Socail and Industrial Psyshology

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    Unit -1Social

    Psychology

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    Social Psychology

    Social psychology is the scientific

    study of how people's thoughts,feelings, and behaviors areinfluenced by the actual, imagined,

    or implied presence of others. Bythis definition, scientific refers to theempirical method of investigation.

    The terms thoughts, feelings, andbehaviors include all psychologicalvariables that are measurable in ahuman being. The statement that

    others' presence may be imagined or

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    Social psychologists typically explainhuman behavior as a result of the

    interaction of mental states andimmediate social situations. In KurtLewin's conceptual formula, behavior(B) can be viewed as a function (f) ofthe person (P) in the environment(E), B = f(P, E). In general, socialpsychologists have a preference for

    laboratory-based, empirical findings.Social psychology theories tend to bespecific and focused, rather than

    global and general.

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    here ought to be as many religiouscreeds as there are human beings;

    but we find people ranged under afew great religions. It is the same inrespect to dress, diet, pastimes, ormoral ideas. The individuality eachhas received from the hand of natureis largely effaced, and we find peoplegathered into great planes of

    uniformity. In shifting attention from the

    agreements in which men rest, such

    as languages, religions, and cultures,

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    Background Social Psychology

    The discipline of social psychology

    began in the United States at thedawn of the 20th century. The firstpublished study in this area was an

    experiment in 1898 by NormanTriplett on the phenomenon of socialfacilitation. During the 1930s, manyGestalt psychologists, most notablyKurt Lewin, fled to the United Statesfrom Nazi Germany. They wereinstrumental in developing the field

    as something separate from the

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    During World War II, socialpsychologists studied persuasion and

    propaganda for the U.S. military.After the war, researchers becameinterested in a variety of socialproblems, including gender issuesand racial prejudice. Most notable,revealing, and contentious of themall were the Stanley Milgram shock

    experiments on obedience toauthority. In the sixties, there wasgrowing interest in new topics, such

    as cognitive dissonance, bystander

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    Unit -2Social

    Perception

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    Social Perception

    Social perception is, in psychologyand other cognitive sciences, thatpart of perception that allows peopleto understand the individuals and

    groups of their social world, and thusan element of social cognition.

    It allows people to determine how

    others affect their personal lives.While social perceptions can beflawed, they help people to form

    impressions of others by making the

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    Non-verbal Communication

    Nonverbal communication is usually

    understood as the process ofcommunication through sending andreceiving wordless (mostly visual)

    messages between people. Messagescan be communicated throughgestures and touch, by body languageor posture, by facial expression andeye contact. Nonverbal messagescould also be communicated throughmaterial exponential; meaning, objects

    or artifacts(such as clothing, hairstyles

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    Likewise, written texts have nonverbalelements such as handwriting style,

    spatial arrangement of words, or thephysical layout of a page. However,much of the study of nonverbalcommunication has focused on face-to-face interaction, where it can beclassified into three principal areas:environmental conditions where

    communication takes place, physicalcharacteristics of the communicators,and behaviors of communicators

    during interaction.

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    Theories of Attribution

    Actor-Observer Difference: we see

    others' behavior caused bydisposition, ours by situation.

    Attribution Theory: we need to

    attribute cause, that supports ourego.

    Clustering Illusion: Seeing patterns

    where there are none. Correspondence Bias: We over-

    estimate dispositional factors over

    situational factors.

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    Locus of Control: Control lies withinme or is external.

    Out-Group Homogeneity: we seeout-group people as 'all the same'.

    Over justification Effect: we attribute

    too externally for some events. Perceptual Salience: we over-

    estimate important of available

    information. Positivity Effect: we make situational

    attribution for those we like.

    The Pratfall Effect: Bein clums

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    Impression Formation andImpression Management

    Impression formation is theprocess through which we formimpression of others. When we meet

    others for the first time, we dontpay equal attention to all kind ofinformation/trait about them. Ratherwe focus on the certain kinds ofinformation which we view as beingmost useful.In order to form a lasting impression,

    we must enter various kinds of

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    Cognitive perspective on impressionmanagement has provided many

    valuable insights. Research suggestthat although we seem to formimpressions of others in a rapid andseemingly effortless manner, theseimpressions emerge out of operationof cognitive processes relating tostorage, recall and integration of

    social information.

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    Self enhancement

    Includes efforts

    to increase their physical appearancethrough dress style, personalgrooming and various uses of props.

    Additional self enhancement tacticsincludes describing oneself inpositive terms.

    Other Enhancement Individuals use many

    different tactics to induce positive

    moods and reaction in others.

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    Unit -3Social Identity and Social

    Influence

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    Self Concept

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    In the Youth Voice programme, wehave talked with many young people

    about their SELF-CONCEPT and findthat it is a very complicated subject.So we've tried to work out an easyway of talking about it using whatwe've discovered from the YouthVoice members.

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    We use the wordsSELF-CONCEPTto mean your own view of

    yourself and it can include: How you see yourself

    Your thoughts about yourself

    Your beliefs about yourself

    How you feel about yourself

    It can include positive thingsand it is your own personalview!

    What makes up our self-concept?

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    What I look like, what clothes I wear.

    How well I get on with other people,

    How people seem to like me. How I rate myself against what I see

    in other people or what I see in the

    media What other people tell me they think

    about me

    What I think others think about me

    How well I feel, and that can be in myhead or my body.

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    Self Esteem

    The word 'esteem' comes from a

    Latin word that means 'to estimate'.So, self-esteem is how you estimate,or regard, yourself.

    And how do you estimate, or regard,yourself?

    Try asking yourself these questions.

    Do I like myself?

    Do I think I'm a good human being?

    Am I someone deserving of love?

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    Self esteem is your opinion ofyourself. High self esteem is a good

    opinion of yourself and low selfesteem is a bad opinion of yourself.

    Your self esteem depends on manyquestions:

    Is your job worthwhile? Do othersrespect what you do? Do you?

    Do you believe you are successful?

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    Are you comparing yourself to othersand ignoring the unique value that

    you have?

    What do you think of your social

    status?

    How do you relate to others?

    Can you make your own decisions? Alack of choices leads to low self

    esteem.

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    Self esteem is crucial and is acornerstone of a positive attitude

    towards living.

    It is very important because it affectshow you think, act and even how yourelate to other people. It allows youto live life to your potential. Low selfesteem means poor confidence and

    that also causes negative thoughtswhich means that you are likely togive up easily rather than face

    challenges. In addition, it has a direct

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    Self Efficacy

    Self-efficacy is the degree to which a

    person believes that he or she canattain a goal. It is a frequentlymisunderstood but very important

    part of learning theory. It is also animportant part of treatment forphobias and other mental healthdisorders, as a high degree of self-efficacy correlates with a higherchance for treatment success.

    In phobia treatment, self-efficacy isthe degree to which the sufferer

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    Self-efficacy is different than self-esteem, which is a general regard for

    ones overall worth. Someone withvery high self-esteem may have lowself-efficacy toward a specificsituation, such as the ability tocomplete a marathon. The belief thatone is able to solve problems andmeet goals helps raise self-esteem.

    Still, the two concepts are separateand should be understood as such.

    Examples: Mike knew without a

    doubt that he could beat his spider

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    Self Monitoring and SelfFocusing

    Self-monitoring is a theory thatdeals with the phenomena ofexpressive controls. Human beings

    generally differ in substantial ways intheir abilities and desires to engagein expressive controls (see

    dramaturgy). People concerned withtheir expressive self-presentation(see impression management) tendto closely monitor themselves inorder to ensure a ro riate or

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    Conversely, low self-monitors do notparticipate, to the same degree, in

    expressive control and do not sharesimilar concern for situationalappropriateness. Low self-monitorstend to exhibit expressive controlscongruent with their own internalstates; i.e. beliefs, attitudes, anddispositions regardless of social

    circumstance. Low self-monitors areoften less observant of social contextand consider expressing a self-

    presentation dissimilar from their

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    Self Focusing

    Self-focusing is a non-linear optical

    process induced by the change inrefractive index of materials exposedto intense electromagnetic radiation.

    A medium whose refractive indexincreases with the electric fieldintensity acts as a focusing lens foran electromagnetic wavecharacterized by an initial transverseintensity gradient, as in a laserbeam. The peak intensity of the self-

    focused region keeps increasing as

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    Conformity

    Conformity is the act of matching

    attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors towhat individuals perceive as normalto their society or social group. This

    influence occurs in small groupsand/or society as a whole, and mayresult from subtle unconsciousinfluences, or direct and overt socialpressure. Conformity can occur in thepresence of others, or when anindividual is alone. For example,

    people tend to follow social norms

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    CONFORMITY

    - necessary to social interaction-

    being on time -following laws-conforming to styles- look at oldphotos

    - mob behaviour- Jonestown 900 died( obedience)

    Public Compliance- when the group is

    there we follow vs when alone Private Compliance -if the group

    influences us to convert then we

    have Private Compliance, more often

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    feelings of inferiority- less need to beaffiliated and less of tendency to

    blame self Individual and minoritywith cause can influence- Gandhi,Martin Luther King JR

    1. Private Conformity/Acceptance:

    change of beliefs that occurs when aperson privately accepts the position

    taken by others

    1. Public Conformity/Compliance:

    superficial change in overt behavior,without a corres ondin chan e of

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    Compliance and Obedience

    COMPLIANCE

    The concept of compliance is similarto conformity, yet slightly different.For compliance to occur within

    groups, one must adapt his/heractions to another's wishes or rules.A person that conforms must have a

    disposition that allows him/her toyield to others. Requests for andacts of compliance occur ineveryone's lives. Simply askingsomeone to perform a task is a

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    The person requesting theperformance of the task is not

    necessarily attempting to change theother's beliefs, but simply needs orwants the task to be performed.

    This notion is what sets conformityand compliance apart. The centralaspect of conformity is that theperson being influenced by the group

    change his/her attitudes and/orbeliefs while the main point ofcompliance is the achievement of

    some specified task

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    OBEDIENCE --Stanley Milgram - notso much the kind of of person but the

    situation that determines how personwill act

    -66% of subjects would continue

    shock to other subject even thoughdangerous-solely on prompt fromexperimenter.

    Gas chambers were built, deathcamps were guarded, daily quotas ofcorpses were produced with thesame efficiency as the manufactureof appliances. Theses inhuman

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    Original study: No vocal response

    After 300-volts pounding to the wall. After 315 no response.

    Results: 65% full obedience.

    Average shock level: Switch 27 (410volts).

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    Unit - 4Industrial

    Psychology:

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    Industrial Psychology

    Industrial psychology is a relatively

    new branch of psychology that wascreated for corporations andorganizations that needed more

    structure. Industrial psychology isable to provide this structure byevaluating employee behavior for thegood of the company. It is oftenreferred to as organizational

    psychologybecause of its emphasison analyzing individuals who work for

    various organizations.

    http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-psychology.htmhttp://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-psychology.htm
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    Essentially, industrial psychologistsstudy the behavior of employees in a

    work setting. Although industrialpsychology didn't begin until the1920's, the discipline has evolvedrapidly and revolutionized theworkplace within the last century.Because the workplace is a socialsystem, the application of industrial

    psychology is useful inunderstanding its complexity.

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    For years, psychologists have studiedhow human beings have interacted

    with their environments and eachother, but industrial psychologybegins to evaluate the interactionbetween people and their jobs.Industrial psychologists can be usedto improve job satisfaction as well ascompany productivity and is

    becoming vital to the success ofmany organizations.

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    Concept of Industrial Psychology

    Industrial Psychology is the

    application of psychologicalprinciples and facts to the behaviorof the people at work in industry and

    business. One important thing of thispsychological principle is thatbasically they govern the behavior ofall the human beings in any situationin life whether in school, home or inbusiness and industry.

    Causation of Behavior

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    Causation of Behavior

    The first principle of psychology is

    that all the activities of humanbeings are not random but arealways brought about by some

    stimulating factors or conditions thatmake a person to behave in a certainfashion. In industrial situations, manysuch behaviors like absenteeism

    among workers, low figures ofproduction, or a poorly running salesdepartment or industrial tensions

    which often erupt in strikes or

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    Individual differences

    Individual differences both in

    physical and psychologicalcharacteristics of the individuals fromthe very basis of industrial

    psychology The basic aspects inwhich individuals may vary broadlyare:

    Differences in PhysicalCharacteristics The basic aspects inwhich individuals may vary broadlyare

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    Learning

    Learning has been defined in

    psychology a relatively permanentchange in behavior which occurs as aresult of experience or practice The

    characteristic of learning are:1.It is achange in behavior for better orworse. If there is no change inbehavior there is no learning.

    2.Learning is the effect of experienceor practice.3.The change broughtabout by learning may last for

    sometime and may not be transitory

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    Interviews

    Last from a few minutes to a few

    hours. It is a 2-way process: it provides a

    situation for the evaluation of a

    candidates suitability foremployment, but it also offers theopportunity for the candidates to

    determine whether the company andthe job are right for them.

    The impression you make during an

    interview will be a decisive factor in

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    Research has shown thatinterviewers assessments of job

    applicants often are influenced moreby their subjective impression of theapplicants than by such factors aswork history, academic qualifications

    or extracurricular activities. Personalqualities such as perceivedattractiveness, likability and skill at

    self-promotion are the key factors inthe interviewers hiringrecommendations.

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    Impression management: actingdeliberately to make a good

    impression, to present oneself inthe most favorable way.

    Applicants usually take 2approaches: ingratiation and self-promotion.

    Ingratiation refers to behaviorsthat attempt to persuade theinterviewer to like you.

    Self-promotion tactics include

    d i i i i

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    Unstructured interviews: interviewsin which the format and questions

    asked are left to the discretion of theinterviewers.

    Structured interviews: interviews that

    use a predetermined list of questionsthat are asked of every person whoapplies for a particular job.

    Situational interviews: interviewsthat focus not on personalcharacteristics or work experiencebut on the behaviors needed for

    successful job performance.

    li i l k d

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    Application Blanks andBiographical Inventories

    Biographical inventories (orbiographical information blank): anemployee selection technique

    covering an applicants pastbehavior, attitudes, preferences andvalues. These questions are longer

    and more extensive than standardapplication blanks.

    How often have other students

    come to you for advice? How often

    (V l i i d f )

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    (Values, opinions and preferences)Which one of the following seems

    most important to you? A pleasant home and family life

    A challenging and exciting job

    Getting ahead in the world Being active and accepted in

    community affairs

    Making the most to your particularability

    A i t lid t th it h

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    Again to validate the items, each oneis correlated with a measure of job

    performance. They have highpredictive value.

    A study involving 2,535 US Army

    recruits found that many of the itemsasked on a biographical inventorycould be grouped into 4 personalityfactors: rugged/outdoors, solidcitizen, team sports/grouporientation, andintellectual/achievement orientation.

    The individual responses or scores on

    I t d f 1 523 ll

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    In a study of 1,523 collegegraduates, their responses on a

    biographical inventory taken as first-year college students proved to bevalid predictors of occupationalstatus 16 to 21 years later. The data

    of greatest predictive value includedacademic achievement, scientificinterests, popularity and social

    activity (Snell, Stokes, Sands &McBride, 1994). Faking occurs whenapplicants deliberately distort theirresponses by giving answers they

    R f d B k d

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    References and BackgroundInvestigations

    References When you are jobsearching, expect to having yourreferences checked by prospective

    employers. Here's what you need toknow about reference checks,including the reference checkquestions your previous employers

    will be asked, what employers candisclose, and information on moredetailed background and credit

    checks for employment.

    B k d I ti ti

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    Background Investigations

    A background checkor

    background investigation is theprocess of looking up and compilingcriminal records, commercial records

    and financial records (in certaininstances such as employmentscreening) of an individual.

    Background checks are oftenrequested by employers on jobcandidates, especially on candidatesseeking a position that requires high

    security or a position of trust, such as

    Th h k t diti ll

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    These checks are traditionallyadministered by a government agency

    for a nominal fee, but can also beadministered by private companies.Results of a background checktypically include past employment

    verification, credit score, and criminalhistory.

    These checks are often used by

    employers as a means of objectivelyevaluating a job candidate'squalifications, character, fitness, and

    to identify potential hiring risks for

    E l t R f

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    1. Employment References

    2. Character Reference Check

    3. Gaps in employment history

    4. Identity and Address Verification -whether the applicant is who he orshe claims to be. Generally includesverification of the candidatespresent and previous addresses.

    Can include a money laundering,identity and terrorist check and oneto verify the validity of passports.

    5. Whether an applicant holds a

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    Unit - 5Psychological

    Testing

    Psychological Testing

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    Psychological Testing

    Psychological testing is a field

    characterized by the use of samplesof behavior in order to assesspsychological construct(s), such as

    cognitive and emotional functioning,about a given individual. Thetechnical term for the science behindpsychological testing is

    psychometrics. By samples ofbehavior, one means observations ofan individual performing tasks that

    have usually been prescribed

    Interpreting Tests

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    Interpreting Tests

    There is a lot of room for error when

    it comes to making inferences abouta potential employee based on apsychological test. Even though

    many companies spend millions ofdollars on testing instruments andproperly use them with the help of atrained psychologist, some

    companies may not have the moneyor resources available. It is this lackof training on a company's or human

    resources' part that could lead to

    Locating Tests

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    Locating Tests

    Many test publishers make their tests

    available in kits or packets thatinclude all the resources needed toadminister, score and interpret a

    psychological test for employeescreening purposes.

    Screening tests can be found in the

    Mental Measurements Yearbook,which is the primary testingreference book in the industry.Commercially available psychological

    tests can also be found and

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    Development of Tests

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    Development of Tests

    Deciding the objectives

    Analyzing the job Choosing the tests

    Administering the testsTest Scores and criteria

    Cross Validating and Revalidating

    Analyzing Results

    Deciding the objectives

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    Deciding the objectives

    The first step in establishing or

    developing a test program is decidingthe objective. The objective of thetesting program are spelled out firstly.

    The objective is the aim and base mayof the organization. Test may bedesigned for hiring, promoting andcounseling people. Initially. Such a

    program may be set up only for somejobs.

    Analyzing the job

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    Analyzing the job

    Job descriptions, as a management

    tool, can greatly simplify anorganization's human resourcemanagement. A job description

    clarifies work functions and reportingrelationships, helping employeesunderstand their jobs. Job descriptionsaid in maintaining a consistent salary

    structure. Performance evaluationsmay be based on job descriptions.

    Examples of duty statements are:

    Choosing the tests

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    Choosing the tests

    The next step is to chose the choice

    the tests which can measure theattributes important for job success.The choice is usually based

    On experience, job knowledge,previous research and guess work.Test may be chosen keeping in view

    the reliability, validity ease ofadministration level of difficulties andthe cost involved in different test.

    Administering the tests

    Test Scores and criteria

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    Test Scores and criteria

    This is the fifth step of testing of

    testing program. Success criteriamay be laid down in term of qualityand quality of output, attendance

    record, rate od accidents speed ofpromotion professional achievementetc.

    Cross Validating and Revalidating Cross validation means checking out

    the performance before putting the

    test of use It is a method or of

    Characteristics of A Good

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    Characteristics of A GoodTest

    1- Validity:A test is considered as valid when it

    measures what it is supposed tomeasure.2- Reliability :

    A test is considered reliable if it istaken again by the same studentsunder the same circumstances andthe score average is almost the

    constant taking into consideration

    4 Comprehensiveness:

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    4- Comprehensiveness:A good test should include items

    from different areas of materialassigned for the test. e.g ( dialogue -composition - comprehension -grammar - vocabulary - orthography

    - dictation - handwriting )5- Simplicity:Simplicity means that the test should

    be written in a clear , correct andsimple language , it is important tokeep the method of testing as simpleas possible while still testing the skill

    Advantages and Disadvantages

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    Advantages and Disadvantagesof Psychological Tests

    Advantages Psychological Tests In complex situations, it allows for

    the confusion to be understood and

    for a cogent treatment plan to bedeveloped.

    It can help identify reasons whyintellectual potential may not havebeen realized and demonstrated in

    the educational setting

    Comprehensive assessments can

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    Comprehensive assessments canalso offer valuable information to

    treating physicians with regard topresent emotional status inconsideration of medicationregimes.

    It can help us understand the

    functions that are involved inintellectual thought, management ofintellect, educational achievement,emotional problem solving, and

    regulation of feelings

    Disadvantages Psychological

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    Disadvantages PsychologicalTests

    Some clinicians argue that there islittle to gain from an objective examif the goal is not behavioral. Gaining

    an understanding of motives or thedynamics of personality are virtuallyimpossible using most objectiveassessment since the questions are

    generally "behavioral in nature"(Trull, 2005). Meaning, severaldifferent interpretations may be

    made as to why different people do

    Next some tests offer only one score

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    Next, some tests offer only one scorefor a range of different questions.

    Questions based on behavior,cognitions, and needs all receive onlya single score. This scoring systemleaves much to be desired as it

    eliminates the option for alternateinterpretations to the answers given.Grouping them all together can

    reflect different combinations ofbehaviors, cognitions, and needs andthus a client may be misinterpretedby the overall score.

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    Unit - 6Employment

    Testing

    Employment Testing

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    Employment Testing

    Employment testing is the practice

    of administering written, oral, orother tests as a means ofdetermining the suitability ordesirability of a job applicant. Thepremise is that if scores on a testcorrelate with job performance, thenit is economically useful for the

    employer to select employees basedon scores from that test.

    Different types of assessments may

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    Different types of assessments maybe used for employment testing,

    including personality tests,intelligence tests, work samples, andassessment centers. Some correlatebetter with job performance than

    with others; employers often usemore than one to maximizepredictive power.

    Personality tests Intelligence tests

    Job-knowledge tests

    Testing abilities

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    Testing abilities

    Cognitive Ability Tests

    Cognitive ability tests typically usequestions or problems to measureability to learn quickly, logic,

    reasoning, reading comprehensionand other enduring mental abilitiesthat are fundamental to success inmany different jobs. Cognitiveability tests assess a personsaptitude or potential to solve job-related problems by providing

    information about their mental

    Have been demonstrated to produce

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    Have been demonstrated to producevalid inferences for a number oforganizational outcomes (e.g.,performance, success in training).

    Have been demonstrated to predictjob performance particularly for more

    complex jobs.

    Can be administered via paper andpencil or computerized methodseasily to large numbers.

    Can be cost effective to administer.

    Does not typically require skilled

    Intellectual Abilities

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    Intellectual AbilitiesThat requires doing mental activities.

    Intellectual ability commonly refersto the ability measured byperformanceon an intelligence test. It is also

    sometimes used in the context ofdiscussingthe performance of someone in an

    academic or real world setting

    Number aptitude, verbal

    comprehension perceptual speed

    Physical Abilities

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    Physical AbilitiesThese require doing tasks demanding

    stamina, dexterity, strength, andsimilar characteristics.

    AdvantagesCan identify individuals who are

    physically unable to perform theessential functions of a job without

    risking injury to themselves or othersCan result in decreased costs

    related to disability/medical claims,

    insurance and workers

    Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

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    Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

    The Wechsler Adult Intelligence

    Scale (WAIS) is a test designed tomeasure intelligence in adults andolder adolescents. It is currently in itsfourth edition (WAIS-IV). The originalWAIS (Form I) was published inFebruary 1955 by David Wechsler, asa revision of the Wechsler-Bellevue

    Intelligence Scale. The fourth editionof the test (WAIS-IV) was released in2008 by Pearson.

    The WAIS-R, a revised form of the

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    The WAIS R, a revised form of theWAIS, was released in 1981 andconsisted of six verbal and fiveperformance subtests. The verbaltests were: Information,Comprehension, Arithmetic, Digit

    Span, Similarities, and Vocabulary.The Performance subtests were:

    Picture Arrangement, Picture

    Completion, Block Design, ObjectAssembly, and Digit Symbol. A verbalIQ, performance IQ and full scale IQwere obtained.[5]

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wechsler_Adult_Intelligence_Scale#cite_note-urlWAIS-R-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wechsler_Adult_Intelligence_Scale#cite_note-urlWAIS-R-4
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    Verbal IQ (VIQ)

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    e ba Q ( Q)

    Included seven tests and provided

    two sub indexes; verbalcomprehension and working memory.

    The Verbal comprehension index

    included the following tests: Information

    Similarities

    Vocabulary

    The Working memory index included:

    Arithmetic

    Performance IQ (PIQ)

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    Q ( Q)

    Included six tests and it also

    provided two sub indexes; perceptualorganization and processing speed.

    The Perceptual organization index

    included: Block Design

    Matrix Reasoning

    Picture Completion

    The Processing speed index included:

    Digit Symbol-Coding

    General Aptitude Test Battery,

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    p y,and Differential Aptitude Test

    General Aptitude Test BatteryThe General Aptitude Test

    Battery (GABT) is a measure of a

    wide range of aptitudes and is usedin such areas as occupationalselection, rehabilitation, andvocational counseling,

    The Battery measure nine differentgeneral aptitudes using twelve timed

    Numerical aptitude

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    p

    Spatial aptitude

    Form perception Clerical perception

    Motor co-ordination Finger dexterity

    Manual dexterity

    Differential Aptitude

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    Differential AptitudeTest

    A differential aptitude test measures

    specific abilities of candidates andtherefore holds a prominent place in

    job aptitude tests. Employers use

    differential aptitude test forscreening good candidates for a job.In addition to helping the employers,a differential aptitude test is also

    V b l

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    VerbalAbility --Theseuestions

    Mechanical Reasoning -- Candidates

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    gare required to take such a testwhilst appearing for military, policeforces, fire services, as well as manycraft, technical and engineeringoccupations. Mechanical aptitude

    test assess a candidate's knowledgeof physical and mechanicalprinciples.

    Fault Diagnosis -These tests aredesigned to select technicalpersonnel who are required to findand repair faults in electronic and

    Testing Personalities-

    A li i i i

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    A personality test is a questionnaire orother standardized instrument designed to

    reveal aspects of an individual's characteror psychological makeup. The firstpersonality tests were developed in theearly 20th century and were intended to

    ease the process of personnel selection,particularly in the armed forces. Since theseearly efforts of these test, a wide variety ofpersonality tests have been developed,

    notably the Myers Briggs Type Indicator(MBTI), the MMPI, and a number of testsbased on the Five Factor Model ofpersonality. Today, personality tests are

    used in a ran e of contexts includin

    The matic Apperception Test

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    pp p(TAT),

    The Thematic Apperception Test,or TAT, is a projective psychologicaltest. Proponents of this techniqueassert that a person's responses tothe TAT cards can provideinformation about his or her views ofthe self, the world, and interpersonal

    relationships. Historically, it has beenamong the most widely researched,taught, and used of such tests.

    Procedure

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    The TAT is popularly known as the

    picture interpretation techniquebecause it uses a series of provocativeyet ambiguous pictures about whichthe subject is asked to tell a story. Thesubject is asked to tell as dramatic astory as they can for each picturepresented, including the following:

    what has led up to the event shown what is happening at the moment

    what the characters are feeling and

    If these elements are omitted,

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    particularly for children or individualsof low cognitive abilities, theevaluator may ask the subject aboutthem directly. Otherwise, theexaminer is to avoid interjecting and

    should not answer questions aboutthe content of the pictures. Theexaminer records stories verbatim for

    later interpretation. Scoring Systems

    When he created the TAT, Murray

    also developed a scoring system

    The Rorschach Inkblots Tests

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    The Rorschach test (German

    pronunciation: also known as theRorschach inkblot test, theRorschach technique, or simplythe inkblot test) is a psychologicaltest in which subjects' perceptions ofinkblots are recorded and thenanalyzed using psychological

    interpretation, complex algorithms,or both. Some psychologists use thistest to examine a person's

    personality characteristics and

    The interpretation of the Rorschach

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    test is not based primarily on thecontents of the response, i.e., whatthe individual sees in the inkblot (thecontent). In fact, the contents of theresponse are only a comparatively

    small portion of a broader cluster ofvariables that are used to interpretthe Rorschach data: for instance,

    information is provided by the timetaken before providing a response fora card can be significant (taking along time can indicate "shock" on the

    In particular, information about

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    determinants (the aspects of theinkblots that triggered the response,such as form and color) and location(which details of the inkblotstriggered the response) is often

    considered more important thancontent, although there iscontrasting evidence. "Popularity"

    and "originality" of responses canalso be considered as basicdimensions in the analysis

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