SOCIAL MEDIA STRATEGIES TO ADVANCE ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE by Brandi L. Stankovic-Rice August, 2011

Pepperdine University

Graduate School of Education and Psychology

SOCIAL MEDIA STRATEGIES TO ADVANCE ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE

A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction

of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Education in Organizational Leadership

by

Brandi L. Stankovic-Rice

August, 2011

L. Hyatt, Ed.D. — Dissertation Chairperson

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This dissertation, written by

Brandi L. Stankovic-Rice

under the guidance of a Faculty Committee and approved by its members, has been submitted to and accepted by the Graduate Faculty in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

Doctoral Committee:

L. Hyatt, Ed.D., Chairperson

June Schmieder-Ramirez, Ph.D.

J. L. Fortson, Ed.D.

© Copyright by Brandi L. Stankovic-Rice (2011)

All Rights Reserved

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ vii

LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... viii

DEDICATION ................................................................................................................... ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................ x

VITA .................................................................................................................................. xi

ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... xii

Chapter: Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1

Organization of the Chapter .................................................................................... 1 Background ............................................................................................................. 2 Statement of the Problem ........................................................................................ 4 Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................... 5 Research Questions ................................................................................................. 6 Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................... 6 Design of the Study ................................................................................................. 7 Significance of the Study ........................................................................................ 8 Limitations .............................................................................................................. 9 Operational Definitions ......................................................................................... 10 Summary ............................................................................................................... 12

Chapter 2: Literature Review ............................................................................................ 13

Organization of the Chapter .................................................................................. 13 Organizational Change .......................................................................................... 14

Planned change. ........................................................................................ 17 Unplanned change. .................................................................................... 26 Benefits and challenges of change. ........................................................... 29 Implementing change ................................................................................ 36 Characteristics of change. ......................................................................... 45

Technology and Organizational Change ............................................................... 51 Technology and human interaction ........................................................... 53 Social interaction online ........................................................................... 55

Social Media Technologies ................................................................................... 58 Types of social media. .............................................................................. 61 Characteristics of social media. ................................................................ 70 Benefits and challenges of social media. .................................................. 77

v

Page

Implementing social media. ...................................................................... 81 Conceptual Framework ......................................................................................... 84 Summary ............................................................................................................... 88

Chapter 3: Methodology ................................................................................................... 91

Organization of the Chapter .................................................................................. 91 Nature and Design of the Study ............................................................................ 91

Qualitative research. ................................................................................. 91 DNA. ......................................................................................................... 94

Purpose and Research Questions .......................................................................... 96 Sources of Data ..................................................................................................... 97 Protecting Human Subjects ................................................................................... 99

Respect for persons. .................................................................................. 99 Beneficence ............................................................................................. 100 Justice ...................................................................................................... 101

Data Collection ................................................................................................... 102 Validity and Reliability ....................................................................................... 104

Validity. .................................................................................................. 104 Reliability. ............................................................................................... 106

Researcher Issues ................................................................................................ 107 Role of the researcher. ............................................................................ 107 Statement of personal bias. ..................................................................... 108

Data Analysis ...................................................................................................... 109 Summary ............................................................................................................. 110

Chapter 4: Analysis of the Findings................................................................................ 112

Organization of the Chapter ................................................................................ 112 Overview ............................................................................................................. 112 Study Purpose and Research Questions .............................................................. 112 Participant Profiles .............................................................................................. 113

Participant A ........................................................................................... 115 Participant B. ........................................................................................... 115 Participant C. ........................................................................................... 115 Participant D. .......................................................................................... 116 Participant E. ........................................................................................... 116 Participant F. ........................................................................................... 116 Participant G. .......................................................................................... 116 Participant H. .......................................................................................... 116 Participant I. ............................................................................................ 117 Participant J. ............................................................................................ 117 Participant K. .......................................................................................... 117 Participant L. ........................................................................................... 117

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Page

Participant M. .......................................................................................... 117 Participant N. .......................................................................................... 118 Participant O. .......................................................................................... 118

Data Collection ................................................................................................... 118 Data Analysis ...................................................................................................... 119 Participant Responses ......................................................................................... 120

Research question 1. ............................................................................... 120 Research question 1. ............................................................................... 124 Research question 3. ............................................................................... 135 Research question 4. ............................................................................... 138 Research question 5. ............................................................................... 139

Summary ............................................................................................................. 141 Chapter 5: Results and Conclusions ............................................................................... 143

Organization of the Chapter ................................................................................ 143 Background ......................................................................................................... 143 Study Purpose and Research Questions .............................................................. 144 Overview of Methods ......................................................................................... 145 Results ................................................................................................................. 147

Relationship building. ............................................................................. 148 Communication. ...................................................................................... 152 Access. .................................................................................................... 155 Efficacy. .................................................................................................. 158

Social Media Change Strategies Model .............................................................. 160 Implications......................................................................................................... 162

Implications for the field of organizational change. ............................... 162 Implications for organizational leaders. .................................................. 163 Implications for organizations. ............................................................... 164

Recommendations for Future Research .............................................................. 166 Summary ............................................................................................................. 167

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 170

APPENDIX A: Informed Consent to Participate in Research Activity .......................... 187

APPENDIX B: Protecting Human Research Participants Completion Certificate ........ 189

APPENDIX C: Interview Protocol ................................................................................. 190

APPENDIX D: Expert Panel Review Information ......................................................... 191

APPENDIX E: Institutional Review Board Approval Letter ......................................... 195

vii

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 1. Change Characteristics and Themes as Defined in the Literature Review ..........45

Table 2. Classifications of Social Media ...........................................................................61

Table 3. Conceptual Themes of Social Media Applications and Strategies ......................85

Table 4. Participant Characteristics Maximum Variation ................................................115

Table 5. Social Media Defined ........................................................................................124

Table 6. Social Media Applications for Organizational Change .....................................132

Table 7. Participant Characteristics Maximum Variation ................................................146

viii

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 1. Four themes of social media in organizational change ....................................148

Figure 2. Social media change strategies model ..............................................................162

ix

DEDICATION

To my family.

x

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Completing my dissertation and doctorate was a lifelong journey that I owe to the support of many amazing people. I would like to thank all of my teachers, professors, leaders, family, and friends for your faith and love.

I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to my Dissertation Chair, Dr. L. Hyatt, a brilliant professor who opened my eyes to the world of change. She encouraged me in defeat, rejuvenated my spirit, and focused my enthusiasm. Her expertise and love brightened my path to achievement. Next, I would like to thank Dr. June Schmieder-Ramirez for her guidance, compassion, and support. I would also like to thank Dr. J. L. Fortson who graciously offered her insight and leadership.

I would like to thank my beautiful husband and best friend, Jimmy. I admire his strength, and I am grateful for his loyalty. Throughout this journey, he supported my dreams, energized my momentum, and laughed at my celebratory dances. He never judged my imperfections nor criticized my insecurities. He created an environment that made me feel like I could do anything! I love and appreciate him more than I will ever be able to express.

I would like to thank my Pepperdine West Los Angeles Cohort for its camaraderie, laughter, and love throughout our journey. I would also like to thank Matthew Paden, my academic partner, for his faith and witty encouragement. He always eased my anxieties, rescued me from fear, and complimented my passion.

I would like to thank my parents whose philosophies have shaped my life. Their encouragement and love was boundless. I learned to listen to the universe, believe in myself, and get over it. I learned that nothing was free and mediocrity was rarely acceptable. I owe them my success, and this journey is in their honor.

I would like to thank my brother, Ryan, for the love and sunshine he brings to my life. He helped me to discover the world, enjoy every moment, embrace my festiveness, and share my wisdom.

I would like to thank my grandparents whose seasoned experiences and unwavering love guided my journey. They appreciated me more than I appreciated myself. They ate my mud pies, showed me the ropes, held my hand, and kissed my tears.

I would like to thank my son, James, whose smile warms my heart. He arrived during my doctoral journey providing an element of challenge, perseverance, and enlightenment. I love him with every ounce of my energy, and his life gives me purpose.

Finally, I would like to thank God for allowing me this journey and blessing me with his love and unyielding devotion.

xi

VITA

Education: Doctorate of Education, Organizational Leadership Pepperdine University, 2008–2011 Diversity Scholarship award winner for academic merit 2008 and 2009 Master of Business Administration, Human Resources University of San Diego, 2001–2003 Graduate Business Student Association Outstanding Service Award 2003 Bachelors of Science, Finance and Economics University of Nevada Reno, 1997–2001 Beta Gamma Sigma, Delta Sigma Pi, Financial Management Association Certificate of Educational Studies Certificate in the Teaching of English to Speakers of Other Languages Teaching Practice Certificate College of Teachers, England, 2006 Experience: CEO, BLS Consulting Educational Consulting and Event Planning 2004–Current Adjunct Faculty, Department of Business, College of Southern Nevada Higher Education 2005–Current Vice President of Marketing and Administration, Ventura County Credit Union Financial Services Industry 2008–2010 Adjunct Faculty, Department of Business, Ventura College Higher Education 2009–2010 Director of Education and Client Support, Harland Educational Services Financial Services Industry 1997–2006

xii

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study is to explore the social media strategies to advance

organizational change. Organizations must be receptive and flexible in order to remain

relevant in the business environment (Bouckenooghe, Devos, & Van den Broeck,

2009).The pace of change is increasing and can be generated from both internal and

external forces (Burnes, 2004; Kotter, 1996; Luecke, 2003). One rising force is social

media—a technology-driven series of applications that aims to connect people and create

a forum for sharing information (Jue, Marr, & Kassotakis, 2010). This qualitative study

sought to reveal the social media strategies that advance organizational change utilizing

the Dynamic Narrative Approach. A maximum variation sample of 15 organizational

leaders who met the criteria for this study was interviewed via a secured wiki. Based

upon the extensive review of literature combined with the research findings, a model for

Social Media Change Strategies was presented. These research findings included 3

themes initially based upon the literature review and an additional theme indicated by

participant responses. These 4 themes served as the foundation for the Social Media

Change Strategies Model. The 4 major conceptual themes for social media change

strategies identified in this study were relationship-building, encouraging communication,

building access for users, and developing organizational efficacy. In addition,

characteristics related to each major theme are offered in a potential model for users of

social media in organizational change.

1

Chapter 1: Introduction

Organizations must be receptive and flexible in order to remain relevant in the

business environment (Bouckenooghe et al., 2009). The pace of change is increasing and

can be generated from both internal and external forces (Burnes, 2004; Kotter, 1996;

Luecke, 2003). One rising force is social media—a technology-driven series of

applications that aims to connect people and create a forum for sharing information (Jue

et al., 2010).

Social media applications are introducing organizations to a new insurrection of

consumer and employee demand, interconnectedness, and economic opportunity

(Qualman, 2009). Social media use exceeds all other applications on the Internet,

including search engines, news pages, and pornography. Qualman noted that even

President Barrack Obama capitalized on the social media movement in his tactics during

the presidential election.

Organizations must embrace social media as tools to create change to meet

employee demands and develop a productive and efficient work environment. This study

explores what social media strategies organizations are employing to advance

organizational change.

Organization of the Chapter

Chapter 1 outlines the rationale and background for this research study. This

chapter begins with an examination of the difficulty of change and its impact on

organizations. The problem statement, purpose, research questions, conceptual

framework, and significance of the study are presented. The study’s potential limitations

and assumptions are reviewed as well as a list of operational definitions.

2

Background

According to Beckhard and Pritchard (as cited in Wren, 1995), the environment is

“making unprecedented demands on organizational leaders, who have the task and

responsibility of determining both the functioning and the future of their organizations”

(p. 396). Determining this future will inevitably require change. In fact, according to

Abrahamson (2000), “Change is a corporate truism” (p. 127).

Managing and advancing change in an organization can be difficult, and

researchers note there are several contributing factors to a successful change initiative

(Holman, 2007; Kotter, 1995; Lewis, Schmisseur, Stephens, & Weir, 2006). Sirkin,

Keenan, and Jackson (2005) state, “Everyone agrees that managing change is tough, but

few can agree on how to do it” (p. 141).

Change can be unpredictable and reactive, thus resulting in the improvisation of

strategy (Burnes, 2004). Organizational change is many times a product of a crisis that

spurs the urgency of the change initiative (Kotter, 1995). Organizations may recognize

the need for change, but do not implement effective strategies to facilitate the change. In

addition, change can be damaging. Abrahamson (2000) stated, “The process of change

can tear an organization apart” (p. 127).

According to Sirkin et al. (2005), most organizations do not successfully

implement change, and change initiatives involving technology are especially difficult.

Technology-related change initiatives are different than other types of change initiatives

(Benjamin & Levinson, 1993). Benjamin and Levinson noted that the employees of the

organization are impacted greatly with changes utilizing technology, because notions

such as job descriptions and organizational structure may shift.

3

According to Macredie, Sandom, and Paul (1998), applying the notions of change

management can increase the success of a technology-related change initiative. “Many

IT-enabled change projects have failed for non-technical reasons” (Macredie et al., 1998,

p. 10). Conversely, technology can enhance organizational change (Benjamin &

Levinson, 1993; Martinsons & Chong, 1999). Organizations, thus, must exploit the use of

technology in order to enhance the communication and interconnectivity of the staff.

Senge (1990) believed that organizations must take advantage of the

interconnectedness of people and businesses in order to change. This requires

departments and teams to work together throughout the change initiative. Technology can

provide the platform for staff to create synergy.

Garvin and Roberto (2005) agreed that the people in the organization can

determine the success of a change initiative. Sirkin et al. (2005) noted that change

management projects that fail often lack communication and interconnectivity among

different departments in the organization. They noted that the lack of teamwork can

compound existing issues, thus ensuring the failure of the change initiative. Technologies

such as the Internet and social media can enhance social interaction, tear down

boundaries, and increase efficiencies (van Zyl, 2009). Jue et al. (2010) state the Internet

has “forever changed the way we communicate…and has also given rise to social media

aimed at enabling relationships and collaboration” (p. 7).

4

Statement of the Problem

The environment outside of an organization is constantly changing, thus internal

change management on both the operational and strategic levels of an organization must

occur (Burnes, 2004). In addition, Haveman (1992) believed organizational change can

enhance financial performance of the business, thus requiring organizations to seek

change strategies. However, implementing change is difficult. W. C. Kim and Mauborgne

(2003) state, “The hardest battle is simply getting people to agree on the causes of current

problems and the need for change” (p. 27).

Managing people during a change is a challenge resulting from the dynamics of

people and technology (Pettigrew, Woodman, & Cameron, 2001). In fact, Balogun and

Hailey (2004) determined that 70% of organizational change initiatives fail.

Organizations must continue to embrace paradox and develop strategies to facilitate

change in order to be successful (Bolman & Deal, 2008).

Balthazard and Cooke (2004) stated that the advancement of change in

organizations will be derived from managing intangible intellectual assets, such as

interpersonal relationships, knowledge-sharing, and communication. Organizations must

embrace new technologies, such as social media, that will facilitate the advancement of

change. Social media can provide this platform, through its ability to engage employees,

enable dialogue, and develop collaboration (Safko & Brake, 2009). Kane, Fichman,

Gallaugher, and Glaser (2009) state, “It is time to take social media seriously” (p. 50).

The literature reveals that change is difficult (Burke, 2008), and there are many

technological tools to aid in the advancement of change (Nielsen, 2008). There is also

empirical evidence and research on the relationship between technology and change

5

adaptation (Orlikowski & Gash, 1994) as well as the power of a social network in

technology related change (Burkhardt & Brass, 1990). While literature regarding utilizing

technology to implement change exists, social media strategies specifically have not

received a great deal of attention in the research.

Based on the review of literature, social media is a fast-growing technological

tool (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010). Many organizations are utilizing social media for

marketing (Safko & Brake, 2009); however, there appears to be limited research on the

social media strategies that can be a catalyst for organizational change. The quick rise

and promise of social media may provide an additional tool for organizations to advance


Purpose of the Study

Given the difficulty of change combined with the rapid rise of the use of social

media, the purpose of this study is to explore the social media strategies to advance

organizational change. In addition, the secondary purpose of this study is to address the

gap in literature by examining the relationship between social media strategies and


There is extensive research on the components of a change initiative within an

organization (Sirkin et al., 2005). This study addresses the gaps in the literature in regard

to utilizing social media strategies internally for advancing organizational change by

examining business practices of leading organizations through interviews in a maximum

variation sampling of industries. Their experiences in utilizing social media to advance

change will be aggregated to provide learning for leaders involved in change initiatives.

6

Research Questions

This research study focuses on the social media strategies that organizations

employ to advance organizational change. The study is based upon the following research

questions:

1. How do organizational leaders define social media?

2. Which social media strategies advance organizational change?

3. How do social media promote relationships?

4. How do social media promote communication?

5. How do social media promote access?

Conceptual Framework

From a theoretical perspective, social media promote the building of relationships,

which includes collaboration and sharing (DiMicco, Geyer, Dugan, & Brownholtz, 2008;

Jue et al., 2010; Kane et al., 2009; Lackes, Frank, & Sieperman, 2009; Li & Bernoff,

2008; Ou, Davison, Zhong, & Liang, 2010; Shirky, 2008; Smith, 2009; Thevenot, 2007);

encourage communication, also referred to as dialogue (DiMicco et al., 2008; Jue et al.,

2010; Kane et al., 2009; Li & Bernoff, 2008; Meister & Willyerd, 2010; Postman, 2009;

Smith, 2009; Thevenot, 2007; van Zyl, 2009); and build access for users (DiMicco et al.,

2008; Jue et al., 2010; Kane et al., 2009; Lackes et al., 2009; Li & Bernoff, 2008;

Rettberg, 2009; Rozwell, 2010; Smith, 2009).

Smith (2009) noted several themes in his social media research. Social media are

requiring organizations not only to listen to consumers but engage and interact with them

as well. According to Li and Bernoff (2008), there are several consistent factors present

in social media. They organized social media based upon these themes to describe further

7

functionality and application. Based on the research of Li and Bernoff, social media

strategies are tools to help organizations to create knowledge, share information, develop

communication, build access, and promote cooperation. The underlying theme

throughout each of the concepts is the notion of relationship building. Each of the

different types and strategies of social media enable relationships through linking people

together for a common purpose.

Design of the Study

This is an exploratory study that uses qualitative methods and seeks to reveal the

social media strategies that advance organizational change. Generally speaking,

qualitative research is the study of a research problem surrounding a social or human

issue utilizing a theoretical framework and perspective (Creswell, 2007). “We conduct

qualitative research when we want to empower individuals to share their stories and hear

their voices” (Creswell, 2007, p. 40). Research topics, such as social media, that do not

yet have a significant academic research or literary contribution are best suited for

qualitative research (Creswell, 2007; Patton, 2002). Creswell (2009) wrote:

Qualitative research is exploratory and is useful when the researcher does not

know the important variables to examine. This type of approach may be needed

because the topic is new, the topic has never been addressed with a certain group

of people, and existing theories do not apply with the particular group or sample

under study. (p. 18)

According to Creswell (2007), a qualitative study includes the collection of data,

analysis and establishing themes, and the presentation and description of the problem. In

order to collect data, this study utilizes an interview instrument with semistructured

8

questions. An interview instrument with semistructured questions creates a more flexible

environment, allowing additional questions to be asked following the interviewees

responses. Semistructured interview questions are built on a conceptual framework and

utilized to explore specific themes (Patton, 2002). The sample of participants is

organizational leaders who meet the study’s criteria.

Significance of the Study

According to Luecke (2003), managing change is required for survival in the

business environment. Welch (as cited in Strohmeir, 1998) stated, “When the rate of

change outside exceeds the rate of change inside, the end is in sight” (p. 230). A concern

in the literature is the identification of strategies to facilitate and advance change (Burnes,

2004; Kotter, 1996; Luecke, 2003). The difficulty of change management and

implementation requires leaders to develop tools to facilitate the change. Change is

constant and leaders must identify strategies, such as social media, to help advance


Abrahamson (2000) stated, “Change as it is usually orchestrated, creates initiative

overload and organizational chaos, both of which provoke strong resistance from the

people most affected” (p. 129). According to Cross and Parker (2004), tactical work on

an organizational change initiative is not completed through the formal hierarchy or

structure. Social networks and informal communication networks are the medium for

employees to accomplish tasks. Social media can provide the platform necessary to

improve communication, information flow, and interpersonal relationships. Ou et al.,

(2010) believed that future research must be conducted to understand fully the

importance of social media tools and their impact on organizations.

9

Van Zyl (2009) noted that there is a strong need for research pertaining to social

media and its impact within an organization as well. Specifically, van Zyl believes there

may be risks involved with social media within an organization that have yet to be

uncovered. Kasavana, Nusair, and Teodosic (2010) also noted that there is limited

literature on the implications of social media and their human impacts.

Social media is a relevant topic for organizations and may provide a platform to

advance change. Bruque, Moyano, and Eisenberg (2009) believed that further research

must be done in the realm of technology-driven change and the use of social media. They

believed further studies should examine the use of social media as a tool for mediating

the effects on individuals in the change process.

Social media is a topic of research for many scholars, and social media strategies

are becoming tactical tools for organizations (Jue et al., 2010). Because of the interest of

scholars, further research should be conducted. Social media’s impact on organizational

change may be useful for theoretical purposes, such as a more in-depth understanding of

change, as well as for behavioral purposes, as a tactic for organizations to implement.

Limitations

There are a number of limitations with this study. First, this study is qualitative

and interpretive in nature. In a qualitative study, the researcher plays a large role in the

interpretation of data. A quantitative study of social media strategies might offer a

deductive reasoning or a statistical perspective on the research (Creswell, 2009).

Next, a limited number of organizational leaders who meet the criteria will be

selected. The sample size for this study will be small, and a larger sample size may offer

different results. The data yielded from the small sample size also may not apply to the

10

general population. Generalizing the results from a small sample size to the broad

population is not always apposite (Patton, 2002).

The sample selected for this study involves leaders within organizations. A study

that included employees of the organization may offer a different perspective. This

sample may or may not include a generational variation as well. The sample may not be

limited to a single generation, thus the results may not be representative of one

generation.

This research study will utilize an interview instrument with semistructured

questions. A focused interview instrument would cover specific areas and may deliver

different outcomes. The research will also utilize a maximum variation participant

sample. A focus on one industry or a particular field may produce different conclusions.

The results of this study may also not represent all industries. Finally, the instrument will

be provided and accessed virtually. Other methods of interviewing may produce varying

results.

Operational Definitions

The following are operational terms and definitions to further clarify the topic and

key points in the research.

1. Access: Access is the user’s ability to obtain, manipulate, and share data via a

social media tool (DiMicco et al., 2008).

2. Change: Change is the process of evolution or transformation (Senge, 1990).

3. Collaboration: Collaboration is defined as groups of people working together

and changing behavior to synchronize with other members of the team.

Collaboration promotes the building of relationships (Shirky, 2008).

11

4. Communication: Communication refers to utilizing social media as delivery

channels for personal, professional, or organizational communications (Jue et

al., 2010; Kasavana et al., 2010; Stolley, 2009).

5. Dialogue: Dialogue is the exchange of information between the users of social

media applications in order to create open communication and involvement

(DiMicco et al., 2008; Heierbacher, 2007).

6. Organizational Change: According to Kanter, Stein, and Jick (1992),

organizational change is the “shift in behavior of the whole organization to

one degree or another” (p. 11).

7. Planned Change: Planned change involves a deliberate decision to make

improvements or to seek growth (Porras & Robertson, 1992).

8. Relationship Building: Building relationships requires individuals to establish

a connection with one another to promote trust, share ideas, and change

behaviors (Shirky, 2008).

9. Sharing: Sharing is the notion that social media develop a platform that allows

users to distribute information. Sharing between users promotes relationship

building (Li & Bernoff, 2008).

10. Social Media: Social media are the electronic tools that enable users to come

together in a common location and distribute, access, and create content

among a specified network of users (Jue et al., 2010). Social media are built

on the notion of cooperation and offer a platform for users to connect with one

another (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010).

12

11. Technology: Technology is a virtual tool that allows people to assimilate,

process, share, and manage knowledge, information, and applied sciences

(Markus, 2004).

Summary

Chapter 1 reviewed the problem and purpose of the study, which is to identify the

social media strategies to advance organizational change. The chapter reviewed the

difficulty of managing change as a result of the dynamics of people and technology

(Pettigrew et al., 2001). Change is ongoing and organizations often need to make radical

changes to strategies and structure (Hannan & Freeman, 1984). In fact, change efforts

often fail because of the organization’s inability to humanize the process and involve

employees (Kotter, 1995).

Social media are applications built on the exchanging of information and offer a

platform for users to connect with one another and share (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010).

Social media are quickly rising to the forefront, compelling organizations to understand

the applications and their use. The conceptual framework of this study reflects the

importance of relationship building, communication, and access.

The purpose of this study is to explore the social media strategies to advance

organizational change. Since change is constant, leaders must identify strategies, such as

social media, to help advance organizational change. The method for this research was

interviews with organizational leaders who meet the selected criteria.

13

Chapter 2: Literature Review

The purpose of this chapter is to review the relevant literature in regard to the

subject area of this study: Strategies for using social media to advance organizational

change. Organizations adapt to the pace of change from both the internal and external

environment in order to remain relevant (Bouckenooghe et al., 2009). Change

management is difficult, and organizations are constantly seeking new strategies to

facilitate change (Luecke, 2003).

Social media is a relatively nascent technology that organizations are utilizing to

develop networks and increase communication (Qualman, 2009). Organizations should

embrace social media as tools to meet employee demands and develop a productive and

efficient work environment. Social media may provide the necessary platform to advance



The literature review begins with an overview of organizational change theories.

Next, change is reviewed within two classifications: planned change and unplanned

change. This classification is used to organize the additional theories and models of

organizational change. Next, is an examination of implementation strategies for

facilitating organizational change. Success factors of change implementations are

identified, including an examination of technology. Technological tools are identified,

including social media and the impact of social media on change. Finally, this section

concludes with an examination of the conceptual themes and framework.

14

Organizational Change

Organizational change is a highly researched and comprehensive concept (Burke,

2008; Charan, 2001; Kotter, 1996; Sirkin et al., 2005). According to Burke (2008),

organizational change theory, specifically, is derived from organizational development

and psychology. An understanding of change and its impact on organizations is necessary

in order to comprehend the topic. The objective of this section is to highlight the

evolution of change theory.

Research on organizational change began with Lewin (1947) in his force field

analysis. This research provided the foundation of change theory by analyzing the forces

or characteristics that influence a circumstance. Lewin examined the forces that drive

movement toward a goal, which he termed the driving forces and those factors that thwart

the progress away from the goal or seek to maintain the status quo, which are termed the

restraining forces.

Lewin (1947) believed that organizations are dynamic with a constant

management of the forces working against one another. In order for change to occur, the

driving forces must exceed the restraining forces, causing an imbalance of the

equilibrium. This is a linear approach to change and may not be effective in nonlinear

situations.

Relatively early in the examination of change, Thompson (1967) noted that

organizations and their structures are relatively malleable and able to adapt as the

environment requires. Thompson noted that organizations should attempt to minimize

uncertainty in their strategies through extensive research and creating objective timelines.

15

Hannan and Freeman (1984) believed in structural inertia, which included an

examination of the external and internal forces that effect organizational change. The

authors believed that an organization’s existence relies on its performance reliability and

rationality of its actions. They found that reliability and accountability are high when

organizational change goals are institutionalized and made routine. At the same time, this

institutionalization can negatively effect change, thus these forces are working for and

against the implementation of change. The fundamentals that traditionally made an

organization strong can inhibit its success in implementing a change.

In addition, Hannan and Freeman (1984) noted performance indicators for

organizations, many times, are built on their reliability. Internal and external stakeholders

prefer organizations that have reliable results. Change can be hazardous, as it may disrupt

institutionalizations and routines; consequently, organizations account for structural

changes as they implement change strategies.

Following Hannan and Freeman’s (1984) work on change, Bandura (1990)

suggested that there are human factors associated with change. Social cognitive theory

noted that there are many environmental and personal factors that influence change.

According to Bandura, people have the capacity to learn and change by observing

demonstration. He noted that the existing behaviors and mental models of the people will

significantly influence the planned change. Therefore, people change by observing

others, and the environment, existing behaviors, and cognition all influence the success of

the change.

Once the structural, environmental, and human factors are examined, change

resides on the organizational level with the systems approach. The systems approach is

16

based on the notion that change should not be focused on the individual or the team, but

the organization as a whole (Burnes, 1996). Senge (1990) believed that organizations are

complex systems that are interconnected and interdependent. He also suggested that

because leaders are part of this network, “it’s doubly hard to see the whole pattern of

change” (p. 7).

Senge (1990) believed the importance of systems thinking, which requires leaders

to examine the whole picture and specifically the concept of leverage. “Systems thinking

shows that small, well-focused actions can sometimes produce significant, enduring

improvements, if they’re in the right place” (Senge, 1990, p. 64). Leverage is important

to systems thinking, because organizations want their efforts to derive the most value

(Holman, Devane, & Cady, 2007). According to Holman et al. (2007), effective change

management requires strategies that involve the whole system. The systems approach

includes the people, systems, ideas, and functions that are impacted by the change.

Following systems thinking, change literature expanded to include different types

and impacts of change rather than just an episodic or linear change (McCann, 2004).

Dunphy and Stace (1993) identified four types of change: fine-tuning, incremental

adjustment, modular transformation, and corporate transformation. Fine-tuning is change

that occurs on an ongoing basis, which is intended to refine organizational objectives and

procedures. This type of change helps the organization align the strategy vision and

mission with departmental tactics. Incremental adjustment involves intentional and

definitive revisions to methods and strategies. Modular transformation is a larger change

that impacts a portion of the organization, such as a division. Corporate transformation is

more radical and affects the organization on a strategic level.

17

More recent change literature includes a process of reevaluation and renewal.

According to Cooperrider and Whitney (2007), appreciative inquiry is an organizational

development and change process that engages employees in the process of renewal. This

theory is based on the notion that organizations should use positive inquiry to delve into

issues or difficult situations. Keeping the positive frame of mind will allow the

organization to appreciate what it does well and discover additional strengths. Appreciative

inquiry utilizes a discovery stage for researching what is, a dream stage to determine what

could be, a design stage to develop the process, and a destiny stage to sustain the vision.

To examine the change models and additional change theory, change will be

classified into two distinct categories: planned change and unplanned change (Porras &

Robertson, 1992; Senior 2002). Planned change is an intentional decision to recalibrate or

improve an organization fundamentally. Unplanned change is an inevitable, but

unanticipated, change that requires an improvised and adaptive response (Porras &

Robertson, 1992).

Planned change. Burnes (1996) noted that planned change is a fundamental

classification of change and is specified by the intentional nature of the development. He

also believed that planned change comprises several intentional steps or phases that take

an organization from the current state to a desired outcome. Golembiewski (1976)

believed that this type of change is what he termed beta change, which is any

modification to the components of an organization within a constant or isolated

environment.

Planned change begins with Lewin’s (1947) three-step change model. He

identified driving and restraining forces that foster and inhibit a change from occurring.

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The first step in Lewin’s process is changing the existing behaviors and conditions and

unfreezing the equilibrium, which will overcome individual opposition and group

conformity. This step can be achieved through increasing the desired change behaviors or

decreasing the opposing forces (Kristonis, 2004; Schein, 1996).

According to Lewin (1947), unfreezing old behaviors is a critical component to

change and can be achieved by engaging in actions to intentionally disrupt complacency.

This phase of the model requires examining the components of the change involved, such

as context and materials (Dawson, 2005). Cummings and Huse (1989) equate the

unfreezing stage to preparing an organization for change.

The second step is the process is changing the behavior or condition. This step

involves persuasion and collaboration of the employees to look toward the new

perspective. Many times this will require powerful leaders to support and demonstrate the

change (Schein, 1996). Finally, Lewin’s (1947) third step involves refreezing the changed

behaviors, thus a new equilibrium is established. In order to refreeze the change, the new

values and traditions are integrated into the culture and leadership. This integration

reinforces the new patterns and formalizes them into the policies and procedures (Schein,

1996).

From his original model, Lewin (1951) made the transition to the concept of

action research. Action research is a methodology of solving organizational issues with a

process that focuses on reflection. The issues are analyzed by teams of individuals termed

as a community of practice. The purpose of action research is to streamline operations

and create efficiencies. This process includes a planning stage for collecting research, an

19

action stage for conducting the change or update, and the fact-finding stage for collecting

results and feedback.

Kemmis and McTaggart (1988) built on Lewin’s (1947) original model to include

four steps that occur multiple times in different cycles. The four steps to the action

research process are plan, act, observe, and reflect. Once the reflection and analysis of the

results are complete, the process starts again.

Lippitt, Watson, and Westley (1958) also expanded on Lewin’s model to

incorporate additional steps that focus on the roles and responsibilities of the change

agent. The five steps as outlined by Lippitt et al. are (a) developing the need for change,

(b) establishing the relationship between the change agent and the organization, (c)

working toward the change, (d) stabilizing the change, and (e) achieving termination in

the relationship.

This model emphasizes diagnostics and analysis of the organization’s capacity for

change as well as the resources necessary to implement. Lippitt et al. (1958) also

concluded that a change initiative will be more successful if the changes are rooted into

the systems of the organization. The authors noted that the more prevalent the change

into all aspects of the business, the greater the likelihood that change will become part of

the organizational culture. They believed that change that is widespread will essentially

become routine.

Lippitt et al. (1958) also believed in maintaining change. Communication is an

important component to the implementation of the change through group coordination

and feedback. The role of the change agent is clearly identified and understood by all

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parties involved in the change. The authors note several different roles the change agents

can play, including cheerleader, facilitator, and expert.

Kolb and Frohman (1970) revisited the Lippitt et al. (1958) model to include

organizational development that is led by consultants. Frohman, Sashkin, and Kavanagh

(1976) built their model on the same basis. Burke (1982) restructured the model as

developed by Lippitt et al. (1958). Burke’s (1982) seven steps to implementing change

were entry, contracting, diagnosis, feedback, planning, intervention, and evaluation.

Susman (1983) built upon the model to include an additional stage for diagnostics

of the issue. He noted that the five phases to action research and change are diagnose,

plan, act, evaluate, and learn. Susman believed that the core issue is identified before

proper planning can occur.

Bullock and Batten (1985) thought additional emphasis should lie on the

diagnostic element of change. They developed a change model after analyzing Lippitt’s

et al. (1958) existing model to derive the following four steps: exploration, planning,

action, and integration. This model examines the phases of change as well as the specific

processes that an organization implements.

Schein (1987) researched the three-stage change process in depth and concluded

that the social aspect and human component to change should be examined. He redefined

Lewin’s (1947) three-stage model to an approach that he termed cognitive redefinition.

Schein (1996) believed that change can be achieved through becoming motivated to

change, changing, and making the change permanent. These three steps follow the same

pattern as Lewin’s (1947) unfreeze, change, and refreeze composition.

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Stage one, or unfreezing, includes negating any existing expectations by the team.

This creates anxiety, which will need to be transformed into inherent motivation. Stage

two of the process should involve identifying change agents or leaders to act as mentors.

This stage also incorporates a scan of the environment to identify new trends or pertinent

updates. Finally the third stage requires the changed perspective to be integrated into the

culture and the people. This will impact the relationships and networks of the

organization (Schein, 1996). Kotter (1995) also expanded on Lewin (1947) when he

developed a tactical model outlining action steps to ensure that a change strategy is

successfully implemented. The author noted that even highly capable managers can make

devastating mistakes, and an organization should understand how to define the stages of

change as well as the unique pitfalls associated with each stage. This would ensure that

an organization is successful in its transformation efforts.

The first step, according to Kotter (1996), is establishing a sense of urgency. This

requires the managers to research the market and competition to identify opportunities.

Also in this stage, managers recognize the discomfort of staff members as they step out of

their comfort zones. According to Kotter, creating urgency in an organization is difficult

especially when morale is low and there is evidence of complacency. The actions by

leadership should be courageous and somewhat risky in order to drive the urgency. In this

stage of the process, Kotter (1995) identified the important role a crisis can play in

motivating the team. Some of the methods provided by Kotter (1996) to raise the urgency

level are: (a) to eliminate excess and create efficiencies, (b) to set goals uncomfortably

high, (c) to measure each person’s performance, and (d) to bombard employees with

information of a bright future.

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Next, Kotter (1996) noted that an organization should create a guiding coalition,

which entails bringing together a group of people with a shared commitment and power

to lead. A guiding coalition comprises key stakeholders in the organizations, such as

management, subject matter experts, and staff. Kotter (1995) noted that organizations

should build a coalition or team based on trust and a common objective. This bond

between team members will help develop the motivation necessary to implement change.

The third step is developing a vision to direct the change efforts and help to guide

the strategies to implement. During this stage, Kotter (1995) noted the importance of

giving the team an effective vision of the change initiative in order to guide the tactical

strategy. Once the future is understood, an analysis of the current environment should be

completed. Subsequently, an organization should successfully communicate the change

vision with the staff utilizing every possible vehicle and medium. Communication should

include demonstrating behaviors and actions necessary to achieve the vision.

Communicating the change strategy to the employees is an essential component to

Kotter’s process because employees oftentimes have an innate resistance to change.

Accepting the strategy and that the change will occur is often emotional for

employees and may come with hesitation or challenge. Kotter (1995) believed that the

communication should include a few important components in order to be successful:

Keep it simple, use multiple delivery methods, repeat the message, and engage in

dialogue. Kotter (1996) continued with the importance of empowering employees for

broad-based action on the vision and strategies developed. This requires organizations to

remove any unnecessary procedures or policies that could undermine efforts. Kotter

believed that employees should be given the power to help implement the change or

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resistance may occur. He believed that once the change strategy is communicated, the

structure of the organization should support the change as well. Managers should

encourage risk-taking among the staff and reward contribution with what Kotter termed

generating short term wins. Kotter believed the role of the short-term win is to provide

evidence that the change and associated sacrifices are worth it.

Developing accomplishable goals and associated rewards builds morale and

motivation. The short-term wins also help the change committee to have identifiable

benchmarks for achievement. Finally, this stage in the process arms senior management

with clear evidence that the change project is moving forward. As momentum develops,

Kotter (1996) noted the importance of reinvigorating the change with new agents and

goals. He terms this stage consolidating gains and producing more change. According to

Kotter, the guiding coalition uses the short-term wins to tackle the change project.

Additional resources should be utilized, including the education, marketing, human

resources, business development, and technology departments. During this stage,

additional benchmarks and goals should be set, including educating the employees and

addressing the resistance to the change. Finally, it is important to institutionalize the

change efforts through creating leadership development and succession plans that are

aligned with the change. Kotter noted that in the final stage, the culture of the

organization should be included in the change process. He believed that anchoring the

new approaches in the culture should occur last in the process, because it will require

some results of the change initiative.

Weick and Quinn (1999) noted that some organizations are stable and the change

that occurs is highly planned and calculated. This type of change is termed episodic.

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Episodic change is temporary, intermittent, and oftentimes driven externally. Weick and

Quinn stated that this type of change is sporadic and disturbs the equilibrium of the

organization in order to define a new equilibrium. “The ideal organization is capable of

continuous adaptation. The necessary change is created by intention” (Weick & Quinn,

1999, p. 366).

Planned change can be linear, but according to Burke (2008), change can also be

disorganized, requiring an organization to continually change to remain relevant.

Continuous change seeks improvement of efficiency or organizational effectiveness

(Burke, 2008; Porras & Robertson, 1992). Brown and Eisenhardt (1997) noted that

successful organizations function on incremental change that occurs continuously.

Continuous change creates a pattern of recurrent adjustments in work flow and social

frameworks (Luecke, 2003). Burnes (2004) noted that continuous change will allow an

organization to keep up with a fast-paced and unplanned environment by continuously

adapting.

This theory relies on instability and the organization’s capacity to accommodate

and develop contingency plans. Weick and Quinn (1999) believed that continuous change

allows an organization to stay relevant and react quickly to disturbances. The leaders of

the organization improvise solutions and execute solutions in a short timeframe. Luecke

(2003) noted that the management of continuous change can become routine.

According to Burke (2008), continuous change is defined as change that “consists

of alterations or modifications in an existing system” (p. 123), also referred to as first-

order change or improvement. Continuous change is consistent with the strategy and

norms of the organization and can be implemented within the existing structure.

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Continuous change can also be evolutionary. Van de Ven and Poole (1995) noted that

evolutionary change requires variation and retention. Van de Ven and Poole (as cited in

Weick & Quinn, 1999) believed that change has “a generative mechanism of

comparative selection” (p. 364). Leifner (1989) noted that change is an organic

component to an organization that requires a natural response.

Quinn (1978) believed that leaders manage change incrementally, which helps an

organization to deal with the change. Abrahamson (2000) noted that all change should be

implemented within planned intervals in order to keep the organization in equilibrium.

He also noted that stable organizations will more successfully implement the change

initiative. Tushman and Romanelli (1985) believed that organizations manage

incremental change in order to combat the periods of discontinuous or punctuated

change.

Nadler and Tushman (1989) noted that change is either incremental or strategic in

nature and can be classified into four categories: Tuning, adaptation, reorientation, and

re-creation. “Organizations go through change all the time. However, the nature, scope

and intensity of organizational changes vary considerably” (Nadler & Tushman, 1989, p.

279). Each type of change differs by the external factors influencing the change as well as

the internal organizational structure. Change that occurs on an incremental basis and can

be anticipated is tuning. Adaptation refers to incremental change that is reactive.

Reorientation is change that occurs on a strategic level in anticipation of needs. Re-

creation is change that is prompted by current events.

Grundy (1993) identified two types of incremental change: Smooth incremental

and bumpy incremental. Smooth incremental change occurs in a systematic way in

26

expected increments. Although, according to Grundy, this approach is irrelevant, as it

does not surface in today’s environment. Bumpy incremental change reflects periods of

calm as well as periods of volatility and fast-paced change.

Unplanned change. Unplanned change is defined as emergent or chaotic change

that is derived from external forces and requires a reactive stance (Lippitt et al., 1958).

Weick and Quinn (1999) believed that organizations are emergent and constantly

shifting. By (2005) noted, “The emergent approach stresses the unpredictable nature of

change, and views it as a process that develops through the relationship of a multitude of

variables within an organization” (p. 375). Unplanned change disrupts the existing

systems and norms. Golembiewski (1976) defined this type of change as gamma or

revolutionary change that transforms an organization from one condition to another.

According to Bamford and Forrester (2003), emergent change is derived from the

frontline staff to the president, or from the bottom up, whereas planned change is from

senior management down. Weldon (2000) believed that emergent change is informal in

nature and requires institutions to remain flexible. Burnes (1996) believed that change is

not linear but dynamic and requires a continuous process.

Unplanned change can be chaotic and complex and it may occur on an unplanned

timeline (Guimaraes & Armstrong, 1998). Luecke (2003) noted that unplanned change

can be discontinuous, defined as events that occur concurrently with large spaces of time

in between. Grundy (1993) noted that unplanned change is fast-paced and often a result

of shifts in “strategy, structure, or culture” (p. 26). Tushman and Romanelli (1985) noted

that frame-breaking change effectively sets the organization into action and aligns the

strategy with the environment. This approach to change may be more cost efficient than

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continuous change because the organization has moments of silence to regroup and

prepare for additional change (Guimaraes & Armstrong, 1998). However, Luecke (2003)

noted that unplanned change creates defensiveness among employees and perpetuates

complacency and routine.

Dunphy and Stace (1993) believed that the adaptation to unplanned change should

remain situational, allowing the leaders to improvise and act on contingency. They

believed that organizations are not homogeneous, thus requiring different management

and structure. Contingency theory is derived on the notion that leadership cannot impact

the external environment or any situational variables and an organization should adjust

the structure accordingly. Another important aspect to the contingency theory is in regard

to organizational structure. According to Demers (2007), “Structural components of the

organization must be integrated for the organization to survive” (p. 6).

Working on a contingency is important as well as framing the change to become

an opportunity. Opportunistic change is controlling or redefining an unexpected or

emergent change (Orlikowski & Hofman, 1997). This theory reflects that emergent

change can be revised and refocused to create opportunity for an organization.

Orlikowski and Hofman (1997) noted that individuals can channel the emergent change

in order to maximize the value of the transition. This theory recognizes the

unpredictability and inevitability of unexpected change and expects individuals in the

change to manage the crisis and improvise tactics.

Within the realm of unplanned change, there is the notion of chaos or a disorderly

and apparently random change (Wheatley, 1994). Chaos theory is rooted in systems

theory, but, Overman (1996) stated, has evolved into a study of “dynamic systems that

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reveal patterns of order out of seemingly chaotic behaviors” (p. 487). According to

Wheatley (1994), chaos theory describes the state when a system can no longer uphold

the existing procedure because of an ever-changing environment. The system realigns to

the environment and the new changes.

According to Holman (2007), chaos theory requires the leader to welcome

disorder, because it is the starting point for innovation. “Change often begins with a

looming crisis, fear, conflict, and despair” (Holman, 2007, p. 611). The disorder can

invigorate the emerging change, and the organization should remain open. “Being

receptive to not knowing takes courage” (Holman, 2007, p. 611).

Chödrön (as cited in Holman, 2007) noted, “By not knowing, not hoping to know,

and not acting like we know what’s happening, we begin to access our inner strength” (p.

611). This theory requires a leader to ask questions that will uncover truths and calm

fears. These questions, thus, will open individuals and expose them to the undiscovered.

Youngblood (1997) noted that chaos over the long term will appear methodical.

Overman (1996) believed that chaos must be appreciated in order to unveil the long-term

self-organizing qualities. These qualities give individuals the power to make a big

difference. This notion is explained in Lorenz’ (1993) butterfly effect, in that small

components in the initial characteristics of a change initiative can result in large

variations of outcome.

From the concept of chaos theory rose the notion of complexity (Burnes, 2005).

According to Burnes, complexity theory is the belief that organizations are complex

networks of systems and people. Stacey (1995) believed that change challenges the

structure and planned strategies. Complexity theory states that organizations are complex

29

systems with several shared cultures and niches of employees. Complexity theory

considers the structure of the organization as well as the patterns of behavior reflected in

the organizational culture (Burnes, 2005).

Organizations are organic and can adapt to the changing environment.

Complexity theory examines change in an organization in a nonlinear fashion. According

to Burnes (2005), a leader should attempt to control the complex situations as opposed to

the results. He believed that the role of leader within the organization is to manage the

unpredictability and the complexity of the change initiatives.

Stacey (1995) believed that organizations are webs of communications that link

people together in a nonlinear fashion. These webs are effective ways to deliver

information in a planned or unplanned change environment. Stacey noted that

organizations seek stability in the unsettled setting of change by managing the internal

and external forces of change, including the human desire for security and control.

Complexity theory states that an organization maintains a balance of stability and

instability in order to maintain effectiveness and not ossify or decentralize (Stacey, 1995).

Stacey believed that organizations seek discontinuous change and understand the

unpredictability of the future. Internal structures and frameworks cannot be too concrete,

planned, or analytical. They should remain flexible in the short-term to ensure success in

the long-term.

Benefits and challenges of change. Throughout any change, whether planned or

unplanned, there are both benefits and challenges that will impact the success of the

change. The objective of this section is to highlight the benefits and challenges of change

as outlined in the literature.

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Change can help an organization to better utilize resources and align the

employees’ behaviors with the organizational strategies (Kotter, 1996). Efficiencies

created through change can also help an organization respond to the ever-shifting

consumer demand (Voelpel, 2003). Employees involved in a planned change

management feel empowered and become more effective (Burke, 2008). Organizational

change can develop a more productive work environment. Employee performance can

enhance organizational performance through improved customer service levels and

access to knowledge (Voelpel, 2003).

However, the planned approach to change is not always effective especially in

quick-moving change (Burnes, 1996). Burnes (1996) believed that the planned change

approach is not appropriate for crisis situations. He explained that preplanned objectives

and frameworks can become irrelevant during the actual disruptions. Bamford and

Forrester (2003) noted that the planned approach makes unrealistic assumptions about an

organization, such as consistent environmental conditions and routine operations. Burnes

(1996) noted that change is not always constant, fitting into routines. In fact, change is

more unplanned than isolated.

According to Wilson (1992), the unplanned approach to change is not as well

defined because it is relatively new in nature. He noted that there is not a range in

frameworks or methods, thus the unplanned approach to change is not completely

coherent. Bamford and Forrester (2003) noted that there is more literature on the faults of

planned change than the alternatives and benefits of emergent change.

Wilson (1992) noted that organizational culture and politics can disrupt a planned

change. He noted that collaboration and cooperation are hard to achieve in many

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organizations, and frameworks and policies may not be approved in advance, which

ultimately hinders the change. Burnes (1996) agreed and noted that planned

organizational change assumes the key stakeholders want the change to be implemented.

Eisenhardt (1989) noted that planned change is necessary for organizational

sustainability, but he believed that change can be disruptive and derail existing policies

before the construction procedure can occur. Meyer (1984) noted that change that occurs

uncontrollably can confuse leaders and disorient the strategic plan. Nonaka and Takeuchi

(1995) agreed and noted that change can be overwhelming and devour resources.

Gilbert and Bower (2002) conversely believed that disruptions to business can be

identified as an opportunity. Successful organizations view disruptions as opportunities

for innovation and respond to the market accordingly. Spender and Kessler (1995) stated,

“Organizational innovation can be defined as the process of change in the organization by

introducing different methods of production or of administration” (p. 47). A key to

turning a disruption into an opportunity or innovation is to identify a change leader,

establish directives, and accomplish the change in manageable stages (Christensen &

Overdorf, 2000; Gilbert & Bower, 2002).

Learning and change. Learning is an important benefit of change. Maier (1990)

said, “Change demands fundamental shifts in a person’s thinking, a reframing of previous

learning which serves as a springboard for a transformation to new levels of

comprehension” (p. 37). According to Dunphy and Stace (1993), change is a function of

learning. They believed emergent change is more relevant to organizations because it

accounts for unplanned disturbances both internally and externally. S. Bate (1994) agreed

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and noted that organizations should remain flexible and continually realign themselves

because of the ever-changing environment.

Revans (1967) built a model based upon Lewin’s (1947) notion of change

occurring in the employees’ attitudes before it is demonstrated in behaviors. Revans

(1967) developed a model for action learning in an organization that focused on the

output and efficiencies that are produced, which drive individual behaviors. His model

focused on creating change through applying learning as well as developing teamwork.

Revans noted the importance of problem solving, and urged organizations to address

strategic issues first. His model is built on the foundation of learning (L), programmed

knowledge (P), and insightful questioning (Q) as outlined by the equation L = P + Q.

Senge (1990) stated that organizations are living systems that require continual

attention and development. He noted, “Perhaps when we rediscover organizations are

living systems, we will also rediscover what it actually means to us as human beings to

work together for a purpose that really matters” (p. 271). Senge believed that

organizations should strive to achieve learning at all levels of the organization and

become what he termed the learning organization. He believed that organizations that

maximize the commitment and capacity of the employees will truly succeed in the future.

The components of Senge’s learning organization are creating a systems-thinking

approach, developing personal mastery with the leaders in the organization, recognizing

the role of mental models, and building a shared vision among the staff.

In regard to utilizing the commitment and capacity of the employees, an essential

component to organizational learning through change is the exchange and management of

knowledge. According to Agor (1997), knowledge is the primary source for

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organizational innovation and renewal. Leidner, Alavi, and Kayworth (2006) noted,

“Knowledge can be defined as a form of high value information (either explicit or tacit)

combined with experience, context, interpretation, and reflection that is ready to apply to

decisions and actions” (p. 19). This knowledge can be developed, collected, and shared

throughout the organization. Bair (1997) said, “Knowledge becomes a resource that can

be stored and reused by employees anytime, anywhere, and anyplace” (p. 28). Growth in

existing knowledge banks at an organization can lead directly to increased productivity

(Sullivan, 2000).

Knowledge management is the identification and assimilation of information for

easy access through the use of technology or organizational structures. Effectively

managing knowledge is a source of competitive advantage and can facilitate the

advancement of organizational change (Morey, Maybury, & Thuraisingham, 2000). Once

an organization is able to fully embrace knowledge management, it will be more likely to

take risks, change, and grow (Robbins & Judge, 2008).

According to Sveiby (1985), unlike conventional assets, knowledge grows when it

is shared. Balthazard and Cooke (2004) believed that knowledge must be transformed to

be explicit, thus can be “mined, organized, stored and perhaps most importantly, shared

throughout the organization” (p. 1). Giving employees the ability to access information in

a nonthreatening way can provide a safe environment for learning. Knowledge

management also involves the employees in the process of change and empowers the

staff to make informed decisions (Morey et al., 2000).

Resistance to change. An important challenge with any change initiative that an

organization faces is the resistance to change (Amburgey, Kelly, & Barnett, 1993).

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Resistance is a natural response to change by individuals, because they analyze how they

will be affected by the change (Armenakis & Bedeian, 1999). Dent and Goldberg (1999)

examined the notion of resistance to change and researched why individuals will interfere

with a change implementation to derail efforts. They believed mental models inhibit the

person’s decision-making ability and contribute to the resistance to change.

Employees may resist change because organizations are rooted in the structures of

their tradition and technology (Amburgey et al., 1993). Employees are going to be

accustomed to the past policies and procedures. Kotter (1996) suggested giving

employees a forum to ask questions about the change. He also noted the importance of

using metaphors and analogies to paint a picture of the change. Behavior by the senior

management team will also be essential, as leading by example can guide appropriate

behavior.

According to Strebel (1996), employees often resist change because they see the

changes very differently than the management team; employees feel as if change is

unsettling and management views change as opportunity. Strebel (1996) noted that

employees and organizations create dialogue and seek to understand one another in what

he termed a personal compact. “Employees and organizations have reciprocal obligations

and mutual commitments, both stated and implied, that define their relationship” (Strebel,

1996, p. 47). It is this relationship that can combat resistance through modeling behavior,

aligning values, and creating open communication channels.

Lippitt et al. (1958) believed in maintaining change in order to combat resistance.

Communication is an important component to the implementation of the change through

group coordination and feedback. The authors noted that the more prevalent the change

35

into all aspects of the business, the greater the likelihood that change will become part of

the organizational culture.

Another method to combating the resistance to change is viewing change as a

loss. People, who are leaving one methodology or system to embark on a new one, may

feel a loss. Allowing employees to go through a grievance process may help them to

move past the old structure or process and adopt the new culture (Hannan & Freeman,

1984).

Readiness for change. Readiness for change is often noted in the perspective of

resistance as an organization’s ability or preparedness for combating resistance

(Armenakis & Bedeian, 1999). According to the Harvard Business Press (2003), an

organization is ready for change if the organization has effective leadership, motivated

staff, and a high sense of collaboration. Change readiness is the organization’s ability to

adapt and prepare for change, which requires that the employees believe the change is

necessary (Rafferty & Simons, 2006).

Change readiness requires constant attention by the change agents and employees

to align the organizational values with the proposed change outcomes (Rafferty &

Simons, 2006). According to Rafferty and Simons, change readiness is difficult because

employees must unlearn existing mental models. According to Kotter and Cohen (2002),

change readiness has barriers, including system, boss, mind, and information barriers.

Individuals who are influenced by these barriers to change can fear the change, resulting

into resistance to change as opposed to readiness.

Dalziel and Schoonover (1998) noted that organizational readiness includes five

characteristics. First, the organization must have a history of change. If not, the staff may

36

not be ready to adapt to the change. Next, the results and expectations of the change

initiative are communicated throughout the organization. Third, the staff members take

responsibility and understand their role in the change. This attribute of organizational

readiness also includes the notion of linking the results of the change to the needs of the

organization. Next, change readiness requires senior management support. Finally, the

organization aligns the strategic goals with the goals of the change in order to create buy-

in from staff.

Judge and Douglas (2009) believed that an organization can improve its readiness

for change using the organizational change construct as a systematic measurement tool.

The construct provides a tool for an organization to assess organizational change

capacity, which is the organization’s change readiness. This tool also offers the ability to

measure improvement in the change capacity over time.

Implementing change. Kanter et al. (1992) believed that implementation is the

most important component to change. Change implementation is the defining dynamic of

the change initiative, as it can determine the future success of the change. The objective

of this section is to identify the pertinent components to change implementation,

including the use of change implementation models and the human and group dynamics

of change.

According to Holman et al. (2007), utilizing models to implement change can

facilitate the success of change for many reasons. They noted that utilizing models can

(a) accelerate action, (b) increase the shared understanding of the strategy, (c) take

pressure off senior management, (d) create emotional attachment to outcomes, (e)

promote a seeing-is-believing effect, (f) increase sustainable results, (g) enhance

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management effectiveness, and (h) communicate the change vision. They believed that

models help people to rally behind the initiative by creating intrinsic motivation within

the employees.

Daft (1982) noted that change comes from within the organization. According to

Daft, change implementation can be divided into five phases: identifying the perceived

need, developing an innovative idea, proposing the solution, adopting the decision, and

implementing the solution. He noted the importance of utilizing the employees in the

change implementation and creating an open forum for communication as opposed to a

formal structure.

Bolman and Deal (1991) also believed change comes from within the

organization and the employees are involved in the process. Their organizational change

model generates four categories of issues that occur in a change implementation. First,

they believe that the change will affect the individual’s ability to feel valued and in

control. From this perspective, change should include training, support, and participation

opportunities. This will keep the individuals from becoming anchors in the change

process.

Second, change will inevitably disrupt existing mental models and patterns in the

organization, which can cause uncertainty and confusion. Bolman and Deal (1991)

believed that successful change requires “ample communication to reduce confusion and

realign structural patterns to support the new direction” (p. 2). Next, change can create a

separation from those who believe the change will impact them positively and those who

do not. Accordingly, the organization must develop neutral arenas where the change can

be discussed and renegotiated in order to align all employees. Finally, change alters the

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organizational culture and can remove the meaning of work for many employees.

Organizations must celebrate the change, which may include mourning the past.

Developing transition plans for rituals and artifacts can help employees to look to the

future and let go of the past.

Kruger (1996) noted that change can impact employees and the organization on a

myriad of levels. He created the iceberg model for change management including

implementing change. Most organizations only examine the obvious components of cost,

quality, and time, and the most important aspects of change management are those that

occur “below the surface” (Kruger, 1996, p. 78). An organization must manage the

internal politics and power struggles in a successful change initiative. An organization

also should manage the perspectives of the employees, the expectations of the change,

and the new cultural norms that will be created.

According to Sirkin et al. (2005), most organizations do not successfully

implement change. They researched several companies to determine the common

denominators to a successful change. They discovered four key factors. First, the project

duration should be considered, including the time it takes to accomplish goals and review

the progression.

Keeping to a strict timeline will allow the project to continue to progress. The

authors also noted that celebrating milestones while maintaining progress will allow the

employees to feel the progression and continue to work toward the vision (Sirkin et al.,

2005). Weick and Quinn (1999) take this notion a step further, noting that the tempo,

patterns, and rhythms of behaviors or activities can affect the change implementation

39

success. Managers and change agents should be aware of any lags in the timeline, as this

may be a reflection of an obstruction or resistance to the change initiative.

Once the duration and timeline are developed, the performance integrity of the

team is important to understand. This requires developing an authentic atmosphere to

share strengths and weaknesses (Sirkin et al., 2005). Third, the commitment of the

change agents, staff, and senior management is essential. The change should be embraced

throughout the organization and communication about the commitment is an integral

component. Finally, there should be a significant effort made on behalf of the staff to

integrate the new change into the culture. These components of duration, integrity,

commitment, and effort are the common influencers of change projects and their ultimate

success, but they are not easy to manage.

The Burke-Litwin model can be applied to implementing change from a systems-

thinking approach (Burke, 2008). The model outlines transformational factors that affect

change, such as culture, strategy, and leadership. There are also transactional factors that

affect change, including tasks, structure, and the needs of the individual. According to the

model, the external environment impacts the organizational performance by the

interrelationship of the transformational and transactional factors. Feedback is also an

important component and should be collected throughout the change process.

Human dynamic of change. Wheatley and Kellner-Rogers (2000) noted the

importance of examining the people as significant contributors to successful change

implementation. They believed that effectively implementing change requires a look into

human behavior. The authors note that organizations are living and require an

examination of the living beings. Change does not occur in “neat increments, but rather in

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tangled webs of relationships—networks” (Wheatley & Kellner-Rogers, 2000, p. 2).

Wheatley and Kellner-Rogers believe that managers are to author their own path as a

condition of their being, thus involvement on all levels is critical. This phenomenon

requires an emphasis on communication during the change as well as the need to

integrate and involve as many people as possible.

According to Bolman and Deal (2008), organizations embrace paradox while

incorporating the use of its constituents. Kotter (1995) agreed and argued that

organizations that effectively implement change have the presence of a change champion

or change agent. Including a position in the organization such as a chief memory officer,

who is tasked with remembering the history of the organization, will help to build on past

successes and avoid making similar mistakes (Abrahamson, 2000).

Incorporating the employees is essential and Pettigrew and Whipp (1991) created

the dimensions of change model to note the continuous interconnectedness among the

strategic factors of change. They believed the success of the implementation of the

change initiative requires review of these strategic factors: Environment, human

resources, coherence, and leadership. Pettigrew and Whipp believed an environmental

assessment must be completed in order to identify opportunities for learning. They

believed human resources of the organization are the assets and liabilities and play an

integral part in any change initiative. Coherence of the change initiatives may include

incorporating technology and aligning resources. Finally, leading the change is essential

in order to create an environment that fosters development and change.

Employee accountability is another essential component to change, as it thwarts

indecision and drives behaviors (Charan, 2001). Charan believed that it is essential for

41

change agents to provide the organization with closure after every meeting and

interaction to ensure employees know the next step to implementing the change. The

change agents are accountable to the change as well as to the staff. If not, the

organization may fall victim to the change.

Much of the change implementation literature notes the importance of

communication among the employees as well. Kotter (1996) believed that

communication can determine the success of a change implementation. Garvin and

Roberto (2005) agreed and noted that in order for change implementation to be

successful, organizations need to utilize a persuasion campaign of communication with

staff. A persuasion campaign involves four phases. First, persuasion involves convincing

the employees that radical changes are required for survival. The second phase is

developing the initial plan, including gaining employee feedback and communication to

the team. The third phase involves managing employee morale and maintaining

communication. Finally, the fourth phase is reinforcing the new changed behavior.

“Persuasion promotes understanding; understanding breeds acceptance; acceptance leads

to action” (Roberto, 2005, p. 104).

Charan (2001) believed the implementation of a change effort requires dialogue

between the employees and the leaders of the organization. The term dialogue refers to

the notion of people thinking together, which allows team members to suspend judgment

and assumptions (Senge, 1990). Schein (1993) noted that dialogue can strengthen an

organization through challenging the existing values and beliefs. Dialogue opens the door

to organizational learning as it creates an environment of trust and communication

(Senge, 1990). Schein (1993) said, “Dialogue is a necessary condition because only with

42

a period of dialogue is it possible to determine whether or not the communication that is

going on is valid” (p. 3).

According to Charan (2001), cross-functional collaboration can improve dialogue

among employees. According to Ncube and Wasburn (2006), strategic collaboration is an

important component to change. Collaboration between change agents and the frontline

staff that implements the change can build trust and synergy among the team.

Cooperrider and Whitney (2007) noted the importance of collaboration in

appreciative inquiry as well. This theory engages the employees and change agents in the

process of renewal. Collaboration becomes an important aspect of communication, as it

encourages dialogue and builds confidence in the decision making.

Dialogue and feedback can be a platform to assess the success of the change.

Wheatley and Kellner-Rogers (2000) noted that organizations seldom test the results of

their change projects, which can be fatal to the implementation process. Schein (2004)

noted that a good strategy for assessing change is by walking around, talking to the

employees, and gaining an understanding of morale. An informal approach to receiving

feedback empowers employees by involving them in the process. This method requires

that employees at every level are open and honest with one another.

A contrasting method for assessment of the change initiative involves creating

deliberate reporting structures and channels for collecting information. This method

assumes deliberate communications are more reliable (Schein, 2004). In a more formal

approach, employees may feel pressured to communicate, and the communication may

not be authentic.

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Group dynamics in change. Some theorists noted that change should be focused

at the group or team level (Macredie et al., 1998). Lewin (1958) noted that organizational

change lies within the group, because individuals at an organization work within groups

and change will modify the group’s behavior and cultural norms. Graetz, Rimmer,

Lawrence, and Smith (2002) believed that the team is the foundation for the organization

that is efficient and effective at achieving organizational objectives. At the same time, the

team may not be adept to recognizing the needs of the individual employee, thus Graetz

et al. noted that the social systems of the organization are aligned with the technological

systems in order to facilitate change.

Brown and Duguid (1991) stated that organizations function differently than

stated in their policies and procedures. They believed that organizations rely on standard

operating procedures and objectives when driving change initiatives. The authors

recommended that an organization develop communities of practice. A community of

practice is a group of individuals the members of which have shared values and interest

in an issue.

A community of practice group shares information and engages in storytelling in

order to drive development. Brown and Duguid (1991) believed that the organization

should consider the networks of people and the creativity in collaborative environments.

“The means to harness innovative energy in any enacting organization or alliance must

ultimately be considered in the design of organizational architecture and the ways

communities are linked to each other” (Brown & Duguid, 1991, p. 54).

Organizations develop teamwork, creativity, and a sense of community in order to

facilitate change. Many organizations employ large-group interventions to motivate

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employees to participate in the change. These intervention strategies cultivate

participation and advance the organizational change (Grubbs, 2002).

One such large-group intervention strategy is what Weisbord and Janoff (2007)

termed as future search. This strategy assists large and diverse groups of people to

collaborate effectively and drive action toward goals. The authors utilized a whole-

systems approach, because they recognize the impact that the small and large systems of

people within an organization can have on one another. The strategy is to bring different

people together to plan, collaborate, and produce results. They create a forum for an open

exchange of ideas. “Instead of trying to change the world or each other, we change the

conditions under which we interact. That much we can control, and it leads to surprising

outcomes” (Weisbord & Janoff, 2007, p. 326).

Another component that affects dynamics of a group is the structure of the

organization. Organizational structure adapts to the change as well. Tushman and

O’Reilly (1997) believed in the notion of an ambidextrous organization that functions on

a dichotomy of stability and flexibility in structure. The ambidextrous organization can

function within two different scenarios. First, the organization focuses on the short-term

and manages cost and formal policies. The second structure takes a long-term approach

that is more flexible to the environment and encourages discussion, risk taking, and

innovation.

McCann and Selsky (1994) believed that an organization should be agile to

implement change. They noted four characteristics of organizational agility: Sense

making, transforming knowledge, acting decisively, and aligning resources. Sense

making refers to analyzing the current environment and understanding the necessary

45

strategies for change. Transforming knowledge requires the organization to assimilate the

intellectual capital and apply this knowledge to the change scenario.

Acting decisively notes an organization should be direct and responsive in the

decision-making process. Finally, aligning resources suggests leaders identify and

distribute the necessary resources to fulfill the needs (McCann & Selsky, 1994). Agility

is required to implement a successful change and, many times, requires the use of a

technology-driven aid.

Characteristics of change. According to the literature, there are several themes

throughout organizational change, whether planned or emergent. The consistent change

characteristics, as outlined in the literature review, are noted in Table 1.

Table 1

Change Characteristics and Themes as Defined in the Literature Review

Characteristic Change Change agent Abrahamson (2000)

Lippitt et al. (1958) Chaos Holman (2007)

Lorenz (1993) Overman (1996)

Communication Bolman & Deal (1991) Holman (2007) Kotter (1996) Lewis et al. (2006) Lippitt et al. (1958) Sirkin et al. (2005)

Complexity Burnes (2005) Wheatley (1994)

Continuous Brown & Eisenhardt (1997) Burke (2008) Burnes (2004) Luecke (2003) Porras & Robertson (1992) Weick & Quinn (1999)

(table continues)

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Characteristic Change Contingency Demers (2007)

Dunphy & Stace (1993) Dialogue Burke (2008)

Charan (2001) Dalziel & Schoonover (1998) Holman (2007) Lewis et al. (2006) Revans (1967) Schein (1993) Senge (1990)

Disruptive Christensen & Overdorf (2000) Eisenhardt (1989) Gilbert & Bower (2002) Meyer (1984) Nonaka & Takeuchi (1995) Wilson (1992)

Discontinuous Grundy (1993) Guimaraes & Armstrong (1998) Luecke (2003) Tushman & Romanelli (1985)

Environmental Forces

Burke (2008) Kruger (1996) Schmieder-Ramirez & Mallette (2007)

Episodic Dunphy & Stace (1993) McCann (2004) Weick & Quinn (1999)

Ethics Charan (2001) Hinman (2008) Ncube & Wasburn (2006) Sirkin et al. (2005)

Evolution Leifner (1989) Van de Ven & Poole (1995)

Flexibility S. Bate (1994) Maier (1990) McCann & Selsky (1994) Tushman & O’Reilly (1997)

Group dynamics Brown & Duguid (1991) Graetz et al. (2002) Lewin (1951) Lewin (1958) Macredie et al. (1998) Weisbord & Janoff (2007)

(table continues)

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Characteristic Change Human dynamic Bandura (1990)

Bolman & Deal (2008) Schein (1987) Schein (1996) Wheatley & Kellner-Rogers (2000)

Incremental Abrahamson (2000) Grundy (1993) Nadler & Tushman (1989) Quinn (1978) Tushman & Romanelli (1985)

Implementation Kanter et al. (1992) Kotter (1996) Sirkin et al. (2005)

Intentional Burnes (1996) Golembiewski (1976) Porras & Robertson (1992)

Isolated Golembiewski (1976) Knowledge synthesis

Daft (1982) Holman (2007) Kotter & Cohen (2002) Tushman & O’Reilly (1997)

Learning Dunphy & Stace (1993) Lewin (1947) Revans (1967) Senge (1990) Weick & Quinn (1999)

Linear Kotter (1996) Lewin (1947) Pettigrew & Whipp (1991) Schein (1996)

Opportunity Orlikowski & Hofman (1997) Persuasion Garvin & Roberto (2005) Positivity Cooperrider & Whitney (2007) Readiness Armenakis & Bedeian (1999)

Dalziel & Schoonover (1998) Kotter & Cohen (2002) Rafferty & Simons (2006)

Reflection Kemmis & McTaggart (1988) Lewin (1951) Susman (1983)

(table continues)

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Characteristic Change Refreezing new habits

Bullock & Batten (1985) Cummings & Huse (1989) Dawson (2005) Lewin (1947) Lippitt et al. (1958) Schein (1987) Schein (1996)

Relationships Garvin & Roberto (2005) Holman (2007) Kemmis & McTaggart (1988) Kotter (1995) Kruger (1996) Lewin (1958) Pettigrew & Whipp (1991) Schein (1987) Strebel (1996)

Resistance Amburgey et al. (1993) Armenakis & Bedeian (1999) Hannan & Freeman (1984) Kotter (1996) Lippitt et al. (1958) Strebel (1996)

Sharing Brown & Duguid (1991) Dunphy & Stace (1993) Holman (2007) Sirkin et al. (2005)

Structure Hannan & Freeman (1984) Systems thinking Senge (1990) Technology Friedlander & Brown (1974)

Macredie et al. (1998) McKersie & Walton (1991) Nielsen (2008) Orlikowski & Gash (1994) Orlikowski & Hofman (1997) Schwarz & Watson (2005) Woodward (1965)

Unfreezing old habits

Bullock & Batten (1985) Cummings & Huse (1989) Dawson (2005) Lewin (1947) Lippitt et al. (1958) Schein (1987) Schein (1996)

Vision Kotter (1995) Senge (1990)

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Lewis et al. (2006) noted several themes in the change literature in regard to

strategies for introducing change. The authors noted that there are reoccurring tactics for

implementing change and combating the resistance to change.

1. Emphasize participation and empowerment. Individuals involved in the

change should be responsible for their role. Organizations need to empower

employees to involve them.

2. Create a change culture. Culture is a tool to anchor the change initiative and

ensure the success of the change in the future.

3. Emphasize purpose and vision. Communicating a vision allows the employees

to understand the reasoning behind the change.

4. Emphasize communication. Communication is important for implementation

because it will surface underlying issues and create dialogue (Lewis et al.,

2006).

Lewis et al. also believed that organizations should utilize the informal networks of

employees to ensure a successful implementation. These networks can carry the message

of the change throughout the organization.

According to Holman (1999), there are several consistent factors present during

successful change initiatives. She developed the unified systems theory that stated “the

difference between extraordinary, unimagined success and demoralizing failure” (p. 9) in

regard to organizational change. Holman believed that change incorporates the human

factors and utilizes teams. In accordance with this theory, there are seven themes of

organizational change:

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• A vision of the future or an opportunity to contribute to something larger than

themselves moves people to act. Creating a vision increases motivation and

brings people together.

• Members of the organization or community collectively create a whole

systems view. Understanding the change from an organizational perspective

allows employees to clarify their roles and contribute accordingly.

• Critical information is publicly available to members of the organization or

community. Communication of the message is key. Employees understand the

change initiative and make informed decisions.

• Head, heart, and spirit of the members of the organization or community are

evoked. People are emotional beings and change requires a human

component.

• The power of the individual to contribute is unleashed. Each individual can

contribute to the process and get involved with the organizational change.

• Knowledge and wisdom exist in the people forming the organization or

community. Teamwork and communities can help achieve change.

• Change is a process, not an event. Change is ongoing and requires constant

feedback (Holman, 1999).

Holman believed that change requires dialogue among the employees, teams, and

organization. This dialogue ensures that the seven themes are achievable, because it

involves the people in the process.

Research on organizational change is extensive, and these summaries of change

literature and theory reveal the important components to a successful change. Managing

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change is a challenge for many organizations. Change implementation is an essential

component to organizational change (Kanter et al., 1992). Implementation considerations

and strategies include people as significant contributors to successful change

(Abrahamson, 2000; Bolman & Deal, 2008; Kotter, 1995; Wheatley & Kellner-Rogers,

2000). Researchers note there are many contributing factors to a successful change

initiative, including the use of technology (Holman, 2007; Kotter, 1995; Lewis et al.,

2006).

The purpose of providing this synthesis is to reflect the importance of

communication and collaboration in the change management and implementation

process. Strategies for advancing change include tools to effectively create dialogue

among employees, provide access to pertinent information, and build teamwork.

Technology and Organizational Change

Technology and change have a dynamic relationship. Change implementation

relies on a number of factors, including the use of technology (Nielsen, 2008).

Technology is also an important consideration for a change initiative implementation, as

it can assist in combating resistance and developing a readiness for change. In this

section, organizational change and technology are reviewed, including technological

change models and new technologies surfacing in organizations. For purposes of this

study, technology refers to all things virtual.

Woodward (1965) noted the importance of incorporating technology in the

implementation of a change initiative in his notion, technological determinism, which is

the concept that the organization and its policies, procedures, and structure are defined by

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the type of technology utilized. Conversely, implementing a change in technology

requires an examination of the process of change.

Friedlander and Brown (1974) analyzed change by examining desired outcomes

and the disruptions that led to those outcomes. Their research focused on two main areas:

people and technology. People studies referred to the organizational procedures, such as

communication, power, and analytics. The technology research focused on organizational

structure, including operations, tasks, and job design (Burke, 2008). Ultimately, the

function of people and technology directed accomplishment and fulfillment.

Markus and Benjamin (1997) created the magic bullet theory of technological

change, reflecting the notion that many technology leaders believed too strongly in the

importance of technology to transform an organization. They believed that technology

can aid in the implementation of a change project, but technology alone cannot create

change.

Orlikowski and Hofman (1997) believed that there is no one-size-fits-all approach

to technology-driven organizational change management. Understanding the relationship

between technology and change requires an examination of technological change models.

Macredie et al. (1998) believed that many technological change models are based on

Lewin’s (1947) three-step change model, which assumes the environment is static and the

change is completely planned.

Scott-Morton (1991) developed a framework titled MIT90s, that defines the

interconnections of technology and change. Macredie et al. (1998) stated, “Proponents of

the MIT90s model maintain that to successfully manage IT-enabled change it is

necessary to ensure that the organizational choices, the technology and the strategic

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choices are properly aligned" (p. 11). Scott-Morton (1991) believed that technology can

be utilized to intentionally change an organization’s strategic plan, but may not be

effective in an unplanned change.

Orlikowski and Hofman (1997) created a technological change model based on

improvising, which reacts to the needs of the environment as they evolve. Their model is

built on two assumptions: technological change implementation is a continuous process,

and technological change is not predictable. According to Orlikowski and Hofman, there

are three categories of change. First, there is anticipated change that is developed in

advance to follow a specific timeframe. Second, there is opportunity-based change that is

a revision to an issue based upon a surfaced opportunity. Finally, there is emergent

change that is unplanned and surfaces from the needs of the environment. This model

outlined that anticipated and opportunity-based change are both intentional changes and

emergent change is a resolution of a surfaced issue (Macredie et al., 1998).

Markus (2004) coined the term technochange to describe the importance of

technology in organizational change. The author noted that successful change projects

consider the combined efforts of the technology team as well as the change agents.

Technochange involves redesigning business processes, developing reliable business

performance measurement indicators, and appropriately educating the staff.

Technology and human interaction. Technology-driven change requires the

constant interaction of the employees in the organization (Oyler & Harper, 2007).

Utilizing technology requires distinct conditions, including dedicated human resources,

integrated technologies, and open communication (Orlikowski & Hofman, 1997). The

most effective implementation of change requires effectively implementing technology

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(McKersie & Walton, 1991; Nielsen, 2008; Schwarz & Watson, 2005). Implementing

change with a new technology requires organizations to exploit social and psychological

instruments to engage individuals (Orlikowski & Gash, 1994). Sampson (2010) stated,

“When it comes to improving the way your business runs with technology, it’s not what

you’ve got, it’s the way that you use it” (p. 8).

According to Kalakota and Whinston (1996), technology-driven change projects

affect employees across the organizations because of communications, networks, and

efficiencies created. Implementing change effectively requires an examination of how the

technology affects employees (Burke, 2008). Jarvenpaa and Ives (1994) believed in

collaboration and developing synergy through teamwork when implementing technology-

driven change projects. Collaboration allows employees to share ideas, frustrations, and

develop integrated solutions.

Global organizations utilize technology to communicate and make information

available to employees throughout the world (Jue et al., 2010). There are many types of

technology utilized by organizations to assist in the implementation of change and

technology is an integral part of business, thus an integral part of many change initiatives.

White and Shirley (2007) stated, “Technology can change behavior and communication

patterns” (p. 547), thus increasing productivity and surfacing underlying issues.

Technology-driven change is affected by human interaction and its success is

defined by the perceptions of the employees (Schwarz & Watson, 2005). Yates and

Orlikowski (1992) stated, “Today, the introduction of various sophisticated electronic

communication technologies and the demand for faster and better forms of interaction are

visibly influencing the nature of much organizational communication” (p. 299).

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Many of the new technologies for organizational change are what Macredie et al.

(1998) refer to as open-ended. Open-ended technology is “technology that is locally

adaptable by end users with customizable features and the ability to create new

applications” (p. 13). Open-ended technology allows for a free exchange of information

between multiple parties, and several open-ended applications are available online.

The concept of open-ended technology also spans into to the realm of

telecommunications. Telecommunication technology refers to the tools that provide the

transmission of data and communications (Barber, 2002). Barber suggested that

telecommunication technologies are relevant tools for organizations and are the “key to

the new global economy” (p. 208).

Innovation in technology and communication led to the development of many

sophisticated telecommunication tools, including mobile phones, wireless networks, and

a new generation of the Internet (Barber, 2002). The Internet was originally intended to

share information and knowledge, but has transformed into a telecommunications tool

(Hiltzik, 2004). The Internet allows information to flow at a faster rate, which demands

innovation and promotes idea formulation and knowledge-sharing (Jue et al., 2010). In

fact, the concept and use of open-ended technologies are spreading beyond strictly the

software environment into online-based applications and media.

Social interaction online. White and Shirley (2007) stated, “Change rarely

happens in an instant, or single event” (p. 546), and online applications can advance

change through information sharing, ongoing communication, and networks. Online

environments support change through communication, information delivery, and

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increasing participation. These tools can build relationships among the users, increase

transparency, and flatten the organizational hierarchy.

The Internet evolved into a more interactive tool. Web 2.0 is a name that

describes the generation of the Internet that promotes creating and sharing information

online (Jue et al., 2010). The term Web 2.0 was first used in 2004 to describe the updates

and transformation the Internet was making in regard to use. Kaplan and Haenlein (2010)

stated the Internet was updated in real-time by all users “in a participatory and

collaborative fashion” (p. 61) not just designated web developers.

This infrastructure of Internet and Internet-based applications foster information

and content sharing (Postman, 2009). According to O’Reilly (2007):

Web 2.0 applications are those that make the most of the intrinsic advantages of

that platform: delivering software as a continually-updated service that gets better

the more people use it, consuming and remixing data from multiple sources,

including individual users, while providing their own data and services in a form

that allows remixing by others, creating network effects through an architecture of

participation, and going beyond the page metaphor of Web 1.0 to deliver rich user

experiences. (p. 17)

Jue et al. (2010) stated that Web 2.0 provides social technology, “a communication

platform that makes communications possible” (p. 5). Social technology has given rise to

user generated content and social media applications.

Web 2.0 capitalizes on the preference of users to be involved in the creation,

sharing, and utilization of knowledge (O’Reilly, 2007). Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) state

user generated content is the “various forms of media content that are publicly available

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and created by end-users” (p. 61). In order to be deemed user generated content, this type

of content must be published via public Web site, on personal time outside of the

workplace, and show creativity. User generated content, working in combination with

Web 2.0, provides a platform for people to share ideas and information (Safko & Brake,

2009).

Lessig (2004) termed the notion of free culture in response to the rising utilization

of the Internet to share information with the development of Web 2.0 and user generated

content. The author discussed the effectiveness of peer to peer file sharing in

communicating a message. “A free culture protects creators and innovators” (Lessig,

2004, p. xiv) by granting intellectual property rights to the person who shares knowledge.

Lessig noted that file sharing brings about issues with piracy of the information and the

notion of intellectual property. If information is available to share, the line grays as to

who owns the content. The notion of free culture is similar to one of a free market, an

environment of open collaboration and sharing. From Lessig’s notion of free culture,

spawned a social movement titled the free culture movement. People who supported the

movement believed in the free flow of information. This movement led to the popularity

of different sites and social media applications, such as Wikipedia (Sidener, 2004).

The advancement of technology transformed traditional media, including

newspapers, television, and radio (Jue et al., 2010). In the past, traditional media was

produced and delivered in a form of hard copy and designed to deliver information about

current events, sports, finance, and entertainment to consumers via journalists,

newspapers, and radio (Skoler, 2009). As technology advanced, these traditional media

transformed and are available online and via a mobile telecommunication tools. Media

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shifted from the printed to electronic to interactive (Galagan, 2010), and media of the

future will require a more on-demand approach for consumers (Skoler, 2009).

Consumers no longer seek traditional media. Thevenot (2007) stated, “We are in

the era of social media where people are directly engaged” (p. 287). Media is available

from a mobile phone for instant access for consumers, linking them to their networks and

information instantly. This evolution will require a shift in the business model for many

organizations (Skoler, 2009).

Social Media Technologies

In the current environment, consumers want to share information and have the

opportunity to give feedback (Skoler, 2009). Consumers want control over their media

and would like the information delivered in a customizable and continuous fashion.

Traditional media is being delivered through an integrated Internet full of user generated

content and social media outlets. Williams and Williams (2008) stated, “The introduction

of social media tools may be the most revolutionary change to communication since the

introduction of the internet” (p. 35).

Social media are tools for enabling conversation (Safko & Brake, 2009). In this

section, the social media types, classifications, and characteristics are reviewed.

Strategies for utilizing social media as well as the downfalls are examined. Finally, a

synthesis of the social media literature is presented.

Social media are applications that are built on the notion of Web 2.0 and offer a

platform for users to connect with one another and share information (Kaplan &

Haenlein, 2010). Social media applications integrate social relations with multimedia

through the use of technology and the Internet (Hart, 2008). Postman (2009) stated social

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media are network-based applications that “have brought about a revolution in

participatory communications” (p. 7). Postman noted that social media applications can

bring people together into communities to share information. Safko and Brake (2009)

wrote:

Social media refers to activities, practices, and behaviors among communities of

people who gather online to share information, knowledge, and opinions using

conversational media. Conversational media are web-based applications that

make it possible to create and easily transmit content in the form of words,

pictures, videos, and audio. (p. 6)

According to Galagan (2010), most individuals use social media sites to share

information about themselves as well as to learn about the people in their network. The

Nielson Company noted that in 2010, Internet users spent more than 5 hours on social

media sites per month (as cited in Galagan, 2010). According to Wang and Kobsa (2009),

51% of social media users visit the social media sites at least once per day.

According to Dennison (as cited in Jue et al., 2010), “Social media are about

participation” (p. 4). Jue et al. (2010) noted that social media are being utilized

throughout the United States and the world. They presented the following statistics about

the use of social media tools. In the United States, 31% of people read blogs, 22% utilize

Wikipedia monthly, 17% watch online videos, and 25% utilize online social networking

sites.

Organizations are utilizing social media as well. According to Postman (2009),

social media allow organizations to increase brand awareness, gain access to information,

engage in dialogue with consumer and employees, and develop an enlightened user

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experience. Safko and Brake (2009) noted that social media facilitate conversations

between the organization and its employees. In fact, according to Jue et al. (2010), social

media allow organizations to “publish and access information, collaborate on a common

effort, and build relationships” (p. 4).

Altes (2009) believed that social media applications will be just as integral to the

work environment in a few years as the Internet and e-mail are now. In the past, Internet

and e-mail access was restricted to employees in many organizations. The younger

generation of workers will bring a new generation of communication tools to the

workplace. The author noted that technological tools, such as social media, will evolve

into a part of operations for all organizations.

Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) developed a classification of social media based

upon the theories of media and social presence. Social presence is the degree to which the

user is involved in the process. Media richness is the extent to which the media deliver

information. The first classification by Kaplan and Haenlein rates the media and level of

social presence and media richness in the social media tools. In regard to the social

aspects, self-presentation is the ability of the user to control the information shared. Self-

disclosure is the revealing of such information. This classification is noted in Table 2.

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Table 2

Classifications of Social Media

Social presence and

Media richness

Self-presentation and Self-disclosure Low Medium High

High Blogs Social Networks Virtual Worlds Low Wikis Media-sharing Gaming

Note. From “Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of social media,” by A. M. Kaplan and M. Haenlein, 2010, Business Horizons, 53(1), p. 62. Copyright 2010 by the Kelley School of Business. Reprinted [or adapted] with permission.

Blogs, social networks, and virtual worlds have a high self-presentation because

they focus on user-specific content. Wikis, media sharing, and games are focused more

on the applications as opposed to the end user. Wikis and blogs have the lowest social

presence and media richness, because they are text driven and require minimal

interaction. Social-networking and media-sharing sites offer the exchange of larger

amounts of media, including videos and pictures. Finally, the virtual worlds and games

create a rich media environment with virtual simulations (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010).

Types of social media. There are two types of social media sites: Public and

enterprise. Public sites are those available to the general public and can be accessed via

the Internet (Wang & Kobsa, 2009). Public sites are usually free to the users and the

technology is housed at the site of the system provider (Rooksby et al., 2009).

Enterprise sites are those built within an organization for the sole use of the

employees. Many times these sites are accessed via an internal intranet (Wang & Kobsa,

2009). Galagan (2010) stated, “More companies are providing in-house networking tools

for employees to harness not only their brainpower, but their engagement in corporate

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goals” (p. 30). There are two highly published examples of social media tools being

utilized on the enterprise level: IBM’s Beehive and Microsoft’s Academy Mobile

(Gibson, 2009).

IBM launched a social media application, Beehive, that focuses on social

networking for the employees of the organization. This application is an enterprise social

media solution and is housed within the firewall of the organization on its intranet. This

site is profile-based and encourages employees to build relationships with one another

without limiting the types of content that the employees can share. IBM researchers

developed a model for researching the social behavior of the employees. They first

identified the adoption behavior of the social media, followed by the usage patterns, the

motivations for utilizing, and the impact on their work environment (Gibson, 2009).

Academy Mobile is an enterprise solution created and implemented at Microsoft

in order to bring people together who work outside the organization’s headquarters. They

also wanted to develop a system for peer-to-peer learning and knowledge management.

The organization focused on podcasts and social networking (Rozwell, 2010). “Getting

people engaged to create, contribute, comment, and rank established a sense of

community” (p. 3). The organization believed that there were a few critical success

factors. First, the system was updated on a regular basis to provide fresh content for the

users. Second, there was minimal technology barrier for those employees who were not

savvy. Finally, norms of behavior were established before the system was rolled out in

order to create authenticity among the staff and foster an environment of sharing.

The following are several forms of social media that can be available both as

public or enterprise: E-mail, search, blog, wiki, podcasts, media sharing, aggregators,

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really simple syndication (RSS), mobile, social bookmarking, gaming, virtual worlds, and

social networking (Hart, 2008; Postman, 2009; Safko & Brake, 2009). William and

Williams (2008) stated, “The social media applications that will have the biggest impact

on their organizations are blogs, RSS feeds, and podcasting” (p. 37).

E-mail. According to Safko and Brake (2009), e-mail is the oldest form of digital

social media as it has been utilized for more than 15 years. The authors noted that e-mail

is a very effective way to communicate with staff and consumers. E-mail is basically an

electronic messaging service that sends messages via the Internet to another e-mail

subscriber. E-mail is becoming more prevalent and many organizations have e-mail in

order to survive (Postman, 2009). Farnham et al. (as cited in Liebowitz, 2007), noted that

e-mail is utilized as much as the phone for coordinating social activity and that “said

usage was positively correlated with measures of friendship satisfaction, sense of

community, and percentage of time spent socializing” (p. 25).

Search. The next form of social media is search. When search engines were

created, they were primarily text based. As the Internet matured and with the introduction

of Web 2.0, search engines utilize algorithms to provide solutions to the needs of the

user. Google, a popular search application, offers solutions to users and organizations.

Users utilize the tools to seek information. Organizations can utilize Google for their

analytic tools and target marketing. Search engines are under the social media realm,

because engines will aggregate consumer ratings from different Web sites to prioritize the

search results. Thus, search engines are impacted by the social networks and information

sharing of consumers (Safko & Brake, 2009).

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Blog. Jue et al. (2010) state that a blog is “an individual’s journal that he makes

public for all to see, inviting responsive comments from his readers” (p. 25). The term

blog comes from the words web and log, and this form of social media is a monologue

from a particular author that conveys a message and solicits posts and responses. Many

organizations utilize blogs to communicate to their consumers as well as to communicate

internally.

Leaders in large organizations can utilize blogs to share stories or information

with staff (Postman, 2009). Blogs can also be a training tool that provides a forum for

students to respond to questions and challenges. Guest bloggers or community leaders

can also contribute to the blog and give employees a fresh narrative of industry

information (Jue et al., 2010). Promoting staff to respond to blogs can build buy-in to the

concepts and solidify new behaviors and notions into the culture.

Wiki. The next form of social media is a wiki, which is a Web site that fosters

collaboration through customizable sites for users to contribute. Jue et al. (2010) states,

“Wikis offer a common web space for a group of people to create a project together.

Wikipedia, perhaps the most widely recognized wiki, is an open invitation for anyone to

educate others on any topic” (p. 47). These sites are used to collaborate on ideas and

brainstorm strategy. There are several wiki tools available online that allow organizations

to create pages and share information.

Podcasts. A podcast is an audio file that is available for download via the Internet

and delivers information verbally (Safko & Brake, 2009). The purpose of a podcast is for

sharing information in a different way. The most common use of a podcast inside an

organization is for training and development. Internally, organizations can use podcasts

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to celebrate successes, deliver pertinent regulatory information, and share stories (Jue et

al., 2010).

Media sharing. Media sharing is a channel of communication for users of social

media that includes sharing both photos and videos. This is a nonverbal method of

delivering messages. Photo sharing is commonly used by individuals to share memories

with friends and family. Many organizations also share photos to display employee

events, document activities, and capture products and services (Safko & Brake, 2009).

Video sharing is the notion of viewing and exchanging short video clips via the Internet

and applications, such as YouTube. Organizations also utilize videos for staff education,

product demonstrations, and board and CEO messages.

RSS. RSS is a user-subscribed tool that notifies the user when a Web site, blog, or

other online tool has been updated. This allows consumers or employees to be aware of

when new things occur on their favorite news, video, audio, or social media feed. The

RSS feeds can be reviewed in an aggregator that pulls all the fresh information together

in one viewable page. This can be utilized by staff to be aware of marketing updates and

public relations (Safko & Brake, 2009).

Aggregator. Safko and Brake (2009) state aggregators are applications that allow

an organization to “gather, update, and store information for easy access” (p. 30). These

tools allow users to identify the information they would like to receive, and the

application pulls the information together in an organized workspace. An example of an

aggregator is Digg, which allows individuals to submit information that they believe is

valuable to share with others. Digg organizes the web content to provide the user up-to-

date information about a topic of interest.

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An aggregator, also known as a reader, allows users to view the information they

select in a customizable interface. Safko and Brake (2009) wrote:

If fresh material is identified, the reader will show a summary of that information

with a link to the page. That way—instead of having to visit all of your favorite

websites, new sites, and blogs—the newest content comes to you. (p. 346)

Readers are designed as a detached program that can be either software or web-based,

allowing information to be aggregated from any online source. A popular example of a

reader is iGoogle Reader, which allows users to subscribe to different types of content.

IGoogle organizes information aggregated from any web browser in an easy-to-

understand format. On the other hand, many scholars utilize Academic Reader, which is a

web-based program very similar to iGoogle, which allows users to aggregate information

from more specific content, such as scholarly journals, sources, and Web sites.

Mobile. Social media tools are becoming more prevalent as the use of mobile

devices rises (Safko &Brake, 2009). In fact, social media are helping to increase the

usage of mobile devices and decrease the usage of computers (Qualman, 2009). Rudder

Finn (as cited in Galagan, 2010) surveyed people with mobile devices and found that

91% of these consumers use their phones to engage is social media (p. 30).

Mobile devices become a delivery channel for social media platforms such as

Wiki or RSS, but they also provide social media. Texting and instant messaging,

messages sent from one mobile device to another, are becoming increasingly prevalent

for individuals and organizations. Employees of organization may utilize programs such

as BlackBerry Mobile, an instant messaging application, to contact colleagues in the

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field. Many organizations are also using their mobile platforms for business continuity

plans (Safko & Brake, 2009).

Social bookmarking. A social bookmark is a tool to organize a user’s preferred

Web sites for easy navigation and viewing (van Zyl, 2009). The information from the

Web site is not stored, but the reference or link to the site is saved in the user’s

preferences. Tagging is a service provided by many social bookmarking applications to

categorize or customize their social media applications, links, sites, and information

(Safko & Brake, 2009).

Gaming. Gaming has made the transition into the category of social media, as

many games are played online among a community of gamers. World of Warcraft is a

massively multiplayer online role-playing game that hosts millions of subscribed players.

The players each assume an avatar, or virtual character, and participate in the fantasy-

based application by completing quests (Carr, 20007). Some games can be utilized as a

strategic tool in organizations to help leaders simulate different environments.

Organizations also use games as a channel for marketing messages, placing products

within the game application (Safko & Brake, 2009).

Virtual worlds. A virtual world is a type of social media that allows users or

organizations to create online simulated environments (Bartle, 2003). Users create

profiles or communities that reside in the virtual world. The virtual words can be based in

reality or fantasy and offer users the ability to navigate and react to stimuli (Bray &

Konsynski, 2007). Second-life is an example of a virtual world that was created to allow

users to interact, socialize, and network with others through the use of avatars.

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Organizations can create virtual worlds through the development of virtual

storefronts to serve customers completely online. These virtual worlds provide education,

advice, and information about products and services. Consumers can visit the site and

interact with other consumers. H&R Block uses a virtual-world application to provide an

online presence that advises clients about their tax preparation (Safko & Brake, 2009).

Social networks. The final form of social media is social networking. Social

networking is the basic exchange of information between two parties that can be

delivered via online social media tools (Safko & Brake, 2009). According to Jue et al.

(2010), social networking sites allow people to share information, including photos and

content on a profile, which ultimately enables relationships.

Postman (2009) believed that social networks are the most common social media

tools and are also referred to as microblogging sites. Social networks can be utilized for

both personal and professional reasons. The use of social networking sites is becoming

prevalent; in fact, Postman noted that 2 out of every 3 people who utilize the Internet

regularly visit social networking sites. There are a myriad of social networking tools

available online, such as Facebook, LinkedIn, and MySpace. Organizations can also

create their own social networks, using a tool such as Ning.

Facebook is an integrated platform that connects users with different groups and

individuals. Facebook integrates with many of the other social media tools, such as photo

and video sharing, blogs, and microblogging. This tool can be utilized for networking,

communicating, delivering promotions, and event tracking. Facebook is based on a user

or organization profile. The premise of the site is to send and receive status updates,

which help to create communities of users (Safko & Brake, 2009). Facebook can be used

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for personal or professional reasons in order to retain contacts, build relationships, and

network.

Organizations utilize Facebook for professional-based networking that links users

together for professional endeavors. Ning is a social networking tool that essentially

creates social networks (Safko & Brake, 2009). Ning allows organizations to develop

their own social network through user-friendly software. This platform is commonly used

by organizations that link together their consumers, exchange information, build

relationships, and communicate messages.

Microblogging, specifically, is the notion of sharing snippets of information to

people in a network, referred to as status updating (Safko & Bake, 2009). “Think of

microblogging as a cross between blogging and texting” (Safko & Brake, 2009, p. 533).

The most popular microblogging site is Twitter.

Organizations utilize microblogging sites to communicate with consumers and

employees. Many news organizations utilize this channel to deliver information about

current events or sports (Safko & Brake, 2009). Politicians have recently utilized

microblogging to share news with their constituents (Postman, 2009).

There is also a rise in location-based social networking sites, such as FourSquare

(Rotolo, 2010). This type of social network allows users to check-in to various locations,

allowing them to determine others in the area or read user ratings and suggestions.

Organizations can give consumers incentives for checking-in to their locations, which

essentially creates a relationship marketing strategy. Location-based social networking

sites also offer analytics about the consumers who are checking into their locations.

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Characteristics of social media. Christakis and Fowler (2009) noted that social

media tools and applications are based on two fundamental characteristics: Connection

and contagion. Connection is the development of networks, patterns, and communities of

people. Social media allow users to navigate the complicated networks to develop short-

and long-term relationships. Contagion describes the mobility and transmission of data

and the journey of that information. Social media provide a platform for users to gain

access to information in an efficient and broad manner.

According to Li and Bernoff (2008), there are several consistent factors present in

social media. They organized social media based upon these themes to further describe

functionality and application. Based on the research of Li and Bernoff (2008), social

media characteristics are:

• People creating: People creating is the fundamental notion of self-expression.

Social media tools allow individuals to create content and participate in the

online community through the use of blogs, user-generated content, and

podcasts.

• People connecting: People connect through social networks and virtual

worlds. This is a community-building dynamic of social media and allows

people to connect via the Internet and build relationships.

• People collaborating: Collaboration is an important component of social

media, as it further develops the connection and establishes cooperation

among users. Collaboration helps users share and access content in the form

of wikis and open-source technology. This is an important component to

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social media, as it allows people to share information regarding their personal

interests.

• People reacting: People reacting to each other takes the form of reviews,

ratings, and discussion forums. Social media give users the power to engage in

dialogue with organizations and provide feedback and reviews.

• People organizing: People organizing is the way social media users classify

content. People organizing social media is represented through tags or

bookmarks. This characteristic brings people together and enables consumers

to classify products, services, and people into user-defined categories.

• Accelerating consumption: These types of social media are content drivers

that help to accelerate the utilization of social media tools through an increase

in access to information. Examples of this type of social media are RSS and

widgets, or Internet-based applications.

The underlying concept throughout each of the categories is the notion of relationship

building. Each of the different types and strategies of social media enable relationships

through linking people together for a common purpose.

Human networks in social media. Shirky (2008) stated, “Human being are social

creatures— not occasionally or by accident but always” (p. 14). New technologies have

paved the way for new types of human organizations and relationship building.

According to Shirky, the technologies alone only create motivation; people must

contribute and share.

Begole and McDonald (2008) noted that social media create relationships through

personal sharing. They noted that employees will connect with one another on a personal

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level more rapidly with the presence of social media, which enables synergy, career

advancement, and promotion. Ellison, Steinfield, and Lampe (2007) noted that people

who utilize social media tools feel a stronger connection to their colleagues. This

interconnectedness develops bonds between people and builds the value of these groups.

Safko and Brake (2009) believed that social media tools and applications promote

relationships by allowing an organization to build communities. Kane et al. (2009) agreed

and maintained that social media promote relationship building as a result of developing

an environment of trust by developing digital communities. These communities create a

forum for people to work together and learn from one another. According to Jue et al.

(2010), employees rely on these communities and relationships because of the human

need for connection.

According to DiMicco et al. (2008), the use of social media inside an organization

will not only build relationships and develop teamwork, but will build value in the vision

through a higher sense of citizenship. Their studies found that people engaged in social

media have “closer bonds to their network, they have a greater willingness to contribute

to the company, they have a greater interest in connecting globally, have greater access to

new people, and a greater ability to access expertise” (p. 2).

Furthering the notion of networks, according to Huh et al. (2007), social media

can contribute to organizational collaboration. This concept incorporates knowledge

sharing and building an infrastructure of teamwork (Safko & Brake, 2009). Farrell, Lau,

Nusser, Wilcox, and Muller (2007) stated that social media play a “valuable role in

helping people find others to collaborate with, solve a problem, or provide the needed

expertise” (p. 91).

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Jue et al. (2010) noted that social media enable collaboration that can improve

productivity and performance. They noted that social media reflect the characteristics of

open-ended technology, because they foster collaboration and allow people to be in

control of their organization, sharing, and results. According to Hart (2008), social media

“support social interactions and connections with people, as well as collaboration and

sharing” (p. 20).

Social media can also create urgency to obtain information or collaborate on a

project through what Kane et al. (2009) referred to as rapid organization. They believed

that the viral effects of social media can bring people together in a common cause very

quickly. Based on his philosophy of organizing without organizations, Shirky (2008)

noted that social media have a rapid collaboration effect.

Organizational communication and social media. In addition to building

networks, utilizing social media within an organization fosters an environment of open

communication (Begole & McDonald, 2008). Safko and Brake (2009) noted that these

tools and applications enhance communication and take advantage of relationships.

Efimova and Grudin (2007) noted that social media utilized internally in an organization

can give employees a forum to share their passions, humanize the management team, and

organize their work through effective communication with subject matter experts.

Social media allow individuals the platform to deliver information about them,

which leads to personal gratification and a competitive spirit (Postman, 2009). Joinson

(2008) stated users of social media sites build their reputation and gain personal

fulfillment. This information and virtual reputation can follow an individual as well.

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According to Postman (2009), many universities and organizations have disciplined

students and employees for improper or inappropriate use of social media.

Blogging, specifically, allows employees access to tacit knowledge within the

organization (Huh et al., 2007). According to Huh et al. (2007), blogging can contribute

to organizational collaboration and communication. Mitchell, Ferrabee, and Wright

(2008) noted that organizations use social media to create dialogue within an

organization. Blogs can be a helpful tool to share ideas and promote mutual discussion.

Qualman (2009) noted that social media enable dialogue or two-way

conversations. “Open, two-way conversations are much more effective than unilateral

communications” (Qualman, 2009, p. 87). Mitchell et al. (2008) noted that organizations

use social media to create dialogue within an organization. Heierbacher (2007) stated,

“Dialogue allows people…to share their perspectives and experiences about difficult

issues" (p. 103). Social media applications can be helpful tools to share ideas and

promote mutual discussion.

Postman (2009) refers to the exchange of information as the conversation.

According to the author, social media changed the manner in which organizations

communicate with their customers and receive feedback. Now, organizations are having

real-time conversations with their consumers. Postman wrote:

This new generation of technology, content, websites, and online applications

called social media have changed communications forever, giving companies and

consumers the power to actually converse with each other like never before.

Social media…is the closest thing to one-on-one conversation between even the

largest companies and the millions of people they do business with. (p. 6)

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Skeels and Grudin (2009) agreed that social media develop dialogue in organizations and

allow employees, management, and customers to communicate effectively. According to

Cross and Parker (2004), this dialogue on social media applications happens within the

organization’s informal social structures, thus affecting operational goals. Therefore,

social media can provide the platform necessary to improve tactics through increased

communication and information flow (Cross & Parker, 2004; Thevenot, 2007).

Learning and social media. Bersin (2009) believed that social media can be an

effective tool in learning. Employee development and staff training programs should

incorporate social media components in order to reach the employees. He noted that

social learning will bring organizations focus in their learning environments and build the

value of the existing formal training programs.

According to Meister and Willyerd (2010), learning in the future will include

many aspects of social media, including mobile browsing and video sharing. Social

media also give the organizations the opportunity to enhance learning through peer-to-

peer networks. This will allow people in the organization to share information and create

knowledge banks.

According to Sherman (2009), the utilization of social media in learning uses

third generation instructional design. This type of design centers on the learner

incorporating social interaction between the contributors of the learning process:

Instructors, students, peers, and subject matter experts. With social media, information is

communicated in real time and the learner has access to a broad amount of information.

Jenkins (2006) believed organizations are facing a participatory culture that

invites learning. In this environment, “consumers are invited to actively participate in the

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creation and circulation of new content” (p. 331). Social media create the participatory

culture and this environment involves three trends:

• New technologies enable consumers to archive, annotate, appropriate, and

recirculate media content;

• A range of subcultures promote do-it-yourself media production, a discourse

that shapes how consumers have deployed those technologies;

• Economic trends favoring the horizontally integrated media conglomerates

encourage the flow of images, ideas, and narratives across multiple media

channels and demand more active modes of spectatorship (Jenkins, 2006).

Jue et al. (2010) noted that social media tools enhance innovation and

effectiveness, which ultimately lead to learning. Social media can connect subject matter

experts and develop an environment that fosters growth, idea sharing, and innovation.

Social media allow employees to access tacit information within the organization

(DiMicco et al., 2008; Huh et al., 2007; Rettberg, 2009; Rooksby et al., 2009; Stolley,

2009). Many times the information in the minds of the employees is the most valuable;

this implicit knowledge can be the valuable intellectual capital (Nonaka & Takeuchi,

1995).

According to Liebowitz (2007), knowledge management is an important

component of social media and can improve work flow inside an organization. This is

done through linking researchers with the actual users of knowledge (Lackes et al., 2009).

Jue et al. (2010) believed that that social media’s knowledge management potential gives

users an unexpected reach.

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Benefits and challenges of social media. According to Jue et al. (2010), social

media can create both short- and long-term benefits for an organization. Social media can

help an organization, but the specific value of the social media to the organization is

difficult to determine because of the indirect benefits (Rooksby et al., 2009). Skeels and

Grudin (2009) noted that social media have an extensive range of applications for

organizations, such as developing interpersonal relationships, increasing communication,

building trust, and maintaining relevancy. They noted that social media will be adopted

rapidly by organizations merely because of the overall usage of social media tools by the

individuals who make up the organization.

According to Joinson (2008), users of social media sites gain personal

gratification from their use. They defined seven specific fulfillments that users seek when

utilizing social media tools: Social connection, shared identities, content, social

investigation, social networking, surfing, and status updating. Social media provide

instant feedback that satisfies many of the user’s senses. This type of feedback can

motivate staff to alter behavior, improve performance, and increase employee morale

(Kim, Olguin, Waber, & Pentland, 2009).

Inside the organization, social media can provide a platform for human resources

initiatives. Performance reviews can be exchanged on an ongoing basis via a social

network site. Galagan (2010) stated, “Turn performance reviews into a more continuing

conversation among many people” (p. 30). The performance review process would

become more immediate for staff to receive feedback from colleagues and peers as well

as their superior. Another important social media benefit to human resources is through

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recruiting. Organizations can share their brand and story to consumers and potential

employees.

Social media tools deliver information to the employees as well as the customers

in the form of marketing as well. Social media can help organizations to deliver their

marketing message in a contemporary way (Frank & Wyner, 2010). Social media

platforms also give organizations the ability to deliver their message to a large audience

efficiently (Safko & Brake, 2009). Communicating a message through social media

applications can help an organization to stay relevant through instant feedback and

dialogue with consumers (Skeels & Grudin, 2009).

Frank and Wyner (2010) believed that social media are a contemporary marketing

trend for organizations. They noted that social media marketing is a cost effective way to

deliver an organization’s message to a broad population. Similar to word of mouth, the

value of social media for the purposes of marketing is difficult to measure (Ochman,

2010).

According to Evans (2008), an organization’s brand is navigated through the

social media word-of-mouth effect. Shirky (2008) believed that this viral word-of-mouth

exchange of information is a characteristic of the organizing effect of social media.

Postman (2009) referred to the social media word-of-mouth phenomena as world-of-

mouth because social media outreach can be on a global scale.

Many organizations that deal in a business-to-business environment utilize social

media tools as well. According to Woolard (2010), social media tools can help

organizations to build interpersonal relationships on a corporate scale. These

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organizations utilize social media to identify sales leads, deliver training, and

communicate their message.

According to Ochman (2010), social media alone cannot sustain a marketing plan.

Social media integrates into the existing marketing efforts in order to properly deliver the

organization’s message. Social media can develop a channel for soliciting feedback from

consumers, but the information is aggregated and transformed into tactical strategy.

Social media can create challenges for organizations as well. Safko and Brake

(2009) noted that social media can be disruptive because they are not yet commonplace

for organizations. The authors believed that the technologies associated with social media

can create fear in people who are unfamiliar. According to Williams and Williams

(2008), many organizations are not ready to adapt the use of social media tools because

of employees’ lack of willingness to share information and manage more transparently.

The authors noted that smaller organizations are more likely to adopt social media

because of their culture supporting change and open communication.

According to Rooksby et al. (2009), use of social networking sites at work make it

difficult to distinguish whether the employee is utilizing the site for personal or

professional reasons. The authors noted that there are several concerns for an

organization that allows employees to use social media at work, including “security, time

wasting, inappropriate content, slander and disclosure” (p. 9). Due to these concerns,

organizations should adopt a social media policy. Social media policies that govern the

use of social media in the workplace are more effective than overarching bans.

One downfall to social media is the element of privacy (Wang & Kobsa, 2009).

Rooksby et al. (2009) noted that privacy is a main concern of organizations and users of

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social media from two perspectives. First, an organization must be aware of classified or

confidential information being shared online. Second, depending on the organization’s

use of social media, the employees may feel uncomfortable posting private information

and a social media platform should always include an element of privacy controls.

Utilizing social media at work also can affect employee efficiency. The social

media efforts can be integrated into the employees’ duties in order to ensure the effective

use of time (Efimova & Grudin, 2007). Efimova and Grudin (2007) noted that

efficiencies can also be increased if the use of social media unveils an unknown

employee strength or skill set.

Employees who engage in social networking and blogging also can affect the

reputation of the organization. Social media must be closely monitored and many social

media policies rely on the employees’ professional discretion (Efimova & Grudin, 2007).

Kane et al. (2009) suggested that the creation of social media team or committee can help

an organization manage the social media efforts and avoid negative consequences to

reputation. The authors believed that a social media team should set policy and

procedure, monitor internal and external communication, engage in the social media, and

provide feedback to the social media users.

Toyota Motor Sales, Inc. utilized social media to communicate with the customers

after the dire public relations crisis following its gas pedal recall. De Yager (as cited in

Auffermann, 2010), in addressing the Toyota issue, stated:

An integral element of handling a crisis is addressing stakeholders’ anxieties and

emotions. Being available in real time and listening to stakeholders is

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crucial.…The most important part of social media conversations (whether you are

in the throes of a crisis or not) is listening. (p. 19)

According to Auffermann (2010), Toyota anticipates a future with social media

that includes both maintaining its reputation as well as extending into innovation of its

products. When asked if the community of users and customers could provide insight into

design, De Yager (as cited in Auffermann, 2010) replied, “in my opinion, it’s only a

matter of time” (p. 19).

Implementing social media. Li and Bernoff (2008) noted in their model POST

that a social media plan should include four steps to ensure a successful implementation.

First, the authors account for the people, including employees and customers. Social

media require a customized experience and the social media strategy should reflect this

need for customization. Objective is the second component to the POST model as it helps

an organization identify the goals of the project. Social media can be utilized internally

for staff or externally as marketing for customers. The third component to POST is

strategy. Organizations should clarify their plan for change and what tactics are required

to accomplish. Finally, technology is required to define and examine. Social media can

incorporate technology is a number of ways.

Safko and Brake (2009) believed that a good social media plan incorporates four

engagement strategies: Communication, collaboration, education, and entertainment.

Communication refers to utilizing a social media tool to deliver a message. This may also

include asking for feedback or engaging in dialogue. Collaboration is the notion of

working together with different people via a social media tool. This concept incorporates

knowledge sharing and building an infrastructure of teamwork. Education serves to

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deliver information to employees and consumers for development and training.

Entertainment is an important aspect as the information should be engaging by effectively

utilizing the information and delivering results.

Smith (2009) noted six concepts of the social media environment and their

application. He termed the current state of business as the listening economy in which he

believed organizations must take social media seriously. Social media are requiring

organizations not only to listen to consumers but engage and interact with them as well.

The following are the six notions as Smith (2009) described:

1. Sharing opinions is real. Social media created an environment that fosters

open access and sharing. Users are engaged and motivated to participate.

2. Research sits at the top table. Users of social media have the power and access

to give feedback and share knowledge with others, thus forcing products to be

very consumer centric. Because of this concept, organizations exploit the

opportunity and ask questions.

3. Research becomes marketing. Social media help an organization to listen,

create dialogue, and build relationships that can enhance the organization’s

brand.

4. Global focus. Social media allow consumers to build international

relationships and communities throughout the world.

5. Social platforms become research platforms. Social networks and other social

media platforms allow users the ability to access data as well as create

opportunities for organizations to customize their user experience and target

market.

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6. The rise of real data. Social media platforms are online with numerous

tracking abilities. Users should be aware of their digital footprint and

reputation. Organizations should be able to effectively utilize the data.

Most consumers are impacted by social media even if they are not a user of the social

media tools. According to Smith, organizations should take advantage of the opportunity

and build a sense of community with their customers and employees.

Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) believed that implementing social media is on the

strategic plan for many organizations. They noted 10 pieces of advice for organizations

currently developing a social media plan.

1. Choose carefully: Organizations should choose the social media application

that best fits their needs. There are myriad social media applications with

different functionalities that can help an organization reach measurable

outcomes.

2. Pick the application, or make your own: Organization can choose an

enterprise or public social media solution.

3. Ensure activity alignment: Because of the large number of applications and

uses of social media, organization should ensure that each of their strategies

are integrated and aligned with one another.

4. Media plan integration: Integrating the social media efforts into the

organizational goals is important. Organizations assimilate the marketing,

traditional media, and social media efforts.

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5. Access for all: Organizations allow employees to access the sites they will be

utilizing. Social media will only be effective if it is available and easy to use

for the staff.

6. Be active: Once a social media strategy is launched, it is imperative for

organizations to maintain a good level of activity.

7. Be interesting: It is important for organizations to be contemporary and

engage the users of the social media.

8. Be humble: Organizations should remember to be respectful to the users of

social media and learn from the users and listen to feedback.

9. Be casual: Organizations should let the social media process happen more

organically. Overspending on fancy marketing and branding of a social media

presence can overwhelm the application.

10. Be honest: Information posted to the social media sites should be authentic

and honest. Users will be able to see through any efforts to maintain an

unrealistic persona (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010).

Social media strategies also include implicit data. The information an

organization can collect about the individuals, such as what they use the social media

tools for, how often, when, and what information they post, can be examined (Rettberg,

2009). Organizations can then harvest this data to better align the social media tools with

the organizational change initiatives.

Conceptual Framework

The synthesis of the research and literature resulted in the development of the

following conceptual framework. This framework is based upon the majority of authors

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noting these common themes. From a theoretical perspective, social media promote the

building of relationships, which includes collaboration and sharing (DiMicco et al., 2008;

Jue et al., 2010; Kane et al., 2009; Lackes et al., 2009; Li & Bernoff, 2008; Ou et al.,

2010; Shirky, 2008; Smith, 2009; Thevenot, 2007); encourage communication, also

referred to as dialogue (DiMicco et al., 2008; Jue et al., 2010; Kane et al., 2009; Li &

Bernoff, 2008; Meister &Willyerd, 2010; Postman, 2009; Smith, 2009; Thevenot, 2007;

van Zyl, 2009); and build access for users (DiMicco et al., 2008; Jue et al., 2010; Kane et

al., 2009; Lackes et al., 2009; Li & Bernoff, 2008; Rettberg, 2009; Rozwell, 2010; Smith,

2009). In Table 3, there is a summary of the important themes in the literature.

Table 3

Conceptual Themes of Social Media Applications and Strategies

Theme Author Relationship building

• DiMicco et al. (2008) sharing leads to learning; sense-making • Jue et al. (2010) collaboration increases productivity;

employees need connection • Kane et al. (2009) digital communities • Lackes et al. (2009) collaboration and socialization • Li & Bernoff (2008) people connecting; people collaborating • Ou et al. (2010) mobile information sharing • Shirky (2008) organization • Smith (2009) research becomes marketing; sharing opinions • Thevenot (2007) social collaboration

Communication • DiMicco et al. (2008) employee sharing • Jue et al. (2010) delivery channel to target market • Kane et al. (2009) social media as a rallying tool • Li & Bernoff (2008) people creating; people organizing;

people reacting • Meister & Willyerd (2010) forcing authenticity • Postman (2009) developing personal and professional

identities; creating conversations • Smith (2009) social media becomes research; rise of real data • Thevenot (2007) dialogue as feedback • van Zyl (2009) digital reputations and viral word of mouth

(table continues)

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Theme Author Access • DiMicco et al. (2008) interactive buzz

• Jue et al. (2010) unexpected reach • Kane et al. (2009) creating and synthesizing knowledge • Lackes et al. (2009) linking researchers with users of the

knowledge • Li & Bernoff (2008) accelerated consumption; people creating • Rettberg (2009) importance of accessing implicit data • Rozwell (2010) access to new information as a critical success

factor • Smith (2009) research sits at the top table

Studies have shown that successful social media strategies are related to

relationship building (Kane et al., 2009; Kasavana et al., 2010; Shirky, 2008). Social

media are relevant for organizations, because they help the employees to develop and

deepen relationships with one another (Skeels & Grudin, 2009). Organizations require

connections and relationships (Skoler, 2009).

As noted in the literature, relationship building is enhanced through employee

sharing. Li and Bernoff (2008) believed that social media present users the ability to

express themselves and share knowledge. In fact, Shirky (2008) believed that there is no

limit for sharing with social media. Smith (2009) believed that this sharing is

fundamental to the concept of social media, because it creates an environment in which

building knowledge is natural. Once this environment is built, Kane et al. (2009) noted

that knowledge can be synthesized, which will lead to additional knowledge creation.

Organizations should promote sharing among employees, because employees who share

information can increase productivity and the management of knowledge (Qualman,

2009). According to DiMicco et al. (2008), sharing and knowledge management can lead

to learning.

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Relationship building also incorporates collaboration. Shirky (2008) stated

collaboration is an important theme in social media and is defined as “changing behavior

to synchronize with people who are also changing their behavior” (p. 49). Collaboration

is the notion of people working together for a common goal and creating synergy. Social

media provide a platform for collaboration and cooperation in organizations (Lackes et

al., 2009; Ou et al., 2010; Thevenot, 2007).

Communication is also an essential component to social media strategies, as

social media enable conversation and provide a delivery channel for personal and

organizational messages (Jue et al., 2010; Kasavana et al., 2010; Stolley, 2009).

Individuals can control the communication of their personal brand and reputation through

social media sites (Postman, 2009). Organizations can deliver the experience and

information regarding their corporate marketing strategies or social philosophy (Evans,

2008).

Within the realm of communication, social media provide an organization the

ability to facilitate dialogue (DiMicco et al., 2008; Efimova & Grudin, 2007; Kane et al.,

2009; Safko & Brake, 2009). Dialogue is the exchange of information between the users

of the social media applications (DiMicco et al., 2008). Dialogue creates a platform for

open communication, which allows an individual to be a part of the change in the

organization by getting involved in the decision-making and feedback process

(Heierbacher, 2007).

Finally, according to DiMicco et al. (2008), the use of social media creates a

channel for employees to increase their access to information, which results in

development and growth. Kane et al. (2009) believed that social media provide

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employees access to more information and additional subject matter experts. This

knowledge creation and synthesis can develop more pertinent discussions and enhance

ability.

The rise of social media applications is forcing organizations to take notice as

user demand and economic opportunity are being revolutionized through networking,

interconnectedness, information sharing (Qualman, 2009). The purpose of providing the

conceptual framework is to reflect the importance of relationship building,

communication, and access. Jue et al. (2010) stated, “The bottom line of social media is

that it enables people to connect, communicate and collaborate” (p. 43). Organizations

that embrace social media as tools to create change to meet employee demands will

develop a productive and efficient work environment.

Summary

Chapter 2 reviewed the relevant literature in regard to the subject matter of this

study: Social media strategies to advance organizational change. The literature review

discussed organizational change theories and models within the realms of planned and

unplanned change. Organizations should remain flexible and develop strategies to

facilitate change, because of the ever-changing environment (Bouckenooghe et al., 2009).

The roots of planned change management began with Lewin’s (1947) three-step

change model. He identifies driving and restraining forces that foster and inhibit a change

from occurring. Many scholars built on the notion of Lewin and developed additional

components to their change models, including change agents, diagnostics, cyclical levels,

and human interaction (Bullock & Batten, 1985; Cummings & Huse, 1989; Dawson,

2005; Kemmis & McTaggart, 1988; Lippitt et al., 1958; Schein, 1987; Susman, 1983).

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According to Burnes (1996), the planned approach to change is not always

effective and organizations should examine the components of unplanned change.

Unplanned change is emergent and chaotic change that is derived from external forces

and requires a reactive stance (Bamford & Forrester, 2003; Golembiewski, 1976; Lippitt

et al., 1958; Wheatley, 1994).

Many scholars (Burnes, 2004; Kotter, 1996; Lewin, 1947; Lippitt et al., 1958;

Luecke, 2003; Schein, 1987; Schmieder-Ramirez & Mallette, 2007; Wheatley, 1994)

agreed that the pace of change is constantly increasing and organizations are affected

from both internal and external forces. Change also incorporates a human factor and

successful change initiatives utilize the employees, teams ,and networks (Holman, 1999;

Lewis et al., 2006)

Change implementation is an essential component to any change initiative (Kanter

et al., 1992). Implementation considerations and strategies were discussed. The literature

revealed that some theorists noted the importance of examining the people as significant

contributors to successful change (Abrahamson, 2000; Bolman & Deal, 2008; Kotter,

1995; Wheatley & Kellner-Rogers, 2000). With the human component of change in

mind, some theorists suggested that change should be focused at the group or team level

(Brown & Duguid, 1991; Graetz et al., 2002; Lewin, 1951; Macredie et al., 1998).

Technology can facilitate a change initiative (Nielsen, 2008). Global

organizations utilize technology to communicate and make information available to

employees throughout the world (Jue et al., 2010). Social media is a technology-driven

series of applications that aims to connect people and create a forum for sharing

information. Social media applications are becoming an integral component in

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organizations (Altes, 2009). There are many forms of social media, including e-mail,

search, blog, wiki, podcasts, media sharing, aggregators, RSS, mobile, social

bookmarking, gaming, virtual worlds, and social networking (Hart, 2008; Postman, 2009;

Safko & Brake, 2009).

The literature revealed themes in regard to the use of social media applications

and the conceptual framework was created and presented. The organizational

environment is being transformed through the use of social media (DiMicco et al., 2008;

Jue et al., 2010, Kane et al., 2009; Postman, 2009; Qualman, 2009). Social media helps

organizations to promote relationship-building, communication and access (DiMicco et

al., 2008; Jue et al., 2010; Kane et al., 2009; Li & Bernoff, 2008; Meister &Willyerd,

2010; Postman, 2009; Smith, 2009; Stolley, 2009; Thevenot, 2007; van Zyl, 2009) . In

the future, social media may help organizations to advance organizational change.

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Chapter 3: Methodology

The pace of change is increasing and leaders must identify strategies to help

progress organizational change (Burnes, 2004). One potential strategy is social media, a

technology-driven series of applications that aims to connect people and create a forum

for sharing information (Jue et al., 2010).This qualitative study seeks to reveal the social

media strategies that advance organizational change. This study uses the Dynamic

Narrative Approach (DNA), incorporating semistructured interview questions.

Organizational leaders who meet the criteria will serve as the sample of this study.


This chapter begins with the nature and design of the study followed by a review

of the purpose and research questions. Next, the sources of data and the steps taken to

ensure the protection of human subjects are examined. Finally, data collection strategies,

validity, reliability, and analysis and display of the data are also discussed, followed by a

summary.

Nature and Design of the Study

Qualitative research. Qualitative research is the study of a research problem that

relates to human nature or social issues and commonly utilizes a conceptual framework

(Creswell, 2007). Denzin and Lincoln (2005) wrote:

Qualitative research is a situated activity that locates the observer in the world. It

consists of a set of interpretive, material practices that make the world visible.

These practices transform the world.…Qualitative researchers study things in

their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in

terms of the meanings people bring to them. (p. 3)

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According to Creswell (2007), a qualitative study includes the collection of data, data

analysis and establishing themes, and the presentation and description of the problem.

Research topics, such as social media, that do not have a significant academic

research or literary contribution are best suited for qualitative research (Creswell, 2007;

Flick, 2002; Leedy & Ormrod, 2005; Patton, 2002). The qualitative approach seeks to

understand phenomenon’s effect on an individual and is appropriate for phenomenon that

does not yet have standardized measurement instruments (Clark, 2005; Patton, 2002).

Creswell (2009) wrote:

Qualitative research is exploratory and useful when the researcher does not know

the important variables to examine. This type of approach may be needed because

the topic is new, the topic has never been addressed with a certain group of

people, or existing theories do not apply with the particular group or sample under

study. (p. 18)

The data collected from a qualitative study may provide insight into the human

relations and social connectivity of social media; as Flick (2002) noted, a qualitative

approach is best utilized for social situations. According to Creswell (2007), qualitative

research empowers people to share their perspective, which provides insight into the

experiences of the participants.

Creswell (2007) stated that qualitative research can be holistic and serves to “gain

a comprehensive and complete picture of a social group” (p. 243). Researchers who

analyze qualitative data seek to understand a phenomenon or social group collectively

(Patton, 2002). “The holistic approach assumes that the whole is understood as a complex

system that is greater than the sum of its parts” (Patton, 2002, p. 59).

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Burns and Grove (2001) believed that qualitative research is best viewed from a

holistic viewpoint, as there is not one reality, nor is reality the same for all participants. In

fact, they believe reality is based upon perception and a person’s knowledge is only

definable within a given context. The qualitative approach is appropriate for identifying

social media strategies that advance organizational change, as these strategies may be

based on perception and change in differing contexts. Social media, as defined in this

study, incorporates many technological platforms and will be best understood from a

holistic perspective.

Qualitative research uncovers data that is personal and detailed, and the findings

of qualitative research are strong in validity as a result of the focus on contextual personal

perspective (Norwood, 2000). This study was conducted through narrative research in

order to obtain results that reflect the personal and social components of social media.

Leedy and Ormrod (2005) noted that narrative research is a mode of qualitative research

that focuses on the experiences of the participants in the study. Creswell (2007) stated,

“Narrative research is best for capturing the detailed stories…of a small number of

individuals” (p. 55). Patton (2002) stated, “Personal narratives, family stories…reveal

cultural and social patterns through the lens of individual experiences” (p. 115). Narrative

research comes from sociology and humanities and is defined as uncovering the meaning

in people’s lives through personal narrative or storytelling (Daiute & Lightfoot, 2004).

Linde (2001) wrote:

A narrative is a representation of past events in any medium: narratives can be

oral, written, filmed or drawn.…Oral stories are extremely important and nearly

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unrecognized in every form of social institution from the informal group to the

most formal organization. (p. 4)

According to Creswell (2007), narrative research enables collaboration between

the researcher and the participant. Narrative research “tells the story of individuals

unfolding in a chronology of their experiences, set within their personal, social, and

historical context, and including the important themes in those lived experiences”

(Creswell, 2007, p. 57). Creswell concluded that narrative analysis should focus on

collecting stories of participants based on their experiences and organizing those stories

into conceptual themes.

Linde (2001) stated that narrative and storytelling is important to organizational

change, because “stories provide a bridge between the tacit and the explicit, allowing

tacit social knowledge to be demonstrated and learned” (p. 5). Denning (2006) believed

that a story can enlighten people within an organization and provide a clear vision of the

future. P. Bate (2004) found that storytelling enhances the entire change process, as it

assists organizations in building a sense of community, offering feedback, and motivating

staff for change.

Dynamic Narrative Approach. In order to gather the stories of the participants,

the DNA was utilized. Hyatt (2011) stated, “The DNA is a contemporary research

method intended to engage the past and present to inform the future” (p. 11). This

approach to research inquiry is founded on the ancient form of linked narrative, Renga, a

collaborative storytelling technique that allows participants to build their narrative on the

previous participant. Storytelling is at the heart of narrative research (Boje, 2001; Patton,

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2002; Pinnegar & Daynes, 2006), and the DNA encourages participants to share their

perspective while maintaining a link to other participants.

DNA is built on the notion of narrative inquiry, including naturalism, inductive

analysis, emergent design, interpretive inquiry, and holistic findings (Hyatt, 2011).

Qualitative research is collected in a setting that is comfortable to the participants and

cultivates the issue being researched. In the natural setting, participants are able to freely

offer perspective and behave within the desired context (Creswell, 2007). DNA helps the

researcher to collect data virtually in a social media environment, such as a wiki (Hyatt,

2011). This methodology is pertinent to uncovering social media strategies to advance


Qualitative research is organized into themes or categories based upon the

information provided by the participants (Creswell, 2007). The DNA approach links the

data provided by the participants, similar to a Renga, through the use of the research

questions (Hyatt, 2011). This notion of DNA also ties into the emergent design of

qualitative research. “As in other forms of Renga, responses are inherently linked by the

questions that allow for emergent themes” (Hyatt, 2011, p. 13). According to Creswell

(2007), research plans must be flexible for data to emerge and participants to share

information based upon the emerging themes. The emergent design strategy of qualitative

research enables different themes to be pursued as they emerge, which creates flexibility

and, as Patton (2002) stated, “openness to adapting inquiry as understanding deepens

and/or situations change” (p. 40).

The DNA also provides for a holistic account from the data collected in regard to

the research questions, because it creates an environment that fosters multiple

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perspectives and the interaction of data. Qualitative research identifies the complex

interaction of factors in a situation as opposed to the cause-and-effect relationship

(Creswell, 2007). The DNA, as a research method, fosters collaboration and allows the

participants to view each other’s responses. Collaboration involves the participant in the

research process, which creates a level of emotional investment in the research findings.

The DNA employs open interview questions as the links for participants’

responses (Hyatt, 2011). Patton (2002) stated, “Interviews yield direct quotations from

people about their experiences, opinions, feelings, and knowledge” (p. 4). Open interview

instruments differ from closed interview instruments in that respondent’s answers must

fit within the realm of the researcher’s preconceived categories. “The fundamental

principle of qualitative interviewing is to provide a framework within which respondents

can express their own understandings in their own terms” (Patton, 2002, p. 348).

The benefits for utilizing the Dynamic Narrative Approach as a research method

for determining the social media strategies to advance organizational change are as

follows: Creating a natural setting, collaborating with the participants, allowing for

emergent themes, and creating a holistic account. The interview process should yield data

that result in meaningful findings for the researcher and future research. When examining

qualitative approaches to research, the DNA research method best fits the objectives of

this study.

Purpose and Research Questions

The purpose of this study is to explore the social media strategies that advance

organizational change. There is much literature describing the difficulty of change and

the rise of social media (Burke, 2008; Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010; Kim & Mauborgne,

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2003; Nielsen, 2008; Pettigrew et al., 2001). According to Luecke (2003), managing

change is required for survival in the business environment, and a concern noted in the

literature is the identification of strategies to facilitate and advance change (Burnes, 2004;

Kotter, 1996; Luecke, 2003). Social media may provide the platform necessary to

improve communication and encourage relationship building (Cross & Parker, 2004). In

addition, the secondary purpose of this study addresses the gap in literature by examining

the relationship between social media strategies and organizational change. This research

study is based upon the following research questions:






Sources of Data

The population of this study was organizational leaders who utilize social media

strategies in a professional capacity. The participants in this study were selected from this

population in order to create a qualifying sample. Through maximum variation sampling,

participants were selected from a diverse criteria, including industry, gender, geographic

area, and size of organization. The researcher selected 15 leaders to participate in the

study that meet the following criteria:

• Have a minimum of 1-year experience within an organization

• Hold a leadership position within the organization as designated by title (e.g.,

chief executive officer, vice president, or director).

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• Are familiar with and have utilized social media, as defined in this study, in a

professional capacity for at least 1 year.

Participants were selected using the snowballing technique. Patton (2002) stated

that snowballing “is an approach for locating information-rich key informants or critical

cases” (p. 237). Snowballing is used to identify potential participants who also meet the

criteria through referrals from existing participants (Norwood, 2000; Yip, Myrtle, Wilber,

& Grazman, 2002). Lincoln and Guba (1985) stated, “In this form of sampling one

identifies, in whatever way one can, a few members of the phenomenal group one wishes

to study. These members are used to identify others, and they in turn others” (p. 233).

In regard to sample size, Creswell (2007) noted, “In narrative research, I have

found many examples with one or more individuals unless a larger pool of participants is

used to develop a collective story” (p. 126). Norwood (2000) noted that sample sizes

between six and 10 participants are most common for qualitative studies, and a large

sample may be detrimental. Crabtree and Miller (1999) researched many different

qualitative studies and concluded that “five to eight data sources or sampling units will

often suffice” (p. 42). Small samples are effective for this type of research, allowing the

researcher to discover emerging themes, while maintaining organization of the data

(Patton, 2002). The quality of the research and saturation of the topic is deemed most

important over the number of participants (Norwood, 2000).

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Protecting Human Subjects

It is imperative to protect the wellbeing and confidentiality of human participants.

The study of human subjects requires that the research be reviewed by the Institutional

Review Board (IRB) to prevent any possible harm (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005). An IRB is

charged with protecting human subjects during the collection of data for research. In the

United States, IRBs are governed by the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 45 Part 46,

160 and 164 (Pepperdine University, IRB, 2009). Pepperdine University holds a policy

that states, “All research involving human participants/subjects must be conducted in

accordance with accepted ethical, federal, and professional standards for research and

that all such research must be approved by one of the university’s Institutional Review

Boards” (p. 7). Therefore, this study will comply with the policy set forth by Pepperdine

University as well as the regulations included in the Belmont Report (United States

Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 2010).

Pepperdine University, IRB (2009) stated, “The primary objective of the

Pepperdine University IRBs is to protect the welfare and dignity of human subjects” (p.

7). Accordingly, the Belmont Report states basic ethical principles that are the guide for

any evaluation involving human subjects. These principles of (a) respect of persons, (b)

beneficence, and (c) justice are mandated ethical doctrines that serve to protect human

subjects (United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 2010).

Respect for persons. Respect for persons includes the ethical considerations for

human participants. The United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare

(2010) states that this principle includes “first, that individuals should be treated as

autonomous agents, and second, that persons with diminished autonomy are entitled to

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protection” (Part B, para. 2). This requires researchers to respect participant’s opinions

and choices, while refraining from thwarting actions unless harmful to others. In this

study, the researcher will ensure that the perspective of the participants is accepted. The

participants will also voluntarily participate in the study with the right to withdraw at any

time.

Participants were given information regarding the study and asked to voluntarily

consent to participate. According to Creswell (2007), a consent form should include:

• The right of participants to voluntarily withdraw from the study

• The central purpose and procedures of the study

• Protection of confidentiality

• Risks associated with the study

• Expected benefits

• Signature of the participants and researcher.

Informed consent provides the participants with the knowledge necessary to make

informed decisions (Faden, Beauchamp, & King, 1986). A copy of the consent form for

this study is located in Appendix A.

Beneficence. According to the United States Department of Health, Education,

and Welfare (2010), beneficence comprises two general rules: (a) do not harm, and (b)

maximize possible benefits and minimize possible harms. In order to affectively apply

beneficence, the researcher must have an altruistic mentality and focus on a utilitarian

ethical stance (Hinman, 2008). In this study, the researcher did everything possible to

maximize the benefits of the study and minimizing the potential risks while interviewing

the participants.

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Norwood (2000) noted that beneficence includes fostering an environment for the

participants that is “free of exploitation” (p. 60). Participant identity is confidential, and

the researcher strove to maintain a collaborative and effective research environment. The

informed consent form notes the importance of beneficence and outlines the rights and

risks of the participants. According to Hinman (2008), all people have the right to make

an informed decision.

Justice. The final principle, as noted by the United States Department of Health,

Education, and Welfare (2010), is justice. Justice denotes that the benefit and risk of a

study be distributed equally and fairly. There are accepted manners to which the benefits

and risks of a research study should be allocated “(1) to each person an equal share, (2) to

each person according to individual need, (3) to each person according to individual

effort, (4) to each person according to societal contribution, and (5) to each person

according to merit” (United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 2010,

para. 11).

For purposes of this research, all participants were selected based upon the criteria

designated to provide meaningfulness to the study. All participants received the same

information in regard to benefits and risks of the study. The participants’ privacy was

protected through confidentiality. The names of the participants are pseudonyms to

protect the privacy of the individuals and their respective organizations (Norwood, 2000).

Prior to any research being conducted on human subjects, Pepperdine University

requires researchers to complete the Protecting Human Research Participants online

course provided by the National Institute of Health Office of Extramural Research. This

course was completed and the certificate of completion is located in Appendix B.

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Data Collection

Creswell (2007) stated that purposeful sampling will be used in this qualitative

study in order to resolutely “inform an understanding of the research problem and central

phenomenon in the study” (p. 125). A maximum variation sampling strategy was utilized.

The purpose of a maximum variation sampling is to “document diverse variations and

identify important common patterns” (Creswell, 2007, p. 127) in the data. Maximum

variation sampling is a popular methodology in qualitative research, because it

maximizes the diversity of the participants before the research begins in order to produce

diversity of perspective and findings once the research is conducted. The maximum

variation approach “consists of determining in advance some criteria that differentiate the

sites or participants, and then selecting sites or participants that are quite different based

on the criteria” (Creswell, 2007, p. 126). The criteria for participation in this study are a

minimum of 1 year experience in an organization, a leadership position, and experience

with social media, as defined in this study, in a professional capacity for at least 1 year.

The Dynamic Narrative Approach was employed utilizing an interview

instrument with semistructured questions. In qualitative research, semistructured

interview questions are built on a conceptual framework and utilized to explore specific

themes (Patton, 2002). Semistructured interview questions are best utilized when

interviewing a diverse group of people. It will help to “make interviewing a number of

different people more systematic and comprehensive by delimiting in advance the issues

to be explored” (Patton, 2002, p. 343).

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The DNA comprises several steps:

1. Participants are selected based upon criteria as noted in the study.

2. Participants voluntarily consent to participate.

3. Confidentiality is protected by obfuscating the participants.

4. The researcher poses interview questions in a virtual and secure format, such

as a wiki.

5. Participants are numerically ordered.

6. Participants continually have access to their responses for verification.

The DNA helps to minimize researcher bias by using technology to deliver the interview

questions. The DNA method also encourages participation by offering an accessible

forum for open participation (Hyatt, 2011).

The interview instrument was designed to elicit participation and responses

relative to the research questions of this study. This study seeks to explore the social

media strategies to advance organizational change. An interview instrument was utilized

to uncover emerging themes and promote collaboration among the participants.

According to Leedy and Ormrod (2005), qualitative interviews seek to understand the

perspective of the participants and the interview questions should elicit these

perspectives.

The interview instrument was based upon the following principles of effective

interviews as noted by Creswell (2007), Eisner (1991), and Leedy and Ormrod (2005):

• Ensure the participants meet the criteria

• Develop a comfortable environment

• Obtain written permission from the participants

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• Record responses verbatim

• Minimize researcher reaction.

The interview instrument allow for ample response to each question in order to elicit the

experiences of the leaders in the study. The interview protocol is available in Appendix

C.

Validity and Reliability

Validity and reliability are measures of appraisal for qualitative research

(Creswell, 2007). According to Delattre, Ocler, Moulette, and Rymeyko (2009), research

that is valid and reliable requires a “question be asked with regard to the type of approach

chosen by the researcher and the kind of knowledge produced” (p. 35). This question

refers to testing the validity and reliability of a research study.

Validity. According to Creswell (2007) “validation in qualitative research is an

attempt to assess the accuracy of the findings” (p. 206). Validation is a process rather

than an end state that is specific to each research study. Lincoln and Guba (1985)

believed that validity in regard to qualitative research, should be viewed on a naturalistic

level and used the following terms: credibility, transferability, dependability, and

confirmability. Eisner (1991) believed that validating a study requires judging the

credibility of the qualitative research.

Within the realm of validity is the notion of face validity, which is the extent to

which an instrument seeks to determine specific content. Anastasi (1976) noted that face

validity answers the questions, “on the face of things, does this research make sense?’’

(p. 139). According to Patton (2002), face validity is the “ultimate test” (p. 561) of

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research, as it uncovers whether “the results connect to how people understand the world”

(p. 561).

Another important form of validation is content validity. Gaber and Gaber (2010)

stated, “Content validity is concerned with the extent to which the items identified in the

study reflect the domain of the concept being measured, while face validity is concerned

with the relevance of the overall completed study” (p. 139). Content validity ensures that

the instrument is reflective of the content of the research (Patton, 2002). Gaber and Gaber

(2010) wrote:

The sequential application of these two tests [face and content validity] is

intuitively logical since content validity focuses on the appropriateness of the

identified research items before the investigation has started and face validity is

concerned with the overall relevance of the research findings after the study has

been completed. (p. 140)

To establish content validity, the interview instrument was reviewed by a panel of

experts. The panel of experts reviewed the interview questions to determine whether they

would yield data to inform the study. These experts are knowledgeable in the area of

research. A package was sent, including a letter outlining the request, an abstract for

contextual purposes, and a review form for submitting feedback. This Expert Panel

Review information is available in Appendix D.

Validation is many times interpretive in qualitative research and depends on the

subjectivity of the researcher and the area of study (Creswell, 2007). The results of the

study are presumed to be true if the instrument is validated (Norwood, 2000). Creswell

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(2007) believed that a researcher should utilize a validation strategy in order to document

the accuracy of the study, such as:

• Allocate adequate time for research of the literature and research in the field,

thus the researcher can make decisions about the salient points of the study.

• Verify responses with the participants through member checks to ensure

accuracy of response.

• Engage in a peer review for researchers to debrief and debate the methods or

findings.

The noted validation strategies above provided a guide for this research. Sufficient time

was allotted for the literature review, and the interview instrument is founded in the

literature and conceptual framework. Participants were also able to verify their responses

for member checks throughout the interview process via the DNA. Finally, the interview

instrument was reviewed by a panel of experts to discuss the interview questions.

Reliability. Reliability varies based on the study; however, reliability is focused

on the results of the instrument. Rust and Cooil (1994) stated, “Reliability measurement

of qualitative data is important to determine the stability and quality of the data obtained”

(p. 1). According to Creswell (2007), reliability can be achieved through ensuring

accurate transcription and coding the data. Reliability ensures consistency in the results

of the research and can be achieved through ensuring consistency of the delivery of the

instrument (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005). For the purposes of this study, the interview

questions were all delivered via a password-protected wiki based upon the DNA. This

ensures each participant receives the same information in a standardized format and the

participants provide an accurate transcription.

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Internal consistency reliability is the ability of the instrument to yield similar

results within a particular section or category (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005). This study seeks

to ensure internal consistency reliability by grouping the interview questions within the

password-protected wiki by the overall research question.

Interrator reliability provides reliability based on continuity of data analysis. It

requires two or more people to review the results in an effort to provide consistency

(Leedy & Ormrod, 2005).

According to Norwood (2000), there are specific strategies a researcher can apply

to enhance the reliability of the study. First, purposive sampling should be utilized to

ensure the participants fit the criteria of the study. Next, adequate time must be provided

to the participants to fully understand and exhaust each researched item. Third,

information is available to the participants to ensure accuracy. Finally, interrator and

intrarator checks are important to ensure that the researcher and another person verify the

results.

Researcher Issues

Role of the researcher. Qualitative research is different than that of quantitative,

as the researcher plays a primary role in the research process (Creswell, 2007; Patton,

2002). Creswell (2007) stated, “Qualitative researchers collect data themselves through

examining documents, observing behavior, and interviewing participants. They may use a

protocol—an instrument for collecting data—but the researchers are the ones who

actually gather the information” (p. 38).

The role of the researcher in narrative inquiry is especially critical because the

researcher collects information about the participants and must understand the context of

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their contribution. Creswell (2007) stated, “It takes a keen eye to identify in the source

material gathered the particular stories that capture the individual’s experiences” (p. 57).

Considering the potential for researcher bias, reflexivity in qualitative research is

essential. Creswell (2007) stated that reflexivity “means that the writer is conscious of the

biases, values, and experiences that he or she brings to a qualitative research study” (p.

244). Fawcett and Hearn (as cited in Siltanen, Willis, & Scobie, 2008), stated,

“Reflexivity is seen as being ‘constitutive’ of sense-making research practices and of the

selves involved in these activities” (p. 48).

Patton (2007) noted that a researcher achieves reflexivity in qualitative research

by asking the following questions: (a) What do I know? (b) How do I know what I know?

(c) What shapes and has shaped my perspective? (d) With what voice do I share my

perspective? Patton (2007) noted “Any credible research strategy requires that the

investigator adopts a stance of neutrality with regard to the phenomenon under study” (p.

51).

According to Potter (1996), there are three strategies to ensure reflexivity. The

first strategy is articulating decisions or highlighting the context of the research with a

conceptual framework. Second, Potter suggested conscious reflection, which includes

reviewing the data and recognizing potential limitations. Finally, the third strategy

involves illuminating biases, “so that the reader can be forewarned about the author’s

perspective” (Potter, 1996, p. 190). In this study, a conceptual framework as well as

potential limitations and personal bias are presented.

Statement of personal bias. The researcher is a leader in her organization and

understands and uses social media. The researcher will make every effort to mitigate

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biases. Reflexivity, or the emphasis on self-awareness, is important to personal bias, as it

requires accountability of one’s own perspective (Patton, 2002). “The principle is to

report any personal and professional information that may have affected data collection,

analysis, and interpretation” (Patton, 2002, p. 566).

Data Analysis

Analyzing the data in qualitative research is challenging because of the

uniqueness of each study and the importance of organization of the information (Patton,

2002). Creswell (2007) stated, “Data analysis in qualitative research consists of preparing

and organizing the data for analysis, then reducing the data into themes through a process

of coding” (p. 148). Miles and Huberman (1994) recommended building a logical chain

of evidence by creating categories of information. Madison (2005) noted that it is

important to identify prominent patterns and reduce the amount of codes. Wolcott (1994)

believed that a researcher should contextualize the themes found in the data from the

conceptual framework founded in the literature.

Data analysis will follow Creswell’s (2007) recommended data analysis phases

based upon the narrative research approach: Data managing, reading, describing,

classifying, interpreting, and representing. During the data-managing phase, the

information from the transcripts was organized. The researcher moved into the reading

phase and read the transcripts thoroughly. The researcher looked for specific information,

such as stories. Once the results were collected, the researcher coded the information into

themes, as in the describing phase. According to Creswell, qualitative research many

times moves beyond coding into classification. “As a popular form of analysis,

classification involves identifying five to seven general themes” (p. 153).

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In order to ensure reliability of the data, a second rater was identified and taught

the coding methodology for review. The second rater was familiar with qualitative

research and received Chapters 1 through 3 of the study for contextual alignment. The

researcher and second rater met to ensure understanding of the study and to discuss

questions or concerns.

During the classification phase, codes from A through O were assigned to each of

the participant transcripts to ensure confidentiality. No two letters were utilized twice.

The second rater and researcher reviewed and code the first transcript. The researcher and

second rater each coded the first transcript and then met again to confirm consistency,

analyze data, and discuss themes. This led the researcher into the interpreting phase. The

researcher and second rater reviewed and came to a consensus regarding the themes.

Once consensus was reached, the researcher and second rater independently reviewed the

remaining transcripts. If a consensus could not be reached as to the themes of the

transcripts, then the researcher’s advisor was consulted. Data are displayed both textually

and graphically.

Summary

This chapter discussed the nature and design of the research study. This is a

qualitative study that seeks to reveal the social media strategies that advance

organizational change. Generally speaking, qualitative research is the study of a research

problem surrounding a social or human issue utilizing a theoretical framework and

perspective (Creswell, 2007). Research topics, such as social media, that do not yet have

a significant academic research or literary contribution are best suited for qualitative

research (Creswell, 2007; Patton, 2002).

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This chapter discussed the sources of data, collection strategies, and sampling

methods. The role of the researcher was reviewed, including the statement of personal

bias. The research questions that drive the purpose of this study, exploring social media

strategies to advance organizational change, were reviewed. Adherence to the Pepperdine

University policy and federal policy of protecting human subjects was discussed along

with the validity and reliability of the instrumentation. Finally, the analysis of the data

was proposed.

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Chapter 4: Analysis of the Findings

The purpose of this study is to explore the social media strategies that advance

organizational change. Chapter 4 reviews the data collected in this research study. This

study used the DNA, incorporating an interview instrument with semistructured

questions. Organizational leaders who met the criteria served as the sample of this study.


This chapter begins with an overview of the research. Next, the profiles of the

participants are reviewed. Data collection strategies are presented followed by an

overview of the analysis of data. Finally, the data is displayed by research question

followed by a summary.

Overview

There is much literature describing the difficulty of change and the rise of social

media (Burke, 2008; Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010; Kim & Mauborgne, 2003; Nielsen, 2008;

Pettigrew et al., 2001). According to Luecke (2003), managing change is required for

survival in the business environment, and a concern noted in the literature is the

identification of strategies to facilitate and advance change (Burnes, 2004; Kotter, 1996,

Luecke, 2003).

Study Purpose and Research Questions

The purpose of this study was to explore the social media strategies that advance

organizational change. Social media may provide the platform necessary to improve

communication and encourage relationship building (Cross & Parker, 2004). In addition,

the secondary purpose of this study was to address the gap in literature by examining the

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relationship between social media strategies and organizational change. This research

study was based upon the following research questions:






Participant Profiles

The study consisted of 15 organizational leaders who met the following criteria:

(a) Have a minimum of 1 year experience within an organization, (b) Hold a leadership

position within the organization as designated by title (e.g., chief executive officer, vice

president, or director), and (c) Are familiar with and have utilized social media in a

professional capacity for at least 1 year. The participant identifying information was

obfuscated by coding the participants (Hyatt, 2011). All transcripts of participant

responses will be in a locked file cabinet for a period of 5 years, at which time they will

be permanently destroyed.

There were six females (40%) and nine males (60%) who participated in the

study. The position title of CEO was held by five of the 15 participants (33%). Tenure

within their respective organizations ranged from 1 year to 35 years. Participant age

ranged from late 20s to early 70s. There were five participants (33%) within the age

range of 25 to 35 years, four participants (27%) between 35 and 45, two participants

(13%) between 45 and 55, two participants (13%) between 55 and 65 years, and finally

two participants (13%) older than 65 years.

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Participant responses were collected from the following industries: governmental

and regulatory, law, real estate, medical, development, financial services, technology,

hospitality, insurance, and organizational development. Organization size ranged from

less than 100 employees to in excess of 85,000 employees.

Four regions were established.

• Western, consisting of Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Idaho,

Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming;

• Northern, containing Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota,

Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wisconsin;

• Southern, which included, Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky,

Louisiana, Mississippi, Oklahoma, Tennessee, and Texas;

• Eastern, which included Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, Maryland,

Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina,

Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Vermont, Virginia,

Washington DC, and West Virginia;

Of the 15 participants, eight were from the Western region (53%), three participants were

from the Southern region (20%), two participants were from the Northern region (13%),

and two participants from the Eastern region (13%). Table 4 outlines the participant

demographics.

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Table 4

Participant Demographics Maximum Variation

Participant A. Participant A is the CEO of a small consulting organization in the

western region. She has been working within the hospitality industry for more than 25

years. Participant A utilizes social media on a number of levels, including a learning

management system for internal social networking, blogging, and information sharing.

Participant B. Participant B is the CEO and founder of an organizational

development and executive coaching firm. He has been working in the industry for more

than 42 years. Participant B utilizes social media as a tool for creating affinity with his

client organizations as well as his team. He also employs social media as a tool for

organizational learning.

Participant C. Participant C is a female CEO of a not-for-profit financial

institution with more than 300 employees. She is more than 65 years old and is from the

Participant Region Gender Industry Organization's

Structure Organization's

Reach Number of Employees

Participant A West F Hospitality Profit Global >100 Participant B East M Organizational Development Profit Nationwide >100 Participant C West F Banking Non-profit California 300 Participant D West M Insurance Profit Nationwide 17,000 Participant E North M Technology/ Data Processing Profit Nationwide 190 Participant F North M Non-profit Development Non-profit Global 160 Participant G West M Government/ Regulatory Profit Nationwide 400 Participant H South M Investments Profit Nationwide 200 Participant I West F Law Profit Oregon >100 Participant J West M Casino Gaming Profit Nationwide 85,000 Participant K West F Real Estate Profit Nevada >100 Participant L South M Computer Hardware/Semi-Conductors Profit Global 14,000 Participant M East M Medical Profit Nevada >100 Participant N South F Financial Services Profit Nationwide >100 Participant O West F High-end Real Estate/ Event Planning Profit Global 3,600

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western region. Participant C uses social media for internal organizational motivators,

staff incentives, and communications.

Participant D. Participant D is a male from the western region who works with

the insurance industry. He has been working with his organization for more than 28

years. Social media is important to his business, as it is utilized to receive product

information and updates, updated campaign or marketing, and organizational training.

Participant E. Participant E is a male executive in the northern region. He is the

CEO of a data processing company that serves a nationwide clientele. Participant E

founded the organization more than 20 years ago and believes social media is a tool for

delivering information quickly. His organization utilizes several social media

applications.

Participant F. Participant F works within a nonprofit global development

organization that employs more than 160 people. Participant F is a male executive who

reaches clients on a global basis. Because of international travel, he utilizes social media

as a communication tool with colleagues.

Participant G. Participant G is a male from the western region who works within

a governmental regulatory organization that employs more than 400 people. He has

worked with this organization for more than 3 years in investigations. He uses social

media on a professional basis to gain information about employees and clients.

Participant H. Participant H is a male senior sales executive in the southern

region and has been working with his organization for more than 5 years. His

organization employs more than 200 people and offers investments and other services to

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organizations nationwide. Participant H utilizes social media for communication and

research as well as a tool to gain feedback and opinion.

Participant I. Participant I is a female partner at a law firm in the western region.

Her firm employs less than 100 employees and she has been working within the

organization for more than 4 years. She utilizes social media for interaction and

communication with her colleagues and clients.

Participant J. Participant J is a senior Sarbanes-Oxley analyst for an organization

that employs more than 85,000 people globally. He is based in the western region and

works within the casino and gaming industry. He utilizes social media primarily as a

research tool.

Participant K. Participant K has been working in real estate for more than 10

years in the western region. Her firm employs less than 100 employees and reaches a

client base on the West coast, primarily Nevada. She is a female executive who uses

social media for networking purposes.

Participant L. Participant L is a male senior account director from a multibillion-

dollar organization with more than 14,000 employees globally in the technology industry.

He has worked for his organization for 13 years and is based in the southern region.

Participant L uses social media primarily within the realm of gaming and networking.

Participant M. Participant M is a male who works within the medical field in a

firm that employs less than 100 employees. He has more than 5 years of experience in his

field within the eastern region. Participant M uses social media for communication

purposes and as a tool to access information.

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Participant N. Participant N is a female CEO of a technology corporation in

Texas. She has worked at this organization for more than 15 years serving a nationwide

client base with more than $5 million in assets. Participant N utilizes social media as a

marketing tool.

Participant O. Participant O is a female director of a global real estate and high-

end event planning organization. She is based in the western region and has been with her

current firm for more than 1 year. Participant O uses social media as a communication

tool.

Data Collection

The research was conducted employing the DNA utilizing an interview

instrument with semistructured questions. The DNA comprises several steps, including

participants are selected based upon criteria as noted in the study; participants voluntarily

consent to participate; confidentiality is protected by obfuscating the participants; the

researcher poses interview questions in a virtual and secure format, such as a wiki;

participants are numerically ordered; and participants continually have access to their

responses for verification.

Purposeful sampling was employed by selecting participants who met the criteria

of the study: Leaders, as designated by title, who have been in their position for at least 1

year and who have utilized social media, as defined in this study, in a professional

capacity for at least 1 year. A panel of experts familiar with doctoral research reviewed

and validated the questions. The interview questions that were reviewed by the panel of

experts were as follows:

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1. How would you describe social media?

2. How do social media produce change in the workplace?

3. What types of social media work best to produce organizational change?

4. How do social media help to build rapport between employees?

5. How do social media encourage employee interaction?

6. How do employees use social media to find and/or clarify information?

Once approval was received from the IRB, a secure wiki provided the platform

for the interview. Participants were able to review, edit, or delete their transcriptions. A

copy of the IRB approval letter is available in Appendix E.

Data Analysis

The data analysis followed Creswell’s (2007) phases for narrative research. The

recommended phases are data managing, reading, describing, classifying, interpreting,

and representing. The data were coded in order to analyze the themes.

The content of the transcripts was organized during the managing phase. The

reading phase consisted of reading the transcripts thoroughly, looking for specific

information and themes. During the describing phase, the researcher and second rater met

to ensure understanding of the study and to discuss questions or concerns.

During the classification phase, codes A through O were assigned to each of the

participant transcripts to ensure confidentiality. No two letters were utilized twice. The

second rater and researcher reviewed and coded the first transcript independently and

then met again to confirm consistency, analyze data, and discuss themes.

Next during the interpreting phase, the researcher and second rater reviewed and

agreed regarding the themes. Once consensus was reached, the researcher and second

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rater independently reviewed the remaining transcripts. Utilizing a second rater to review

data provides interrator reliability through the independent examination and coding of the

data (Norwood, 2000).

Participant Responses

The data is organized by the research questions and subsequent interview

questions. Excerpts from the interview transcripts are included to provide clarity as to the

major themes. Participant letters were used when referencing transcriptions in order to

maintain confidentiality. The data is displayed through text and tables.

Research question 1. Research question 1 inquired: How do organizational

leaders define social media? The subsequent interview question number 1 asked: How

would you describe social media? The 15 participants discussed social media and

identified descriptors and four themes emerged: fostering communication, increasing

efficacy, creating access and building relationships.

Communication. First, 12 of the 15 participants (80%) noted that social media

foster communication. Communication was noted as important between employees as

well as between management and employees. A majority of the participants (more than

50%) utilized descriptors, such as dialogue, informed, technology-based communication,

and sharing content. “Social media is the ability to instantly communicate, collaborate,

and share content with affinity-grouped people anywhere in the organization locally and

world-wide using digital tools (the Internet and i-phones and related devices)”

(Participant B, personal communication, April 22, 2011).

Participants H, K, and N also noted the communicative nature of social media. “I

would describe social media as a tool that allows individuals and various types of groups

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to stay connected, informed, updated and in the loop” (Participant H, personal

communication, April 17, 2011). “It is a new and fun way to communicate within a larger

or small group” (Participant K, personal communication, April 17, 2011). “I would

describe social media as a conduit for a new way of communicating” (Participant N,

personal communication, April 17, 2011).

Both Participant D and F noted a technological component of social media

communication. “Social media is the accessibility of people to each other individually

within a group as well as to the group as a whole through the use of technology-based

communication” (Participant D, personal communication, April 14, 2011). “Social media

is the use of web-based and mobile technologies to turn communication into interactive

dialogue” (Participant F, personal communication, April 15, 2011).

Efficacy. The next theme was nine of the 15 participants (60%) believed that

social media is a tool for increasing efficacy in an organization. The participants used

descriptors such as increasing the speed of delivery of information and changing the way

employees think. Social media was also described as a tool for instant feedback, updates,

access, and communication. “Social media is a revolution in thinking, a way for all

people to be connected, actively or passively. You can actively communicate an opinion

virtually to any subject in the world through social media instantly” (Participant A,

personal communication, April 11, 2011).

According to Participant E (personal communication, April 18, 2011), social

media impacts the efficacy of his entire organization.

When I have to describe social media I try to direct my firm to think about a

template for “speed”—a design or tactic for changing the speed to an answer, the

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speed to a focus group response, the speed to understanding the relevant as well

as the fashionable, and the speed to influence.

Within the realm of efficacy, a majority of the participants (more than 50%)

described that social media are applications available in a virtual environment, whether

online or using mobile technologies. “Social media are online forums” (Participant C,

personal communication, April 15, 2011). “Social media allow users to be connected at

the click of a mouse or a push of a button on a smart phone” (Participant J, personal

communication, April 15, 2011). “Social media is a great way to connect to friends,

family, coworkers, and virtually anyone via the web” (Participant N, personal

communication, April 17, 2011). “I believe social media is anything that has to deal with

Internet-based networking” (Participant K, personal communication, April 17, 2011).

Access. The next theme is in regard to social media creating access for

employees. Of the 15 participants, 10 (67%) noted that social media is a series of

applications that allow users greater access to information. “Social media promotes

connectivity, make anyone anywhere accessible” (Participant O, personal

communication, April 12, 2011). According to Participant A (personal communication,

April 11, 2011), “Social media gives everyone access to information and diminishes

centralized control.” Participant K (personal communication, April 17, 2011) noted that

social media gives direct access to the source of information. “You can login and look

directly at specific users page to get updates and additional information you might need.”

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Building relationships. For the final theme, nine of the 15 participants (60%)

defined social media as a tool that builds relationships. Participant M (personal

communication, April 17, 2011) noted, “Social media is a great way to connect to friends,

family, coworkers, and virtually anyone via the web.” Participant A (personal

communication, April 11, 2011) noted social media allow a user to passively build

relationships with others. “You can passively observe others postings and feel a part of

someone’s life (much like a voyeur who observes silently).”

Participant J (personal communication, April 15, 2011) stated that social media is

the contemporary way to keep in touch and build relationships with colleagues or friends.

“Modern society has evolved interpersonal relationships from having to have an

extensive [Rolodex] of handwritten phone numbers over electronic to being connected at

the click of a mouse or a push of a button on a smart phone.”

Participant F (personal communication, April 15, 2011) believed that social media

provides a “powerful social connection between people that share something in common

such as workplace, school, community, etc. This only adds to the overall appeal, you hear

from and follow the life and times of people you care about and trust." Participant H

(personal communication, April 17, 2011) believed that social media is a “tool that

allows individuals and various types of groups to stay connected."

Table 5 summarizes the characteristics of social media as described by the

participants.

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Table 5

Social Media Defined

Research question 2. The second research question asked: Which social media

strategies advance organizational change? The first corresponding interview question was

as follows: How do social media produce change in the workplace? Several strategies

emerged, including using social media to build transparency by breaking down

communication barriers, develop greater access to information, increase organizational

efficacy through increasing efficiency and productivity, and help employees to build

relationships through employee sharing and collaboration.

The second corresponding interview question asked: What types of social media

work best to produce organizational change? This question allowed participants to give

specific types of social media applications within the realm of public and enterprise

solutions. In addition to the types of social media best used to produce organizational

Participant Communication Efficacy Access Building

Relationships Participant A X X X X Participant B X X X X Participant C X X Participant D X X X Participant E X X X Participant F X X Participant G X X Participant H X X X Participant I X X Participant J X X X Participant K X X X X Participant L X X X Participant M X X Participant N X Participant O X X

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change, there were two themes that emerged among the participant responses: Enhance

employee communication and developing organizational productivity and efficiencies.

Creating transparency. First, nine of the 15 participants (60%) noted that social

media produces change through increasing transparency within the organization and its

employees. This allows the employees to have a greater balance between personal and

professional lives. “Social media can produce positive outcomes if the business

environment is open, transparent, and welcomes free exchange of information. It can also

produce a positive outcome as employees are forced to be more authentic” (Participant A,

personal communication, April 11, 2011). According to Participant B (personal

communication, April 11, 2011), social media creates a work and life balance:

It can also break down the barriers between personal and professional lives. In

other words the people you are trying to engage to lead or support change don’t

checkout at the end of their 8-hr. work day. Although this plus is offset by other

social implications (i.e., the blurring of boundaries for work-life balance) if

managed well, this can help to increase the productivity of change (the rate at

which needed change is identified and implemented).

Participant K (personal communication, April 17, 2011) noted, “I find that you

can figure out exactly what is going on with people within the organization as well as

information from people that directly relate to your company.” Participant O (personal

communication, April 12, 2011) spoke of the connection between employees and how

that erases hierarchical lines. “Working for a global real estate company makes one feel

as though you are part of something bigger, but add social media and the timelines and

status become invisible.”

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Participant D (personal communication, April 14, 2011) noted that increased

accountability is result of the transparency in the workplace through social media:

The exploding participation in social media has brought about a new form of

accountability in the workplace. As more workplace conversations and activities

are conducted via e-mail and internal networking, a new “paperless trail” now

exists for eternity regarding communications that range from a simple remark to

an outline of corporate philosophy. “Watercooler” style conversations expressed

over social media have buried the careers of more than a few employees and

executives.

Building access. Additional strategies found in the transcriptions in regard to

social media producing change is building access to information and research. Of the 15,

11 (73%) noted that social media gives employees the ability to access information

quickly and easily. Social media “has given a central area to congregate to share ideas

and information” (Participant K, personal communication, April 17, 2011). Participant C

(personal communication, April 15, 2011) noted that trust is important in the workplace

in regard to increased access to information:

In this age of Googling everything from directions to times of events so a branch

can decide to let the members know there will be a parade there on Friday from

noon to 2 PM or whatever, I felt as CEO that we should trust until we found out

otherwise.

According to Participant E, social media access can be viral. “Social networks

redefine the importance of referencing simply by the magnitude of extensions and the

frequency of views or opportunities to be viewed” (Participant E, personal

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communication, April 18, 2011). Participant O (personal communication, April 12, 2011)

noted that social media thus “becomes a source for knowledge, information, and

sharing.”

Creating efficacy. Next, 11 of the 15 participants (73%) noted that social media

can create change in an organization by increasing organizational efficacy. A majority of

the participants (more than 50%) used descriptors such as efficiency, productivity, and

redefining resources. According to Participant A (personal communication, April 11,

2011), “Social media also creates increased efficiencies due to greater access to

information more quickly.” Participant B (personal communication, April 11, 2011) also

believed efficiencies and productivity are enhanced through social media:

Directly enabling faster and more effective communication to employees and by

enabling employee groups to coordinate their work and projects so that each can

contribute to the effort, problem-solve dynamic issues, and adjust their own

timing and approach to align with the current status of the total task…if managed

well, this can help to increase the productivity of change (the rate at which needed

change is identified and implemented).

According to Participant H (personal communication, April 17, 2011), social

media “keeps interested parties updated and gives them a chance to participate in various

things virtually, allowing for higher productivity and in some cases lowering costs.”

Participant F (personal communication, April 15, 2011) noted that social media “is a

platform for employees to share ideas and coordinate work efforts.”

According to Participant E (personal communication, April 18, 2011), social

media can enhance the existing corporate resources. “These networks redefine available

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resources, provide interesting test/focus group possibilities, and allow firms to reconsider

how they manage marketing and public relation tactics.”

Participant C challenged the reasoning why some organizations restrict access to

social media. “It is both faster to use online for info and if the info is truly

work/member/employee related—why make it hard to get?” (Participant C, personal

communication, April 13, 2011).

Building relationships. Finally, nine of the 15 participants (60%) noted that

social media can produce organizational change through employee relationship building.

“Social media will produce change in all environments, including business. I believe it

can have a profound impact if harnessed as a social network which engages employees in

shared interests, ideas, training, etc.” (Participant A, personal communication, April 11,

2011).

A majority of the participants (more than 50%) believed social media promotes

sharing. “Businesses can use social media internally by allowing individuals to share

ideas” (Participant I, personal communication, April 14, 2011). “It has given a central

area to congregate to share ideas and information” (Participant K, personal

communication, April 17, 2011). Participant N (personal communication, April 17, 2011)

noted that the central component to social media is collaboration. Along the same lines,

Participant O (personal communication, April 12, 2011) noted, “Social media make

connectivity easier, more accessible, and common.”

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Participant G noted that social media can help employees from different locations

to build relationships, “It can allow employees to interact with other divisions or with

employees in a different geographic region to collaborate and share ideas. As for

producing change.…It can help build rapport in an organization and encourage

interaction” (Participant G, personal communication, April 15, 2011).

Public versus enterprise. The second corresponding interview question asked:

What types of social media work best to produce organizational change? This question

allowed participants to give specific types of social media applications. There are two

types of social media: Public and Enterprise. Public sites are those available to the

general population and can be accessed via the Internet. Enterprise sites are those built

within an organization for the sole use of the employees (Wang & Kobsa, 2009).

Of the 15 participants, 10 (67%) believed that public social media sites work to

produce organizational change, specifically a majority of the participants (more than

50%) noted that a social networking site or a microblogging site, such as Facebook or

Twitter, would be effective in producing organizational change. Participant F (personal

communication, April 15, 2011) stated:

The Twitter feed or blog of the CEO is a great way to let all employees know

what is on his/her mind. This helps the lowest employee on the totem pole to feel

like they understand the priorities of the company.

Participant L (personal communication, April 14, 2011) agreed and noted, “Currently, it

seems that Twitter and Facebook lead the way in social media outlets both positive and

negative.”

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Participant J noted the importance of status-type updates and microblogs. When

asked what types of social media produce change, he responded “Twitter-type feeds

regardless if it is Twitter or Facebook or some other site” (Participant J, personal

communication, April 15, 2011). Participant C noted there are several types of social

media applications that produce change. “Here is a list of things that are part of the social

media: online forums, blogs, social networking, social bookmarking sites, video sharing

sites, photo sharing sites, streaming sites, user reviews, crowdsourcing, content

aggregators” (Participant C, personal communication, April 15, 2011).

Of the 15 participants, 12 (80%) noted that enterprise social media solutions

would be best to produce organizational change. Enterprise solutions refer to any internal

social media applications, such as e-mail, social networks, or blogs. “The old standby e-

mail system seems to have the most utility for organizations to direct their employees”

(Participant D, personal communication, April 14, 2011).

According to Participant E (personal communication, April 18, 2011):

Organizationally designed social networks: (1) Intranets where you push the

social interactions (2) Customer/employee posting and participant sites. Industry

Focused designed social networks: (1) Trade association types, etc. (2)

Professional networks. Marketplace designed networks: Employee preference

where they use their own contacts and company sites in those networks

(researching customers, competitors, etc.).

Participant H (personal communication, April 17, 2011) did not identify specific types of

social media, but rather the important components in social media that will help produce

organizational change:

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Some type of platform where employees, focus groups, user groups, etc. could

interact, provide and receive updates instantly, and share experiences could also

be an excellent tool for various applications such as new product offerings as well

as updating existing solutions. Other features of social media that could enhance

and advance the speed of communication are text and e-mail updates as comments

are posted.

Seven of the 15 participants (47%) noted that both enterprise and public solutions

can foster organizational change. Many of the participants used public and enterprise

solutions in conjunction with one another. Participant M (personal communication, April

17, 2011) noted the following:

Facebook, Twitter, text, and e-mail blasts, online forums, online employee

scheduling, and blog sites are very powerful tools to increase productivity and

efficiency by providing up-to-the-minute updates on meetings, schedule changes,

and updates on current events to provide the most up-to-date information possible

at any given time.

Participant A (personal communication, April 11, 2011) also had a unique perspective on

both enterprise and public social media applications assisting in creating change in her

organization:

Depends on the business. In our business, hospitality, social media allows us to

quickly communicate within groups to get things done. We establish teams that

work on projects for clients and these teams are established on Facebook as

friends. They communicate moment by moment on a project plan—share

experiences in the market, choices for the client to consider, ideas on places to

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hold events, etc. We also have significant e-mail exchange and texting. Social

media has increased productivity significantly as we spend less time waiting for

responses and on the telephone or in meetings. We can instantly update.

Table 6 notes the specific social media specific applications that best produce


Table 6

Social Media Applications for Organizational Change

Communication. In addition to types of application there were two themes that

emerged among the participant responses. First, 13 of the 15 (87%) noted that any social

media application that utilizes communication will help to produce organizational

change. “One good way to change the organization is to solicit input from members”

(Participant C, personal communication, April 15, 2011). Participant G (personal

communication, April15, 2011) noted the following:

Participant Public Enterprise Email Social

Networking Discussion

Groups Microblogging Participant A X X X X Participant B X X Participant C X X X X X X Participant D X X Participant E X X X Participant F X X X Participant G X Participant H X X X Participant I X X Participant J X X X Participant K X X X Participant L X X X X X X Participant M X X X X X X Participant N X Participant O X

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Those that allow for instant feedback, which is most social media. Either through

negative or positive responses, management can learn quickly about the

perception with their workforce. So, management will have the ability to adapt

more quickly to many personalities in an organization. If a company has a

traditional ladder structure, the use of social media between levels will help

flatten the ladder and allow for more direct communication.

Participant I noted that organizations many times do not know how to communicate

effectively. Social media may help employees to communicate more effectively.

“Employees and employers often don’t know how to communicate to each other,

especially in situations where there may be conflict. Providing an outlet for individuals to

voice their opinions, ideas, and possibly concerns is essential” (Participant I, personal


Participant K (personal communication, April 17, 2011) believed that social

media helps employees to build rapport and produce change through communication:

If you view someone’s tweets or updates on their Facebook account, possibly a

deal they did is publicized on LinkedIn, you are able to use this information as a

basis for your next conversation. There are things to use as a “break the ice”

opening comment.

Productivity and efficiency. The second emerging theme is employee

productivity. Of the 15 participants, 10 (67%) noted that there is enhanced productivity

resulting from the speed at which an organization can operate via social media. “Social

media has increased productivity significantly, as we spend less time waiting for

responses and on the telephone or in meetings. We can instantly update” (Participant A,

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personal communication, April11, 2011). Participant M (personal communication, April

17, 2011) noted the following in regard to productivity:

Facebook, Twitter, text, and e-mail blasts, online forums, online employee

scheduling, and blog sites are very powerful tools to increase productivity and

efficiency by providing up-to-the-minute updates on meetings, schedule changes,

and updates on current events to provide the most up-to-date information possible

at any given time.

Participant C (personal communication, April 15, 2011) noted the use of social media

by a celebrity to increase communication thus enhancing efficiency:

I heard Kim Kardashian saying that she asked her Tweet group (Which numbers

over 8mm?!? which incidentally is more than the President of the UA!) to

comment on which name they liked better for her new perfume and why. She was

flooded with return tweets from the very people who will probably buy her new

perfume. Think of the thousands, tens of thousands of dollars she saved on this.

Instead of having a marketing firm do the work of a focus group, survey and all

the time it takes, she had instant, free feedback. Plus there was no expectation that

what someone thought would be THE NAME.

Participant L believed that social media creates efficiency through the speed of

access to information. “Messages that are delivered via any forum can be quickly shared,

commented on, and evaluated by a mass community with both of these, often working in

conjunction with each other” (Participant L, personal communication, April 14, 2011).

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Research question 3. The third research question was as follows: How do social

media promote relationships? The corresponding interview question was: How do social

media help to build rapport between employees? Of the 15 participants, 12 (80%) noted

that social media applications help to build relationships by developing rapport among

the employees, creating affinity, and creating a personal or emotional connection.

According to Participant B (personal communication, April 11, 2011), “Because of the

now available social sharing ‘tools,’ personal elements like, status, location, pictures,

videos, etc., rapport can be quickly developed through association or identified

connection points between employees.”

Participant C noted the importance of using social networking as a tool for

learning about coworkers. “Another side is when you go on Facebook you can learn

things about a person you work with that you did not know before” (Participant C,

personal communication, April15, 2011). Participant G commented about the personal

component of social media. “Employees have the ability to learn more about their

coworkers on social media than otherwise” (Participant G, personal communication,

April 15, 2011). Participant H (personal communication, April 17, 2011) agreed, “It helps

them learn about their coworkers on a personal level and activities they’re involved in.”

Understanding employees on a personal level can create a stronger relationship.

“It affects the relationship at a level beyond a professional one that would normally be

maintained otherwise” (Participant J, personal communication, April 15, 2011).

“Between employees there’s potentially a greater sense of company knowledge and

information sharing internally but also, externally it can lead to insight into a fellow

employee’s personal life” (Participant L, personal communication, April 14, 2011).

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According to Participant O (personal communication, April 12, 2011), with the use of

social media employees can “get to know each other on a deeper lever, say pictures of the

family BBQ that they had over the weekend or their children go to the same school.”

Participant D believed that the access and sharing of information can create an emotional

bond between employees. “An employee using Facebook can acquire and share

information regarding other employees that can bring them closer emotionally, when

such interaction is not suitable or available in the workplace” (Participant D, personal


Social media can help employees to build rapport by revealing commonalities and

connections. “Through social media, our employees are able to develop relationships

with people throughout the country (and globally) with no boundaries.…social media

seems to be a more ‘personal’ connection because interaction is spontaneous, concise,

and constant” (Participant A, personal communication, April 11, 2011).

Participant B (personal communication, April 11, 2011) believed that social

media provides the platform for employees to uncover information they may not have

discovered otherwise:

This open-group sharing would surprise the group members and often create a

whole new perspective on the person or even identify a previously unknown

shared passion or the desire to engage with that person in their activity—a newly-

found connection.

According to Participant D (personal communication, April 14, 2011), employees

want to feel connected to the people with whom they work:

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All employees, no matter what skill or pay level, want to feel some “connection”

to the company for which they work. This connection ranks very high on most

workers “need hexarchy.” Social media can allow employees access to each other

in an informal setting where they can share feelings and ideas that may or may not

be work related. It can be especially valuable in organizations where the standard

work activities may be restricted to a “bullpen” area where employees may feel

isolated from each other. Connecting outside the company media base can be

valuable as well.

A majority of participants (more than 50%) noted that commonalities can create

affinity and stronger relationships. According to Participant G (personal communication,

April 15, 2011), “Employees learn what they have in common and become closer. People

may find out they have mutual acquaintances, which could build even better rapport. It

helps break down the barrier between professional lives and personal lives.”

Understanding these commonalities give employees tools to enhance

communication. “If people have more information and more topics to relate on, then

relationships are established sometimes prior to even having a full discussion in person”

(Participant K, personal communication, April 17, 2011). Participant L (personal

communication, April 14, 2011) concluded that “Seeing that someone is getting married,

has just finished running a marathon, built an extension to their home, etc. can bring a

feeling of knowing someone a bit closer.”

According to Participant M (personal communication, April 17, 2011), social

media helps employees to build rapport through “instant communication, allowing

stronger cohesiveness between colleagues.” Participant O (personal communication,

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April 12, 2011) noted, “SM is one more way for employees to bond…commonalities that

may not have been brought up in regular office conversation.”

Research question 4. The fourth research questions asked: How do social media

promote communication? The subsequent interview question asked: How do social media

encourage employee interaction? Participants noted that social media encourage

employee interaction by breaking down barriers to communication, developing a

comfortable environment, and fostering employee dialogue. According to nine

participants (60%), social media breaks down barriers to communication and creates

cohesiveness among employees. Participant A (personal communication, April 11, 2011)

stated:

Social media allows employees to communicate with each other 24/7. Quips,

abbreviated thoughts, observations are shared in a more informal setting, allowing

all communication styles to engage. You don’t have to be an extrovert to interact.

You don’t have to write well. You don’t have to be politically correct (to a point).

All you need to do is be a part of the group.

According to Participant D, employees feel at ease using social media.

“Employees may feel more comfortable to respond within a large group and share

opinions and ideas when not in a face-to-face situation because they feel a connection to

the group through the social media being used” (Participant D, personal communication,

April 14, 2011). Participant K (personal communication, April 17, 2011) agreed social

media “is a low-pressure place to submit your comments, where you might not get the

same buy in if it is a larger group face to face.” Participant H (personal communication,

April 17, 2011) added, “It also gives them an platform to let their opinions be heard.”

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Participant I (personal communication, April 14, 2011) took it a step further, noting

people will express more in a social media platform than a face-to-face interaction:

People are afraid to voice their true concerns/ideas to others if they have to look

them in the eye. So if there is an outlet that allows employees to express

themselves without that face-to-face contact, it is more likely they will share ideas

that will assist a company’s success.

Participant B spoke about the lack of traditional hierarchy in a social media

platform. “Anyone can get involved with social media even as a bystander—there are no

class-system or traditional communication boundaries for ex., management, and

employees—them and us” (Participant B, personal communication, April 11, 2011).

Participant L (personal communication, April 14, 2011) noted that social media gives

employees knowledge in common to help with in person communications:

Sometimes it’s hard to know how to break the ice with someone on conversations

through the day but as noted previously, knowing what someone has just gone

through or experienced is a nice way to start a conversation and break down

defense walls that may exist.

Research question 5. The fifth research question asked: How do social media

promote access? The interview questions asked: How do employees use social media to

find and/or clarify information? Participants noted that social media is used to clarify

information by providing a platform for data gathering and verification and knowledge

building.

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Nine of the 15 participants (60%) noted that social media can be used for creating

access to information through verification and transparency. According to Participant E

(personal communication, April 19, 2011), social media is used for “trusted resource

verification—querying participants for their experience or references.” Along the same

lines, Participant F (personal communication, April 15, 2011) noted:

Someone may speculate on an issue, but it is very easy to post a link to some

“official” source to bring clarity to the conversation, or perhaps an opposing

opinion. It allows those in the conversation to assess the issues at hand and decide

for themselves what is correct.

According to Participant A (personal communication, April 11, 2011), social

media forces organizations to provide more accurate information because the staff has the

ability to verify:

Social media applications are available for pretty much any interest, any question,

or organizational situation. My observations is that staff now “Googles”

everything. They will verify comments made within the work environment; they

will add value through their instant access to information, and they can do

research independent of instruction. It is our responsibility as organizational

leaders to give them current, relevant, and accurate information so they build trust

in their organization.

This access to information can be helpful for organizations looking to create

efficiencies and utilize managerial time toward strategic projects or creativity. Participant

D (personal communication, April 14, 2011) stated:

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With web search engines, almost any piece of information can be found within

minutes. Even “how to” instructions are available in many areas that can free up

managerial creativity while employees problem solve and deal with issues where

the answers are right in front of them on a laptop. In addition, when faced with a

task before them that requires precision, perhaps a life or death situation such as

an EMT responding to a call, a procedural question, or confirmation could be

answered in seconds using medical-based search engines or a fire department’s

internal networking system.

Summary

The data were collected via a secured wiki utilizing semistructured interview

questions. Data analysis followed Creswell’s (2007) recommended data analysis phases

based upon the narrative research approach: Data managing, reading, describing,

classifying, interpreting, and representing. Emergent themes from the participant

responses were noted within each research question and corresponding interview

question. The data were displayed both textually and graphically.

Interview question 1—How would you describe social media?—produced four

major themes. Social media provides access to information, increased communication,

relationship building, and organizational efficacy. Interview question 2—How do social

media produce change in the workplace?—revealed strategies for organizational change,

including using social media to build transparency by breaking down communication

barriers, develop greater access to information, increase organizational efficacy through

increasing efficiency and productivity, and help employees to build relationships through

employee sharing and collaboration. Interview question 3—What types of social media

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work best to produce organizational change?—revealed the specific social media

applications that organizations utilize to produce change within the realm of public and

enterprise applications. Interview question 4—How do social media help to build rapport

between employees?—revealed that organizations use social media to develop rapport,

create affinity, and develop a personal bond or connection between employees. Interview

question 5—How do social media encourage employee interaction?—revealed the

importance of breaking the barriers to communication, developing a comfortable

environment, and fostering employee dialogue. Finally, interview question 6—How do

employees use social media to find and/or clarify information?—helped participants to

reveal social media is used to clarify information by providing a platform for data

gathering and verification and knowledge building.

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Chapter 5: Results and Conclusions

Organizational change is a difficult reality for many organizations and the pace is

constantly increasing (Burnes, 2004). The pace of change is generated from internal and

external forces (Kotter, 1996; Luecke, 2003). Because of this dynamic, organizational

leaders seek to discover strategies to facilitate change.

In this study, social media strategies to advance organizational change were

identified. Interviews were conducted with organizational leaders from a maximum

variation of industries via a secure wiki employing the DNA.


Chapter 5 reviews the results and conclusions of the research study.

Recommendations are made, and the implications of the research are discussed. The

chapter concludes with a summary.

Background

The environment outside of an organization is constantly changing, thus internal

change management on both the operational and strategic levels of an organization must

occur (Burnes, 2004). Technology and people create a difficult environment for change

(Pettigrew et al., 2001). Organizations must embrace paradox and develop strategies to

facilitate change in order to be successful (Bolman & Deal, 2008).

Balthazard and Cooke (2004) stated that the advancement of change in

organizations will be derived from managing intangible intellectual assets, such as

interpersonal relationships, knowledge sharing, and communication. Organizations

should embrace new technologies, such as social media, that will facilitate the

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advancement of change. Social media can provide this platform through its ability to

engage employees, enable dialogue, and develop collaboration (Safko & Brake, 2009).

From a theoretical perspective, social media promote the building of relationships,

which includes collaboration and sharing (DiMicco et al., 2008; Jue et al., 2010; Kane et

al., 2009; Lackes et al., 2009; Li & Bernoff, 2008; Ou et al., 2010; Shirky, 2008; Smith,

2009; Thevenot, 2007); encourage communication, also referred to as dialogue (DiMicco

et al., 2008; Jue et al., 2010; Kane et al., 2009; Li & Bernoff, 2008; Meister & Willyerd,

2010; Postman, 2009; Smith, 2009; Thevenot, 2007; van Zyl, 2009); and build access for

users (DiMicco et al., 2008; Jue et al., 2010; Kane et al., 2009; Lackes et al., 2009; Li &

Bernoff, 2008; Rettberg, 2009; Rozwell, 2010; Smith, 2009). This framework is based

upon the majority of authors noting these common themes.

Study Purpose and Research Questions

The purpose of this study was to explore the social media strategies that advance

organizational change. An extensive literature review of organizational change and social

media was conducted. Change is ongoing and organizations often need to make radical

changes to strategies and structure (Hannan & Freeman, 1984). Social media are

applications built on the exchanging of information and offer a platform for users to

connect with one another and share (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010). The conceptual

framework of this study reflected the importance of relationship building,

communication, and access.

The study was based upon the following research questions:



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Overview of Methods

This was an exploratory study that used qualitative methods and sought to reveal

the social media strategies that advance organizational change. According to Creswell

(2009), exploratory studies are best utilized when the variables for the research topic are

unknown. “This type of approach may be needed because the topic is new, the topic has

never been addressed with a certain group of people, and existing theories do not apply

with the particular group or sample under study” (Creswell, 2009, p. 18). Qualitative

research examines a research problem surrounding a social or human issue, utilizing a

theoretical framework and perspective (Creswell, 2007). Qualitative research uncovers

data that is personal and detailed, and the results of qualitative research are strong in

validity because of the focus on contextual personal perspective (Norwood, 2000). An

exploratory study using qualitative methods is pertinent to this topic of social media

strategies that advance organizational change, because although there is much literature

on social media’s impact on external business forces, such as marketing, there is limited

literature on social media’s impact on internal forces, such as change.

This study was conducted utilizing the DNA, incorporating an interview

instrument with semistructured questions. DNA helps the researcher to collect data in a

virtual environment, such as a wiki (Hyatt, 2011). Participants were selected for the

maximum variation sample utilizing purposeful sampling and snowballing. The sample

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size was 15. Small samples are effective for this type of research, allowing the researcher

to discover emerging themes while maintaining organization of the data (Patton, 2002).

The criteria for participation in this study were a minimum of 1 year experience in

an organization, a leadership position, and experience with social media, as defined in

this study, in a professional capacity for at least 1 year. Organizational leaders were

selected from a maximum variation of geographic region, gender, industry,

organizational structure and reach, and the number of employees within the organization.

The participant sample used for this study is summarized in Table 7.

Table 7

Participant Demographics Maximum Variation

Interview questions were developed corresponding to each research question and

were reviewed by a panel of experts. Upon review, the expert panel made specific

Participant Region Gender Industry Organization's

Structure Organization's

Reach Number of Employees

Participant A West F Hospitality Profit Global >100 Participant B East M Organizational Development Profit Nationwide >100 Participant C West F Banking Non-profit California 300 Participant D West M Insurance Profit Nationwide 17,000 Participant E North M Technology/Data Processing Profit Nationwide 190 Participant F North M Non-profit Development Non-profit Global 160 Participant G West M Government/Regulatory Profit Nationwide 400 Participant H South M Investments Profit Nationwide 200 Participant I West F Law Profit Oregon >100 Participant J West M Casino Gaming Profit Nationwide 85,000 Participant K West F Real Estate Profit Nevada >100 Participant L South M Computer Hardware/Semi-Conductors Profit Global 14,000 Participant M East M Medical Profit Nevada >100 Participant N South F Financial Services Profit Nationwide >100 Participant O West F High-end Real Estate/Event Planning Profit Global 3,600

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grammatical suggestions, many of which were accepted. The panel came to consensus

and agreed that the questions would yield data that would inform the research.

The interviews were conducted electronically, allowing participants to review

their responses and participate at their own convenience (Klenke, 2008). When

participants have the flexibility to go at their own pace and reflect on their answers, their

responses are more thorough and thoughtful (Handy & Ross, 2005; Klenke, 2008). This

electronic methodology also led to the immediate transcription of the interview response

data (Klenke, 2008).

Once approval was received from the IRB, the interview instrument was delivered

via a secure wiki. Transcriptions were provided by the participants. Participants were able

to review, edit, or delete their transcriptions at any time. The data was collected,

organized, and coded. In order to ensure reliability of the data, a second rater was

identified and taught the coding methodology for review. During the classification phase,

codes from A through O were assigned to each of the participant transcripts to ensure

confidentiality. Data and themes were displayed both textually and graphically.

Results

Fifteen organizational leaders participated in the research study to help determine

the social media strategies to advance organizational change. The original synthesis of

the literature resulted in the development of the conceptual framework: relationship

building, communication, and access. In addition to the themes noted from the literature,

this research study uncovered an additional component to the framework: efficacy.

Figure 1 represents the four frames of social media that impact organizational

change as noted in the literature and research. Each of the four themes is discussed below

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to highlight the literature and research conclusions. The discussion includes social media

change strategies and characteristics of each theme.

Figure 1. Four themes of social media in organizational change

Relationship building. Successful social media strategies incorporate the

building of relationships (Kane et al., 2009; Kasavana et al., 2010; Shirky, 2008).

According to Skoler (2009), organizations require interconnectivity and relationships.

Nine of the 15 participants (60%) noted that social media can produce organizational

change through employee relationship building. Within the realm of relationship

building, the participants noted four major descriptors: collaboration, employee sharing,

affinity, and community.

Collaboration. A majority of participants (more than 50%) noted that relationship

building incorporates collaboration among employees and teams. Participant B noted that

social media is “the ability to instantly communicate, collaborate, and share content with

affinity-grouped people anywhere in the organization locally and world-wide using

digital tools (the Internet and i-phones and related devices)” (personal communication,

RELATIONSHIP BUILDING COMMUNICATION

ACCESS EFFICACY

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April 11, 2011). Participant N noted that a central basis for social media is collaboration.

“Traditional, hierarchical corporate models will have to adapt and become more

collaborative, whether or not they recognize or use ‘social media.’ It’s a paradigm shift

and will impact communication at the most basic level” (personal communication, April

17, 2011).

Collaboration is important to relationship building in the literature, as it is the

notion of people working together to create synergy (Shirky, 2008). According to Shirky,

collaboration in social media is “changing behavior to synchronize with people who are

also changing their behavior” (p. 49). Social media provide a platform for collaboration

and cooperation in organizations (Lackes et al., 2009; Ou et al., 2010; Thevenot, 2007).

Employee sharing. The literature noted that relationship building is enhanced

through employee sharing (Li & Bernoff, 2008; Shirky, 2008; Smith, 2009). A majority

of the participants (more than 50%) described the building of relationships through

employee sharing. Participant B noted, “Because of the now available social sharing

tools…rapport can be quickly developed through association or identified connection

points between employees” (personal communication, April 11, 2011). “Businesses can

use social media internally by allowing individuals to share ideas” (Participant I, personal

communication, April 14, 2011). “It has given a central area to congregate to share ideas

and information” (Participant K, personal communication, April 17, 2011).

Participant F noted, “There is also a powerful social connection between people

that share something in common such as workplace, school, community, etc.” (personal

communication, April 15, 2011). Participant A (personal communication, April 11, 2011)

believed, “Social media will produce change in all environments, including business. I

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believe it can have a profound impact if harnessed as a social network which engages

employees in shared interests, ideas, training, etc.”

Social media provides users the platform to openly share (Li & Bernoff, 2008).

Shirky (2008) believed that social media makes sharing and relationship building

limitless. According to Smith (2009), sharing is fundamental to social media because it

creates a forum for building relationships and knowledge.

Affinity. Participants also revealed that affinity is developed among social media

users. The majority (more than 50%) of participants used words that described affinity in

various ways in regard to social media and relationship building. Participant G (personal

communication, April 15, 2011) noted, “Employees have the ability to learn more about

their coworkers on social media than otherwise.…Employees learn what they have in

common and become closer.” Participant M (personal communication, April 17, 2011)

noted, “Social media helps build stronger rapport between employees because it allows

instant communication, allowing stronger cohesiveness between colleagues.” Participant

O (personal communication, April 12, 2011) added:

I feel the social media is one more way for employees to bond. They get to know

each other on a deeper level, say pictures of the family BBQ that they had over

the weekend or their children go to the same school. Commonalities that may not

have been brought up in regular office conversation.

Participant B (personal communication, April 11, 2011) believed that social media makes

the organization more interactive, resulting in work group affinity:

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The potential is to change the hierarchical model with its disciplined and

predictable communications and interactions into a nonhierarchical organization

that is characterized by people not feeling restricted by old boundaries, taking

initiative, and being innovative regardless of their physical location, work group

affinity, formal position and status, or even expertise.

Christakis and Fowler (2009) noted that social media create an affinity between

employees through the development of connections. They noted that social media helps

an organization to develop networks, patterns, and communities of people. Social media

allow users to navigate the complicated networks to develop commonalities, connections,

and affinity with colleagues. According to Ellison et al., (2007), people who utilize social

media feel a stronger connection to their colleagues. This affinity creates a bond between

employees as a result of the human need for connection (Jue et al., 2010).

Community. Finally, the majority (more than 50%) of participants revealed that a

sense of community is developed among social media users. Participant N (personal

communication, April 17, 2011) believed that a “central basis of social media is

community.” Participant B believed that social media produces organizational change

through developing a social community among the social media users. “Social media can

be used to connect employees with one another, provide transparency to organizational

leadership, rapidly disseminate information, or create a sense of community within the

organization” (Participant B, personal communication, April 11, 2011). Participant F

(personal communication, April 15, 2011) noted:

There is also a powerful social connection between people that share something in

common such as workplace, school, community, etc. This only adds to the overall

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appeal, you hear from and follow the life and times of people you care about and

trust.

Social media inherently develops a sense of community among its users

(Liebowitz, 2007). Developing a sense of community is important to organizational

change, as teamwork and creativity help to facilitate change (Brown & Duguid, 1991).

According to Grubbs (2002), many organizations develop large communities of

employees to help motivate and participate in change. Developing a sense of community

can help achieve change as knowledge and wisdom exist in the people (Holman, 1999).

Communication. Social media enable conversation and provide a platform for

personal and organizational messages (Jue et al., 2010; Kasavana et al., 2010; Stolley,

2009). Organizations can communicate directly to employees regarding their philosophy,

culture, or ethics (Evans, 2008). Of the 15 participants, 13 (87%) noted that any social

media application that utilizes communication will help to produce organizational

change. The participants noted four major descriptors: dialogue, internal feedback,

employee engagement, and transparency.

Dialogue. Within the realm of communication, social media provide an

organization the ability to facilitate dialogue (DiMicco et al., 2008; Efimova & Grudin,

2007; Kane et al., 2009; Safko & Brake, 2009). Dialogue is the exchange of information

between the users of social media applications (DiMicco et al., 2008). A majority of

participants (more than 50%) noted that dialogue was important to social media–led

communication. According to Participant F (personal communication, April 15, 2011):

Social media is the use of web-based and mobile technologies to turn

communication into interactive dialogue. What makes it so unique to me is that it

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is instantaneous and, therefore, is usually more current than news outlets or other

sources of information.

Internal feedback. A majority of participants (more than 50%) noted internal

feedback is essential to communication in regard to social media. According to

Participant L (personal communication, April 14, 2011), organizations can obtain

feedback instantly with the use of social media. Participant H (personal communication,

April 17, 2011) added that social media “forums are an excellent way to research, ask for

feedback about ideas being considered, etc.” Participant A (personal communication,

April 11, 2011) noted:

Whether you use social media directly or simply reference how it has changed the

business marketplace—its influence on every business person should be that

social media templates have shown a whole new way to concentrate markets,

resources, and the feedback loops for every business and social idea.

Social media create a platform for open communication, which allows an

individual to be a part of the change in the organization by getting involved in the

decision-making and feedback process (Heierbacher, 2007).

Employee engagement. Another descriptor noted by a majority of the participants

(more than 50%) is the notion of employee engagement in the organization. Participant A

(personal communication, April 11, 2011) noted that social media “harness the power of

employee engagement.” Participant B (personal communication, April 11, 2011) added:

I would imagine that by definition there is an expectation of participation and that

means content contribution, not just passive viewing.…As employees gain a

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growing sense of responsibility to their social community, their engagement and

interaction with other employees will continue to grow.

The literature also revealed that employee engagement can be accomplished

through social media by incorporating communication, education, collaboration, and

entertainment (Safko & Brake, 2009). According to Safko and Brake, social media

engages employees to be involved in organizational strategy. According to Galagan

(2010), many organizations are building enterprise social media solutions to develop

employee potential. “More companies are providing in-house networking tools for

employees to harness not only their brainpower, but their engagement in corporate goals”

(p. 30).

Transparency. A majority of the participants (more than 50%) noted that social

media creates transparency in the organization. According to Participant A (personal

communication, April 11, 2011), social media can “produce a positive outcome as

employees are forced to be more authentic.” Participant B (personal communication,

April 11, 2011) noted that social media creates transparency by merging the personal and

professional lives of the employees:

It can also break down the barriers between personal and professional lives. In

other words, the people you are trying to engage to lead or support change don’t

checkout at the end of their 8-hr. work day. Although this plus is offset by other

social implications (i.e., the blurring of boundaries for work-life balance) if

managed well, this can help to increase the productivity of change (the rate at

which needed change is identified and implemented).

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Participant D (personal communication, April 14, 2011) stated that social media creates

transparency and accountability:

The exploding participation in social media has brought about a new form of

accountability in the workplace. As more workplace conversations and activities

are conducted via e-mail and internal networking, a new “paperless trail” now

exists for eternity regarding communications that range from a simple remark to

an outline of corporate philosophy.

The literature noted that transparency is enabled in social media by allowing staff

to represent themselves (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010). Enterprise social media solutions are

often built with norms of behavior already established to allow for employees to be more

authentic (Rozwell, 2010). Organizations should also be authentic, as users will be able to

see through any efforts to maintain unrealistic descriptions (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010).

Access. Social media can create a channel for employees to access organizational

information (DiMicco et al., 2008). Of the 15 participants, 11 (73%) noted that social

media gives employees the ability to access information quickly and easily, which can

result in organizational change. The participants noted the following major descriptors:

Interconnectivity, verification, knowledge building, and the blurring of organizational

hierarchy.

Interconnectivity. Within the realm of access, a majority of the participants (more

than 50%) noted that social media provide access that builds interconnectivity between

employees. Participant O (personal communication, April 12, 2011) noted, “Social media

promotes connectivity, make anyone anywhere accessible.” Participant D (personal

communication, April 14, 2011) believed:

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Social media is the accessibility of people to each other individually within a

group as well as to the group as a whole through the use of technology-based

communication devices such as WEB and cellular devices. This accessibility to

each other is enabled by rapidly evolving video, audio, and text capabilities.

The literature revealed that employees who utilize social media tools feel a

stronger connection to their colleagues (Ellison et al., 2007). The interconnectivity

develops bonds between people and builds the value of these groups. According to Hart

(2008), social media “support social interactions and connections with people, as well as

collaboration and sharing” (p. 20).

Verification. A majority of participants (more than 50%) also noted that social

media allow employees the access to verify information. Participant E (personal

communication, April 18, 2011) believed that social media allow users to verify

organizational data. He noted social media is a “trusted resource verification—querying

participants for their experience or references.” Participant A (personal communication,

April 11, 2011) added:

Social media applications are available for pretty much any interest, any question,

or organizational situation. My observations is that staff now “Googles”

everything. They will verify comments made within the work environment; they

will add value through their instant access to information and they can do research

independent of instruction. It is our responsibility as organizational leaders to give

them current, relevant, and accurate information so they build trust in their

organization.

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Knowledge building. Increasing access to information through social media can

also result in development and growth. A majority of participants (more than 50%) noted

that social media creates knowledge building. Participant B (personal communication,

April 18, 2011)noted, “Now social media in the work place allows the next evolution of

this help to find information, learn from other’s experiences, and problem-solve.”

Participant L (personal communication, April 14, 2011) added:

Using certain methods, sometimes dependant on the media outlet in question,

employees may be able to do searches of data or ask direct questions of their

social network. There is a lot of knowledge shared in various locations by both

experts and garage geniuses that can be accessed and assessed at any given time

in a quick, easy, and convenient way.

Social media becomes a channel for employee access to information. This channel

also provides a platform for knowledge synthesis (DiMicco et al., 2008). Social media

also give employees access to additional subject matter experts (Kane et al., 2009).

Knowledge creation and synthesis enhance organizational ability.

Blurring organizational hierarchy. A majority of the participants (more than

50%) noted that social media can blur the lines of the organizational hierarchy.

According to Participant N (personal communication, April 17, 2011), “Employees can

communicate and collaborate in an open environment. Further, it should be a level

playing field where hierarchy doesn’t factor in.” Participant B (personal communication,

April 11, 2011) agreed and stated, “Anyone can get involved with social media even as a

bystander—there are no class-system or traditional communication boundaries for ex.,

management and employees—them and us.” Participant G (personal communication,

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April 15, 2011). noted, “If a company has a traditional ladder structure, the use of social

media between levels will help flatten the ladder and allow for more direct

communication.”

Social media applications help organizations to build users, increase transparency,

and flatten the organizational hierarchy (White & Shirley, 2007). According to White and

Shirley, online social networks can advance change by increasing communication,

developing deeper networks, and increasing employee participation through a less formal

organizational structure.

Efficacy. Once the social media environment is built and utilized, Kane et al.

(2009) noted that knowledge shared and synthesized will lead to additional knowledge

creation and organizational efficacy. According to DiMicco et al. (2008), sharing and

knowledge management can lead to efficacy and learning. Of the 15 participants, 11

(73%) noted that social media can create change in an organization by increasing

organizational efficacy. Within the realm of efficacy are the notions of productivity,

speed, and organizational efficiency.

Productivity. A majority of the participants (more than 50%) noted that social

media provide a platform for increasing organizational productivity. Participant H

(personal communication, April 17, 2011) noted that social media “keeps interested

parties updated and gives them a chance to participate in various things virtually,

allowing for higher productivity.” Participant B (personal communication, April 11,

2011) noted that social media impacts organizational change by enhancing efficacy

through productivity:

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Directly enabling faster and more effective communication to employees and by

enabling employee groups to coordinate their work and projects so that each can

contribute to the effort, problem-solve dynamic issues, and adjust their own

timing and approach to align with the current status of the total task. Also, by

facilitating the identification and recruitment of employees whose talents will help

the organization produce change. Indirectly by causing accelerated adoption of

technology, greater investment in technology, and new rules of conduct for using

that technology.

Organizations should promote sharing among employees, because employees who share

information can increase productivity and the management of knowledge (Qualman,

2009). Growth in existing knowledge banks at an organization can lead directly to

increased productivity (Sullivan, 2000).

Speed. Also within the realm of efficacy, a majority of the participants (more than

50%) stated that the speed of business is increased through social media. The literature

noted that social media applications speed the consumption and utilization of

information. Social media can be content drivers that help to accelerate organizations (Li

& Bernoff, 2008). According to Participant E (personal communication, April 18, 2011).:

When I have to describe social media, I try to direct my firm to think about a

template for “speed”—a design or tactic for changing the speed to an answer, the

speed to a focus group response, the speed to understanding the relevant as well

as the fashionable, and the speed to influence.

Organizational efficiency. A majority of the participants (more than 50%) stated

that efficiencies can be created through social media. Participant F (personal

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communication, April 15, 2011) noted that social media “is a platform for employees to

share ideas and coordinate work efforts.” Participant M (personal communication, April

17, 2011) added:

Social media produces change in the workplace because unlike conventional

methods of hard copy memos and face-to-face meetings, now business owners

and employees of organizations can meet virtually, discuss issues in open online

forums, blogs, etc., saving time and increasing overall efficiency.

Efimova and Grudin (2007) noted that social media can positively affect

organizational efficiency as intellectual capital is uncovered. Social media can unveil an

unknown employee strength or skill set.

Social Media Change Strategies Model

Organizations are faced with an ever-changing environment, thus change

management strategies are critical to organizational success (Burnes, 2004).

Implementing change can be very difficult, requiring employees and management to

collaborate on organizational issues and the overall need for change (Kim & Mauborgne,

2003). This is complicated by the dynamics of people and technology (Pettigrew et al.,

2001). Organizational change strategies of the future will incorporate interpersonal

relationships, knowledge sharing, and communication (Balthazard & Cooke, 2004).

Organizations should embrace new technologies such as social media that will facilitate

the advancement of change. Social media are used in many organizations to engage

employees, develop dialogue, and increase collaboration (Safko & Brake, 2009). As

Kane et al. (2009) noted, “It is time to take social media seriously” (p. 50).

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Based upon the literature review, it was determined that change is difficult for

many organizations (Burke, 2008; Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010; Kim & Mauborgne, 2003;

Nielsen, 2008; Pettigrew et al., 2001). There is empirical evidence noting that technology

can aid in the advancement of change (Nielsen, 2008; Orlikowski & Gash, 1994). Given

the difficulty of change, combined with the rapid rise of the use of social media, the

purpose of this study was to explore the social media strategies to advance organizational

change.

As noted in Figure 2, this research study identified four major conceptual themes.

Social media are fast-growing technological tools that may help organizations advance

change through building relationships, increasing communication, building access, and

developing organizational efficacy. Social media have transformed the way employees

communicate and enable organizational efficacy and relationship building (Jue et al.,

2010). Social media allow users to share and create affinity (White & Shirley, 2007)

while fostering open communication and dialogue (Begole & McDonald, 2008). Social

media also allow users to verify and share data through increased access to information

and people (DiMicco et al., 2008). Figure 2 delineates the four major conceptual themes

for social media change strategies and identifies characteristics of each, thereby providing

a potential model for users of social media in organizational change.

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Figure 2. Social media change strategies model

According to Qualman (2009), social media are revolutionizing employee

networking, interconnectedness, and information sharing. The social media change

strategies and their characteristics as illustrated in this model align with Qualman and can

help organizational leaders to enact change.

Implications

Implications for the field of organizational change. Managing organizational

change is required for business survival (Luecke, 2003). A concern in the literature is the

identification of strategies to facilitate and advance change (Burnes, 2004; Kotter, 1996,

Luecke, 2003). This study adds to the body of literature in regard to strategies to advance

organizational change. Extensive research exists on the components of change

management within an organization (Sirkin et al., 2005). This study addressed the gaps in

the literature in regard to utilizing social media strategies internally within an

organization for advancing organizational change.

Social media is a contemporary research topic for many scholars, and social

media strategies are impacting organizations across the globe (Jue et al., 2010). This

RELATIONSHIP-BUILDING COMMUNICATION

Collaboration DialogueEmployee Sharing Internal FeedbackAffinity Employee EngagementCommunity Transparency

ACCESS EFFICACY

Interconnectivity ProductivityVerification SpeedKnowledge Building Organizational EfficiencyBlurring Organizational Hierarchy

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research study provided a more in-depth understanding of change, which can be useful

for theoretical purposes. Change is a constant force, and social media can help to

facilitate change through the building of relationships, the increase in access, the increase

of communication, and overall organizational efficacy. The Social Media Change

Strategies Model describes the four major conceptual themes uncovered in this research

study and provides a guide to the components of social media that advance organizational

change.

Implications for organizational leaders. This study examined the business

practices and leadership strategies of a maximum variation sampling of industries and

leaders. Their experiences in utilizing social media to advance change was aggregated

with the literature to provide learning for organizational leaders involved in change

initiatives.

Social media are requiring leaders to listen to their employees and engage in

dialogue (Smith, 2009). This dialogue helps an organization to develop open

communication (Li & Bernoff, 2008). Employees often resist change because they have a

different perspective of the organizational change (Strebel, 1996). Organizations that can

create dialogue help employees to understand one another and combat change resistance

through modeling behaviors and aligning values.

Social media also engage employees, which is important in change renewal

(Cooperrider & Whitney, 2007). Communication and employee engagement build

confidence in decision making and trust in the change process (Ncube & Wasburn, 2006).

Lewin’s (1947) second step of the change process involved leaders demonstrating the

change through increased employee communication and employee engagement. Social

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media can provide the platform necessary for organizational leaders to facilitate and

demonstrate change.

According to Li and Bernoff (2008), social media provide the platform to share

information and build relationships. Organizational leaders can use social media to

produce change through increasing transparency within the organization, allowing the

employees to have a greater balance between personal and professional lives. Social

media also helps employees to build relationships with one another, increasing employee

affinity. This relationship building and affinity facilitates employee sharing and

collaboration. According to the Harvard Business Press (2003), an organization is ready

for change if the organization has a high sense of collaboration. Change readiness, or the

organization’s ability to adapt and prepare for change, can be enhanced through the

collaboration and sharing components of social media (Rafferty & Simons, 2006).

Implications for organizations. Change management and implementation is

difficult, requiring leaders to develop strategies to advance change. Organizational

change overloads organizations, creating chaos and resistance from employees

(Abrahamson, 2000). Tactical work on an organizational change project is not completed

through hierarchies or formal organizational structures (Cross & Parker, 2004).

According to Cross and Parker, informal structures, social networks, and communications

are the most effective medium for accomplishing change initiatives. Social media can

provide the platform for organizations to improve communication, information flow, and

interpersonal relationships.

Social media provide the platform to create knowledge, share information, and

create access with users (Li & Bernoff, 2008). Using social media to advance

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organizational change can develop a more productive work environment. Employee

performance can enhance organizational performance through improved access to

knowledge (Voelpel, 2003). An essential component to organizational change is learning

through the exchange and management of knowledge (Agor, 1997). According to Agor

(1997), knowledge is the primary source for organizational innovation and renewal.

Social media provide increased access to employee knowledge, information, and data.

Social media helps organizations to reach out to the employees. People are the

significant contributors to successful change (Abrahamson, 2000; Bolman & Deal, 2008;

Kotter, 1995; Wheatley & Kellner-Rogers, 2000). Social media allows organizations to

connect with the employees and the potential champions of the change. Wheatley and

Kellner-Rogers (2000) stated that change does not occur in “neat increments, but rather in

tangled webs of relationships—networks” (p. 2). Social media allow organizations to

reach out to the employees, build interpersonal social networks, and build effective

relationships.

Researchers note there are many contributing factors to a successful change

initiative, including the use of technology (Holman, 2007; Kotter, 1995; Lewis et al.,

2006). Social media is a technology-driven series of applications that utilize multimedia

and the Internet. Technology is an important consideration for a change initiative

implementation, as it can assist in combating resistance and developing a readiness for

change (Nielsen, 2008).

Finally, organizations can increase efficacy through social media by enhancing

productivity and the speed of information delivery. Efficiencies are created through social

media creating a more effective work environment. Change is an ongoing process, not a

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single event (Holman, 1999). Social media allow for continuous change, which seeks to

improve organizational efficacy (Burke, 2008; Porras & Robertson, 1992).

Recommendations for Future Research

The results of this study are significant, as they provide strategies to advance

organizational change. Although there are meaningful results, there is still a need for

additional research in the realm of social media and change. As in most qualitative

research, the sample of this study was a small group of organizational leaders. Therefore,

collecting data from a larger population may produce different results. In addition to size

of the sample, it could be beneficial to extend this study to leaders from a global

population. This would allow organizations with more culturally or geographically

diverse teams to apply the research or replicate the findings.

This research study used qualitative methods. A quantitative study of social media

strategies to advance organizational change may provide different results or a statistical

perspective (Creswell, 2009).

The sample of this study consisted of organizational leaders, thus providing a

more strategic view of social media’s impact on organizational change. How do

employees view social media? Do employees believe that social media (a) increases

communication, (b) helps to build relationships among employees and with upper

management, (c) increases access to organizational knowledge, or (d) improves

organizational efficacy?

The sample of this study incorporated organizational leaders across all

generations and age groups. A future study could examine the different perspectives of

each generation on social media strategies to advance organizational change.

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Social media applications were viewed by the research participants of this study

in a positive manner as effective strategies for change. The literature noted that social

media has not always been viewed as an effective tool by organizational leaders due to

issues of privacy, trust and organizational productivity (Rooksby et al., 2009; Safko &

Brake, 2009; Wang & Kobsa, 2009). A future study could examine the reasoning and

timing behind the change in attitude toward social media from an organizational

challenge to an effective strategy for change.

Finally, this research study examined social media as a general encompassing

realm of applications. The organizational leaders identified social media applications to

advance organizational change. Future research could examine the impact of social

networks, blogs, or a more specific type of social media on organizational change.

Summary

This was an exploratory study that used qualitative methods and sought to reveal

the social media strategies that advance organizational change. Qualitative research

studies social or human issues, utilizing a theoretical framework and perspective

(Creswell, 2007). Qualitative research is best used to empower people to share their

stories. Research topics, such as social media, that do not yet have a significant academic

research or literary contribution are best suited for qualitative research (Creswell, 2007;

Patton, 2002).

This study utilized the Dynamic Narrative Approach. Hyatt (2011) stated, “The

DNA is a contemporary research method intended to engage the past and present to

inform the future” (p. 11). This study was conducted utilizing an interview instrument

with semistructured questions. These questions were presented in a virtual secure wiki.

168

Maximum variation sample of participants were selected utilizing purposeful

sampling and snowballing. Purposeful sampling was used in this qualitative study, as

stated in Creswell (2007), in order to “inform an understanding of the research problem

and central phenomenon in the study” (p. 125). The sample size was 15, and small

samples are effective for this type of research because it allows a researcher to discover

emerging themes, while maintaining organization of the data (Patton, 2002).

Organizational leaders who met the following criteria were selected for

participation in this study: minimum of 1 year experience in an organization, a leadership

position, and experience with social media, as defined in this study, in a professional

capacity for at least 1 year.

Data analysis followed Creswell’s (2007) recommended phases based upon the

narrative research approach: Data managing, reading, describing, classifying,

interpreting, and representing. In order to ensure reliability of the data, a second rater was

identified and taught the coding methodology for review. Emergent themes from the

participant responses were organized within each research question and corresponding

interview question. The data were displayed both textually and graphically.

The extensive review of the literature combined with the study findings was

aggregated to produce the model for Social Media Change Strategies. The conceptual

framework based upon the literature provided three themes: relationship building,

encouraging communication, and building access for users. The research study identified

a fourth major conceptual theme: developing organizational efficacy.

Implications to the field of organizational change were presented, including the

identification of strategies to facilitate and advance change. This study adds to the body

169

of literature in regard to strategies to advance organizational change by providing a more

in-depth understanding of social media’s impact on change. Implications for

organizational leaders were examined, including enhancing dialogue, demonstrating

behaviors, building relationships, creating affinity, building collaboration, and increasing

authenticity. Finally implications for organizations were examined, including combating

resistance to change, increasing the readiness for change, developing informal

communication networks, building organizational knowledge, and increasing

organizational efficacy.

Social media are fast-growing technological tools that help organizations advance

change through building relationships, increasing communication, building access, and

developing organizational efficacy. The Social Media Change Strategies Model

delineated the four major conceptual themes for social media change strategies and

identified characteristics of each, providing a potential model for users of social media in


170

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APPENDIX A

Informed Consent to Participate in Research Activity

Title of the Study: Social Media Strategies to Advance Organzational Change

Participant: Your participation is voluntary. Your selection to potentially participate in this study is based upon specific research criteria requirements. Your consent is requested to voluntarily participate in this research study conducted by Brandi Stankovic, a doctoral student at the Graduate School of Education and Psychology at Pepperdine University. This project is research being conducted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a dissertation. This study will be conducted under the supervision of L. Hyatt, Ed.D., faculty advisor at Pepperdine University. Purpose: The purpose of this study is to explore the social media strategies to advance organizational change Procedures: Your voluntary participation in this study will involve the following:

• You will be directed to a password protected wiki site to complete the questionnaire.

• Questions will be posed surrounding social media and the impact on organizations.

• You will complete the questionnaire individually, at a time and place of your choosing.

• The password protected wiki allows only the participants and the researcher access to responses but not to identifiable information.

• It is anticipated that the questionnaire will take 30-60 minutes to complete. • Please complete the questions within a two week timeframe. • You will have an opportunity to review, verify, delete or edit your

transcriptions. • The password protected wiki will be deleted once the data is collected. • You will not receive payment for participation in this study. • A summary of the findings will be available upon request.

Potential Risks: The potential risks of your voluntary participation are equal to that of daily life. There are no known risks identified with this study. You have the right to selectively answer the questions or delete your responses. You may withdraw your consent and discontinue participation at any time without penalty or loss of benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. Potential Benefits: The potential benefits of your voluntary participation are contributing the area of knowledge in regards to social media strategies that advance organizational change. You may help to open the door to additional research. This may provide leaders

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with a more in depth understanding of change as well as provide a tactic for organizations to implement. Participation and Withdrawal: Your participation is voluntary. You may withdraw your consent and discontinue participation at any time without penalty or loss of benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. The researcher also has the right to cease your participation in the study. Confidentiality: Your identity will not be revealed and your name will remain confidential. The researcher will take all reasonable measures to protect the confidentiality of your records and your identity will not be revealed in any publication that may result from this project. All data collected from this study will be coded and kept within a locked file cabinet. The confidentiality of your records will be maintained in accordance with applicable state and federal laws. Questions: If you have any questions regarding the research herein described, please contact Brandi Stankovic by phone (619-887-0611) or email ([email protected]). You may also contact L. Hyatt, Dissertation Advisor by email ([email protected]) if you have any additional questions or concerns regarding this research. You may also contact Jean Kang, Graduate and Professional School IRB Manager, Pepperdine University, ([email protected]). Signature of Research Participant: I understand to my satisfaction the information regarding participation in the research project. All my questions have been answered to my satisfaction. I have received a copy of this informed consent form which I have read and understand. I hereby consent to participate in the research described above. Name of Participant: ______________________________________________________ Signature of Participant: ___________________________________________________ Date:___________________________________________________________________ Signature of Researcher: It is my determination that the potential participant has voluntarily signed this document. I have explained and defined in detail the research procedure in which the subject has consented to participate. Having explained this and answered any questions, I am cosigning this form and accepting this person’s consent. Name of Researcher: ______________________________________________________ Signature of Investigator: ___________________________________________________ Date: ___________________________________________________________________

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APPENDIX B

Protecting Human Research Participants Completion Certificate

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APPENDIX C

Interview Protocol

A. Discuss and acquire the signature for voluntary consent from the participants.

B. Once participants have voluntarily agreed to participate in the study they will be

directed via email to a password protected wiki.

C. Questions

1. How would you describe social media?

2. How do social media produce change in the workplace?

3. What types of social media work best to produce organizational change?

4. How do social media help to build rapport between employees?

5. How do social media encourage employee interaction?

6. How do employees use social media to find and/or clarify information?

7. Is there anything you would like to add?

D. Thank the participants. Remind about the timeframe and their ability to verify

and/ or delete their responses.

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APPENDIX D

Expert Panel Review Information

Expert Panel Member Organization Address Dear (Expert Panel Member), Thank you for your assistance in this research study. I am a doctoral student in the Organizational Leadership program in the Graduate School of Education and Psychology at Pepperdine University. Organizations are constantly looking for ways to encourage change and remain relevant in today’s environment. Many organizations are utilizing social media; in fact, social media applications are revolutionizing employee demand, interconnectedness, and economic opportunity. This study seeks to explore the social media strategies for advancing organizational change. Based upon your experience in the research arena, I am asking you to evaluate my interview questions in relation to the stated research questions. This study is designed to elicit the experience of the participants. The purpose of this review is to ascertain whether the interview questions will provide information that will inform the study. Enclosed you will find a form and instructions for reviewing the interview questions. Please complete the form and return to me via email (address) by (date). Thank you for your time, and I greatly appreciate your willingness to provide feedback. If you have any questions, please do not hesitate to contact me by email (address) or phone (number). You may also contact my faculty advisor, Dr. L. Hyatt, at (address). Warmest Regards, Brandi Stankovic

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Instructions: Please indicate the appropriate rating for each question and circle the appropriate response. This will indicate whether you feel the interview questions is (a) relevant (b) not relevant or (c) modification needed. Please feel free to provide additional feedback in the space provided as you deem necessary.

Research Question #1: How do organizational leaders define social media? Interview Question #1a: How would you describe social media? This interview question is: (a) Relevant (b) Not Relevant (c) Modification Needed Modify as follows:

Research Question #2: Which social media strategies advance organizational change? Interview Question #2a: How do social media produce change in the workplace? This interview question is: (a) Relevant (b) Not Relevant (c) Modification Needed Modify as follows:

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Research Question #2: Which social media strategies advance organizational change?

Interview Question #2b: What types of social media work best to produce organizational change? This interview question is: (a) Relevant (b) Not Relevant (c) Modification Needed Modify as follows:

Research Question #3: How do social media promote relationships? Interview Question #3a: How do social media help to build rapport between employees? This interview question is: (a) Relevant (b) Not Relevant (c) Modification Needed Modify as follows:

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Research Question #4: How do social media promote communication?

Interview Question #4a: How do social media encourage employee interaction? This interview question is: (a) Relevant (b) Not Relevant (c) Modification Needed Modify as follows:

Research Question #5: How do social media promote access? Interview Question #5a: How do employees use social media to find and/or clarify information? This interview question is: (a) Relevant (b) Not Relevant (c) Modification Needed Modify as follows: The following space is provided for additional feedback:

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APPENDIX E

Institutional Review Board Approval Letter

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Documents

SOCIAL MEDIA STRATEGIES TO ADVANCE ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE by Brandi L. Stankovic-Rice August, 2011