Acsaldtmogatsirendszersltalbanacsaldpolitikaieszkzkszerepvelkapcsolatospolicy-dilemmkazalbbikrdsekmentnsszegezhetk.

Womenwithdependentchildrenrepresentamajorresourcepoolforincreasingemploymentrates.Policy-relateddilemmasrelatedtotheroleofthefamilysupportsystemandoffamilypolicytoolsingeneralmaybesummarizedalongthequestionsbelow:

Laborsupplyofwomenwithsmallchildrenisheterogenousalongseveralimportantcharacteristic(eg,age,familystatus,socialstatus,placeofresidence).Sothemoregeneraltheincentivesare,themore

distortiontheymaybringintothesystem.Whatprinciplesandpracticalconsiderationsofimportanceplayamajorroleincreatingaexiblesystemthatadaptstoindividualsituations?

Otherthanexibility,thecomplexityof(intendedandunintended)eectswillalsocomplicatethedevelopmentofaneectivesupportsystem.Whicharea(s)oughttoenjoyprioritywithinthetargetpool?

Sincethechangeofregimethefamilysupportsystemhasgonethroughaseriesofchanges(sometimesinoppositedirections,andthatwithinashorttime)whilstexpertsdoagreethatpredictabilitycouldbeanimportantelementofpredictability,whateverareaweoneislookingat.Hownarrowcanthebridgespanningpredictabilityandreformssupposedtoensureecientoperationcanbe?


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Social Outcomes in Family Policy-Ungaria