Social Capital and Sustainable Work:

Evidence from Nursery Schools to Nursing Homes

Carrie LeanaUniversity of Pittsburgh

Center for Health and Care Workwww.business.pitt.edu/chcw/

CMU Tepper September 10,2010

Recent and On-Going Research Contexts with important policy public implications:

Childcare centers Public schools Special education classrooms Nursing homes

In each, “organizational performance” has important implications for the larger society

In each, social capital is a real but under-utilized resource

What is “Social Capital”? Nature and Accessibility of Resources

Embedded in Relationships Multi-Faceted Construct

Structural (pattern of connections) Relational (quality of relationships, e.g., trust) Cognitive (shared meanings and goals)

Multi-Level Theorizing Categorical (attributes of/effects on individual) Compositional (attributes of/effects on collective)

What Makes Work “Sustainable”? Sustainability for the Individual Worker:

Living wage and benefits Personal meaning and efficacy Growth and development

Sustainability for the Organization: Performance Efficient and effective use of resources

Sustainability for the Larger Society: Human capital development Social capital development Economic development

Recent and On-Going Projects: Work process and quality of care in early childhood education.

Academy of Management Journal, 2009 (with Eileen Appelbaum & Iryna Shevchuk).

Crafting work in context: Social and structural moderators of task context on role performance among special education teachers. 2010 (with Brenda Ghitulescu).

Applying organizational research to public school reform: The effects of teacher human and social capital on student performance. Academy of Management Journal, 2009 (with Frits Pil) and on-going work.

A dual driver model of retention and turnover in the direct care workforce. The Gerontologist, 2010 (with Vikas Mittal & Jules Rosen) and on-going work.

Childcare Work: Critical to economic and societal sustainability As currently organized in the US, childcare

system is not sustainable: For Individual Workers

Low pay; low status; poor coordination For Organizations Providing Childcare Services

Increased regulatory oversight but with little attention to the uniqueness of the work (K-5 dream)

Improving teacher human capital may not be enough For Society:

Spotty access and quality, despite clear evidence of benefits

Building Social Capital Through Job Crafting: Job crafting is the active role that individuals play in

altering the boundaries of their jobs & shaping work practice Employee (vs. management) initiated Informal (vs. part of formal job description)

Reflects employees’ efforts to make the job a better fit to her own preferences and competencies

Individual Job Crafting: Individual making changes Collaborative Job Crafting: Working together to make

changes (e.g., “communities of practice”) Effects on performance and work outcomes?

Task/process dependent

Methods: 79 Childcare Centers in PA and NJ

32% for-profit; 11% Head Start 80% state subsidized for low-income children 232 Classroom Staff (146 teachers; 86 teacher

aides) On-site surveys in 3- & 4-yr. old classrooms 95% women; ave. age=38; ave. exp.=4.8 yrs.

Parallel survey measures of individual & collaborative crafting Outside performance assessment by trained

observers

With Eileen Appelbaum & Iryna Shevchuk

Predictors of Job Crafting:

Individual job crafting: (+) Discretion (+) Career orientation (+) Status

Collaborative job crafting: (+) Discretion (+) Interdependence (+) Supportive

supervision (+) Social ties with

peers

Job Crafting and Work Outcomes: For Workers:

Job satisfaction (+) Wages (+) Collaborative crafting

(+1 sd = 13% rise)

(-) Individual job craftingOrganizational

Commitment (+) Wages (+) Collaborative crafting

(+1 sd = 21% rise)

For Organizations:Performance (+) Wages (+) Collaborative crafting Experience x collaborative

craftingTurnover intentions (-) Wages (-) Collaborative crafting Quality of care x

collaborative crafting

Joint Effects of Teacher Experience and Collaborative Job Crafting on

Quality of Childcare

- 1 s.d. + 1 s.d.

Collaborative Job Crafting

Quality of Care

Less ex

perienced

teachers

More experienced teachers

17% increase

7% increase

Joint Effects of Quality of Childcare and Collaborative Job Crafting on Turnover Intentions

- 1 s.d. + 1 s.d.Collaborative Job Crafting

Turnover Intentions

Low quality of care

High quality of care

14% decrease

How can childcare work be better managed? Regulatory oversight must consider

uniqueness of the work (and NOT assume K-5 education model will fit)

Collaborative job crafting changes work process and job boundaries Essential to quality of care and maintaining

quality workers Deliberately informal and invisible

Better performance, stronger commitment Dilemma: How to manage the invisible?

Work as a Teacher in Urban Public Schools Critical to economic and societal sustainability

As currently organized in the US, public school system is not sustainable: For Teachers

Low morale; poor collaboration; stressful work For Schools

Strong public oversight but with little attention to the relational aspects of the work

Improving teacher human capital will not be enough For Society:

Poor quality (by 5th grade, 40% of children lack basic proficiency; 50% don’t graduate high school with cohort)

Structural explanation: Poverty

Process explanations:Why are some teachers better than others?Human Capital: Superior skill, training, and professional development of

teachers lead to better student outcomesSocial Capital: Individual connections to others lead to better outcomes

Why are some schools better than others?Human Capital: Unique skill bundles and contextualized learning lead to

better performance Social Capital: Information exchange, trust, and common goals facilitate coordinated

action, resource accumulation and positive risk taking

Explanations for Success/ Failure in Public Schools

Linking Teacher Human and Social Capital in Schools

Limited capacity to absorb or exchange

knowledge(low learning condition)

Knowledge absorbed but not

exchangedKnowledge

exchanged but of low or uneven

quality

Knowledge absorbed and

exchanged(high learning condition)

Social Capital

Low

High

Low HighHuman Capital

Methods: Nested Data Structure

24,187 student (4th & 5th grade) 1,013 teachers (4th & 5th grade) 239 teacher teams (4th & 5th grade)

Human Capital Measures Experience Ability to teach math (measures by Ball, et al.)

Social Capital Measures Horizontal Ties: strength of ties with peers (frequency

+ closeness) Vertical Ties: Strength of ties with Principal Instrumental Ties (Who do you talk to about math?)

Outcome Measures Change in student achievement scores in math

With Frits Pil

Human Capital Measures: Assessment of Teachers’ Ability to Teach

Math*

0

10

2030

40

50

60

70

% Correct onLMT Assessment

All TeachersMath CoachesLiteracy Coaches

SAMPLE ITEM:Takeem’s teacher asks him to make a drawing

to compare 3/4 and 5/6. He draws the following:

and claims that 3/4 and 5/6 are the same amount.

What is the most likely explanation for Takeem’s answer? (Mark ONE.)

1. Takeem is noticing that each figure leaves one square unshaded.

2. Takeem has not yet learned the procedure for finding common denominators.

3. Takeem is adding 2 to both the numerator and denominator of 3/4, and he sees that that equals 5/6 .

4. All of the above are equally likely.

*Based on University of Michigan Learning Math for Teaching Project (Hill, Shilling & Ball, 2004)

Summary of Significant Predictors of Growth in Math Achievement

StudentPerformance in previous year +Special Ed. Enrollment -Low SES -Student Attendance +TeacherHuman Capital: Experience +Human Capital: Ability +Team Social Capital: Horizontal Ties +Social Capital: Vertical Ties +Cross-Level Teacher x Team Interactions

Teacher Ability x Team Horizontal Ties +Teacher Ability x Team Vertical Ties -

Teacher Human Capital

Team Social Capital

Teacher Human CapitalCombined With Team

Social Capital

Student Characteristics

Ties Among Teachers in Team

Gai

ns in

Stu

dent

Ach

ieve

men

t in

Mat

h

Horizontal Social Capital

Teacher Human Capital

Highest payoff onhorizontal social capital: Teachers with strong human capital

Joint Effects of Teacher Ability and Team Horizontal Ties

Team Ties with Principal

Gai

ns in

Stu

dent

Ach

ieve

men

t in

Mat

h

Teacher Human Capital

Vertical Social Capital

Highest payoff on verticalsocial capital: Teachers with weak human capital

Joint Effects of Teacher Ability and Team Vertical Ties

How Can Public Schools be Better Managed?

Team Context Matters: For high-ability teachers, strong team interaction

results in higher student achievement gains in math. For low-ability teachers, interaction between team

members and principal results in higher student achievement gains in math.

Conclusions: Talk must be centered on teaching math Interaction must be both frequent and close Principal should concentrate their interactions on low-

ability teachers (and leave high-ability teachers alone). BUT high-ability teachers need to be in teams with time

and space to interact to be most effective.

Work as a nursing aide: Critical to economic and societal sustainability As currently organized in the US, eldercare

system is not sustainable: For Individual Workers

Low pay; low status; poor collaboration; stressful work For Organizations Providing Services

Strong regulatory oversight but with little attention to the relational aspects of the work

Improving worker human capital will not be enough For Society:

Poor quality and unstable workforce

Building Social Capital Through Client Relationships

Why do people stay in such difficult jobs? Collaborative job crafting and social capital

But with clients/patients rather than peers Patient advocates Close bonds

Sense of calling Shared religiosity/spirituality Shared identity

Methods: Data Collection:

Observation Focus groups Intensive interviews

Analyses: Qualitative analysis of transcripts Quantitative stance analysis (looking for emotional “hot spots”)

Demographics: Gender: almost all female Ethnicity: 60% White; 34% African-American Age: 65% 40+ years Family status: 69% Single; 40% dependent children Education: 22% high school grads; 62% some post-HS training; 13% college

grads Work Experience:

83% work in nursing homes 83% work full-time 93% certified in field (e.g., CNA)

With Jules Rosen, Vikas Mittal & Emily Stiehl

Findings: Why do people leave these jobs?

Because of the lack of respect for their work: By management and other staff By the larger society

Because the work is managed so poorly Because they are given too much work

Why do People Leave? Lack of respect:

[Administrators] were very rude to the aides. They treated us horribly. I’d like it if there was more respect for aides. Doctors and nurses

should treat us like a partner and rely upon our knowledge of the patients.

There’s not really shame in it, but a lot of people—when you say what you do—they’re like, ‘Oh, you wipe butts for a living. You’re a professional butt wiper.’ That’s how people look at it.

Bad management: They would hire anybody to [be a manager]. I worked in assisted living . . .that place was so chaotic no one would

come in and run it. One time we came in there was all workers, wasn’t no [administrators] in there. I mean, it was really bad for the residents.

Over-work: I feel like I’m doing two people’s work. I struggled to give good care to my patients. I was just given too many

patients.

More Intriguing Findings:Why do people stay in these jobs?

Because they are “called” to help others Because they are advocates for patients Because they have close personal

relationships with residents and families Because of they share religion/spirituality

with patients Because they can relate to patients’ hardship

Why do people Stay? Being “called”:

I get a lot of satisfaction from my work and a lot of peace knowing that I’m doing good for others.

I really appreciate the ‘thank you’s’, the ‘I love you’s” and the gratitude. I feel like I’ve really contributed and accomplished something.

Well, I’ve come out of the job actually very sad at times and wanting to leave and thinking it’s too much. But then I go back because I have so much in common with them and I feel that I’m really good for patients.

Patient advocacy Pretty soon, you’re part of [the residents’] lives, and you don’t want to

stay [for overtime] when you’re mandated, but you do because who’s going to take care of them?

When someone dies, you’re their last support. Patients shouldn’t die alone. There should be more support.

A lot of people don’t respect the elderly. My residents deserve respect.

Why do People Stay? Relationships with residents

I enjoy taking care of elderly that doesn’t have family, and you get involved in them. You do start – after a while, you start loving them.

I want to be the one that’s interacting with the residents and, you know, being able to come in their room and make them smile and make them happy.

Shared religion/spirituality You go in and pray with these people and talk more openly about

spiritual things . . . They’re more open to it at that point, and I enjoy that. I pray a lot. Through my job, as well as otherwise. . . it gets me through

the night shift. A strong faith and my Christian background is absolutely essential.

Shared identity of hardship When I go to work I’m actually in a better mood than I am at home

because I have to be. I mean there’s days I don’t want to go home. I’m humbled by my job when I see my patients go through very difficult

things. It helps me deal with my own life.

Other Intriguing Findings:1. High turnover workers engage in more:

Depersonalization: Some people, those people vs. my residents

Polarization: “Lazy” nurses, “bad” administrators, “whining”

residents Credential comparisons:

Frequent reference to titles Tendency to talk about nursing as a possible job

while at the same time expressing resentment of nurses

Other Intriguing Findings2. Aides informally customize their work – Both

expanding and contracting job scope:

Enhanced medical care (LPN work)Cleaning rooms, linens, etc.

“Work arounds” – lifting aloneShortcuts – bathing; hand washing

Extra touching – hugging; holding handsRespect

Distancing emotionally from residentsAnswering “patient needs” only – not “patient wants”

Reframing: We’re the real expertsRecalibrating: work is special; selfless

Refocusing: Actively downplay negative and emphasize positive

Seeing oneself as family memberProviding spiritual counseling

Me vs. them (nurses; administrators; residents)

Tasks

Emotions

Cognitions

Relationships

Expanding Scope of Job Contracting Scope of JobJob Facet:

Collaborative Job Crafting:

I’ve changed everything for myself. But when the [supervisor] finds out who trained me, they frown upon it. But it’s like, “mine’s more efficient,” but they’re not willing to change.

When the state comes around—you know how you can’t mix [food], but some residents won’t eat unless some stuff’s mixed. We have a women who [won’t eat her food without something sweet in it]. Yep, if there’s no ice cream in that, like, pureed meat, she won’t touch it. But you can’t do that. That’d break the rules. So, but that’s not the only thing that’s modified usually, I’d imagine. I know I’m not the only one that does it.

Other Intriguing Findings3. Do we take advantage of people conditioned to hardship by

encouraging them to play the role of “Super-woman”? Isn’t it amazing, you know, as women, what we can deal with on a

day-to-day basis? I’ve never left a job without a job because I’ve always had to be the

responsible one because I’m the one that takes care of everything. I have three kids. I sleep when they’re at school. My son calls me at 10:15 and tells me, ‘. . . I’m moving to Florida on

the first of June.’ So then, you know, you go to work [at 11 o’clock], you’ve been crying for 45 minutes. . . and you have to walk in the door and act like nothing’s going on.

After my son [died] – when I first went back to work, I wanted to quit. I hated it because you can’t go through something like that and then try to go take care of [older people]. That don’t make sense when you’ve lost somebody young and healthy. And then my husband said, ‘No, don’t quit, just give it some time.’ And I did.

How can Health Aide Work be Better Managed?

Management and regulatory oversight should consider relational aspects of the work (NOT assume medical outcomes are the only important ones)

Dignity Essential to staunching turnover

Social capital/ Collaborative crafting: Essential to retention

Quality care means relational care Dilemma: Multi-level change

What Have We Learned About Social Capital and Sustainable

Work? In Nursery School: collaborative job crafting In Public Schools: team collaboration In Nursing Homes: collaborative client care Overall:

Organizational effectiveness is not attained through human capital alone

Policy-makers and practitioners continue to under-value social capital

Systems to manage critical societal functions (e.g., education, eldercare) continue to be unsustainable

What Is To Be Done? Valuing the work and it’s larger contribution to

society: Public subsidies Higher standards Enhanced status

Building more effective models of work organization: Human capital Social capital Work design and coordination

Integrated (and Mutually Reinforcing) Change: