Soc Construct Legal Status of Non-human Beings Animal Laws From 1698 to 2008

7/27/2019 Soc Construct Legal Status of Non-human Beings Animal Laws From 1698 to 2008

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Legal Status of Non-human Beings: Adoption

of Animal Laws from 1698 to 2008 ( )

Th i s pa p er w il l b e p r es en t ed a t t h e G rad u a te S tud e nt S e ss io n, A n nua l Me eti n g of t he K o r ea n

S oci o lo g ic a l As so c ia ti o n, i n D ec em be r , 20 0 9.

Ab s tra ctI n t his a rt ic le, I an alyze t he ado pti on of an ima l la ws in t he U nit ed S tat es fr om 169 8 to 20 08.

T raci ng t he d at es o f t he en act m en t o f an ima l- rel at ed laws sh o ws a c le ar p at ter n o f t he em erg en ce

an d e volu tio n o f t he ani mal wel fare a n d non hum an r igh ts over t ime. T hi s arti cle r eve als th e

in flu en ce of i nt er n at io na l emp ha sis o n en vir on men tal sus ta in ab ili t y an d e nh an ced r ig ht s of t he

n atu re on legal st atu s of an ima ls: t here is a the mat ic sh ift from l iab ili ty o f eco no mic pr op ert y t o

a n im a l r ig h t s- b as ed p r o t ec t io n of n o nh u ma n be i ng s t h rou g h ou t t h e t w en ti e t h c en t u ry . S e c on d , t h e

fiel d o f an ima l la ws h as cl earl y ch an ged o ver t im e in t he fra min g of a ni mal s as " com pan ion s" a nd

of "s p ec ie s -o ri e nt ed " g u ide l in es : de l in ea ti ng t he c h ara c t eri s ti cs of i nd iv id u al s tat u es a n d ac ts , s uc h

c han ge s i n t he US law s ar e d rawn f r om soc io log i cal in st it ut ion a l p ersp e ct iv e.

Keywords: Ani mal laws, ani mal welfare, nonhuman ri ghts, and insti tutional theory

Introduction

" .. . Fo r j us t a s w e p oint ed o ut r e se mbl an ce s in the phy si c al o rga ns , s o i n a n um be r o f an ima l s

w e o b se rv e g en tl ene ss o r fi er ce ne ss , m i ld n es s o r cr os s te mp e r, co ur age , o r ti m id ity , fe a r o r

c on fi d enc e, h i gh sp i rit o r l o w c unn in g, a nd , w it h re ga rd to in t el li g enc e, s o meth in g equ iv a le nt to

s ag aci ty. S ome o f th es e qua li ti es in ma n, a s co mpa red wit h t he c or re spo ndi ng qu al i tie s i n

a ni m al s , d i ff er on l y q u a nti t at i ve ly . " ( A ri s t ot le , Th e His t or y o f An i ma l s, VI I I , 1)

An ima l s p la y a si gn ifi c an t ro le i n h uma n so cie ty. T hey s er v e a s fo od a n d c lo th in g, o f co ur se

c ar r ie r s a nd ex p e ri m e nt al s ub je ct s as w el l. In t h i s se ns e, t h ey a r e p r op er ti es o f h um an o w ner s .

We, hu man s, can us e the m for th e purpose s of li vi ng , e nte rtain ment and s o forth. R ec en t

p ro li fe ra ti on o f t he g lo b al ec olo gic al s ust a ina bi l ity , ho wev er , a ni ma l w elf ar e and no nh uma n

r ig h ts h av e b ec o m e a n i n c r ea si n g c o n ce r n i n t he wo r ld . Th e y a re n ot m e re p e r so na l be l on g i ngs .

R at h er , w il d li f e a r e m em b er s o f e co s ys tem . P e ts b eco me o ur c o mp an io ns . O th e r ca pt i v e a ni m als ,

s uch a s dee r a nd h ens , s ho ul d be p ro te ct ed f r om do mes ti c vi ole nce . Pe ople a r e wil li ng t o pu t

th ei r d og s in t h ei r w i ll an d se t up a tr us t fo r t h e c on ti nuo us c a re o f the ir fo ur -l eg ge d fa mil y.


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I n t h is a rt ic le , I st ip ul a te t h at the the ma tic sh ift in s o ci a l fr am in g o f e nvi r onm en t a nd

a ni mal s ha s s i gni fi ca nt in fl uen ce o n th e l eg al sta tu s o f an ima l s a nd the ado ptio n o f a ni ma l

w el fa r e la ws on a na ti o na l le ve l. Ba s ed on t h e U S a ni mal l a w d ata co mp i le d f ro m an d p ub li she d

by M i chi ga n Sta te Un iv er si ty Co l le ge o f La w - A ni ma l L eg al & H is to ric al W e b C ent er

( av a il a ble a t w ww .a ni m all aw . in fo ) , I d em on str ate h i st or i ca l ch an ge s o f an ima l st at us: ( 1 )

dr amat ic e xp ans io n o f a ni ma l la ws by a co nc ep tu al re co ns tr uc ti on o f t he na tur e a nd ( 2)

d ive rs i fic a ti on an d sp eci fi ca ti o n in t h e u nder s ta ndi ng o f a ni ma ls in l eg a l d oc um en t s, wh ic h

hi gh li gh t a d is cu rs iv e sh ift i n the p e rc ep t io n o f the n o nh um an bei ng s. F oll o win g a d isc uss io n o f

a t h eo r et i c al b ac kg r ou n d w h ic h i ni t i al l y d r i ve s t hi s r es ea r ch , a nd t he Am e ric a n l e ga l f ra mew o rk ,

I st ar t by p re se nti ng evi d ence o f the s hi ft o f an ima l s ta tu s in t h e US l aw s . Sec o nd , I il l ust ra t e

th e major l eg al c hange s i n de tail . Tog et her, I s ee the se as i ndic ators of ani mal ri ght s as a

social concern.

Theorizing the Emergence of Animal Rights

Fr om a ne o- in sti tu tio n al p er s pec ti ve , na tur e in m oder n s o ci et y ha s be en d em ys ti fi ed b y

s ci ent if ic at io n (Me ye r a nd Jeppe rso n 2 000 ). Peo pl e i n th e pa st be li ev ed i n s pir itual fo rce s i n

for es t a nd f el t fe ar at e nte ring the j ung le . To da y, sc ie nti fi c f in ding s u nve il th e tr ut h o f the

na tu ra l en vi r on m en t . H um an i nd i vi d ua l s t ak e s c i en t i fic k n ow l ed g e i n to a cc o unt in t he ir a c tio n s

( D ror i , M e ye r , R a mir e z an d S c ho fe r 2 00 3 ). F o r i ns t anc e, zo o l og is ts r e ve al t h a t so me f ro gs m ak e

all uri ng sou nd in whi ch many pe ople c onfus e i t wi th s on gs o f s ylv an spi ri ts . Sci en ti fic

k n ow l ed g e d o e s n ot o n l y p r o vi d e cl e ar un de r st an di n g o f t he na t ur e , b ut a l so m o bi l i ze im a g ine d

i nt e re s ts o f n on h um an b ei n gs. Ac c or di n gly , t h er e h a ve b ee n a s e ri es o f a nim al a d v oc a tes , wh i c h

a re hi ghl y a nt h rop omo r phi ze d. I n th e ca s e o f a nti -w ha l ing , fo r ex a mp le , m ar i ne b io l ogi sts fi nd

th at w ha le s h av e the ir ow n co mmun ic a tio n sy ste ms , d ay- ca re s er v ic es fo r th ei r yo ut h ,

r ec r ea ti o na l sp or ts , a nd o the r s oc i al i nt er acti o ns s im ila r to th os e of hum an bei ng s ( Ka ll a nd

1 99 3). Th ey al so pr ov e th at wh al es co nt ri bu te to ba lan ci ng t he ma rin e ec osy ste m. In t his

r eg a rd, d om es tic a nd in te rn at io na l NG Os, ci tin g s ci en tif ic in f orm at io n un co v er ed b y

profes si onal s, h av e tie d t he prote ct ion of whale s, to e col og ical div ers ity i n th e oc ean (Song

2 00 8 ). I nt er na ti o na l env ir o nm e nt al t re at i e s ch am pi o ne d t he a nt h r op om or p hi c id e as of no nh u ma n

i nte re s ts. Al o ng wit h th e imp or ta nc e of a ni mal r i ght s ar i se fr om s ci e nti fi ca ti o n, h uma n

i nd i vi d ua ls a dv o ca te a ni ma l w e lfa re a nd the w el l- bei ng o f o th er sp eci es b ec o me m or e

l eg iti m ize d. Co ns equ ent ly , l eg a l sta tu s of a ni m als h as a ls o be en c h ange d a nd the n o tio n o f a ni m al r ig h ts h a s b ee n f ur t h er em p ha s iz e d i n ac co r d an c e w it h t he s o ci a l sc i e nt i fi c at i o n.

The American Animal Laws and Themat ic Shif t

In 1 82 4, the R oyal Soci et y for t he Prev ent ion of Crue lt y to A ni mal s, whi ch i s th e worl d' s

fi r st o rga ni za ti o n fo r a ni ma l wel fa re an d w ell -be in g, wa s la un che d i n the U ni ted K ing do m

( Lubi ns ki 20 0 2) . Y et, the f ir st a rtic ul a tio n s o f the mo ra l a nd le ga l iss ue o f a ni ma l s ta tu s d ate

ba ck to 1 776 . In hi s w ri ti ng, "Dis se rta ti on o n th e Du ty o f Mer cy a nd Si n o f Cr ue lt y to B rute

An i ma l s, " Re v e r en d Hu m p hr ey P r im a tt c a l le d o n s oc i e ty t o t a k e ge n er o us c a re o f a nim a l s. M o r e


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s ig ni fic a ntl y, Je re my Be nth am, a n E ng li sh p hi lo s op her an d j ur i st, a r gue d t h e ca pa ci ty fo r

s uffe rin g is th e vi ta l cha ra ct er is ti cs t ha t g iv e a be in g the r ig ht to le ga l co n si der ati o n. His

Ut i l it ar i an ap pr o ach al so i nc lud e d t h e i n te re st s o f a ni m a ls (B e nt ha m 1 78 9 ; Ka lo f a nd F i tz ge r al d

2 00 6). In ta nde m wi th the r ise o f in tel le ctua l a rg ume nts f or car e o f a ni ma ls , L or d Er sk in e

i ntr od uc ed th e fi r st bi l l o f the p r ot ec ti on of a ni ma ls i n 18 0 9 ( Fa vr e a nd Ts a ng 1 9 93 ). Al tho ug h

th is bi ll w as de fea te d i n the H ou se o f Co mmo ns , i t w as t he fi rs t an im al l aw in t er ms of a ni ma l

welfare.

De sp ite its i nde pende nc e, t he US a do pted Br i ti sh r ul e s a nd l a ws fr om i ts mo the r co unt r y

d ur i ng the la te 17 0 0s and 1 80 0 s. F or i ns ta nce , th e fi r st an ima l la w w hic h w as a do pte d a nd

e n a ct e d b y Ma ss a ch u se t ts - L ost P r op e r ty : L o s t G o o ds an d S t ra y Be a st s - ca m e f r om a B r it i s h

c ol o ni al l aw o f p er s ona l p ro per ty in 1 6 98 . I n t h e e a rl y 1 8 00 s , Ame ri c an l a ws te nta ti ve l y a gr ee d

o n the ado pti on of an ima l we lfa re law s bu t t he le gi s la ti o n di d n o t c ha ng e unti l th e 18 60s . I n

mo st c a se s, th e ea r li e st a ni m al la ws p or tr a ye d a ni m als as d an ge ro u s p rop e rti es ( e . g. , d og s w i th

r a bie s) . Hu m an s h a d r es p o nsi b i li t i es w i th k i l li n g s t r a y b e as t s t o p r o te c t t h e m se l v es a nd s o ci e t y

f r om o t he r s p ec i e s' at t a ck .

In 1 833 , t her e was a fir s t a tte mp t to i nc lud e th e w el l -be in g o f no n huma n be i ngs . Un der th e

Geo rg ia s ta tut e, a p er so n wh o co mmi ts the o ff ens e of cr ue l ty t o a nima l s, ca us in g de ath o r

p hy si ca l h ar m t o a ni mal s , s ha ll b e gui lt y of a m i s deme a no r. Ye t, thi s s t atute d i d in cl ud e ne it h er

fi sh and pes t tha t mig ht be k il le d o r re mo ve d, no r a ni ma ls i n zo os, sc i ent if ic r es e ar ch,

e xhi bi ti on s an d hu sba n dry p r act ic es . A bo ut 3 0 ye ar s l a ter , ho wev er , New Yo rk a do pte d th e fi rs t

e ff e ct u al a nt i -c r ue lt y la w th at d es c ri b e s t h e p e na l ty f or t re a ti ng an an im al cr ue l t y ( Ne w Yo r k

R ev is ed St a tute s 18 6 7: Ch ap t er 375 : Sec ti o ns 1- 10 ). I n t h e NY s ta tut es , " ani m al " me an s e ve r y

l iv ing cr e at u res ex ce p t hum ans . Mo reo ve r , a ny p e rs o n w ho ov er l oad s, to rtur e s o r c r ue ll y tr ea tsa ni mal s is p u nis ha bl e by imp ri so nme nt o r a fi ne. Al th ou gh the se s ta tut es i nit ia te d s oci al

c on ce rn s a ga i nst c r uel ty , m os t la ws i n the e a rl i er p e rio d fo c use d on a ni m als as r e so ur c es o r

replaceable slaves.

Figu re 1. N umber of animal la ws and 10-yea r moving average of the adoption by year 1698-20 08


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Fi gu re 1 d ep i cts b oth f ede r al a nd s ta te- le ve l e na ct m en t o f the a nim al la ws an d sm oo the d

a ve rag e o f a do pti on. A s ma ll er , e ar l ie st wa v e o f a ni mal la w ex te ns io ns bet w ee n 19 00 a nd 1 930

m ost l y f o c use d o n re sp on si b i li t i es o f h u ma n o wne r s a nd t he ir a n i ma ls a s e c ono mic p r op er ty . F or

i nst an ce , t h e Ne br aska sta tu tes a do pte d in 1 90 1 , s ho w t h e le ga l p ow er to r e gu la te , l ic e nse o r

p ro hib it the r unn ing a t l arg e o f ca tt le , ho gs, h or ses , mul e s, do gs a nd o the r a n ima l s a nd c aus e

th es e a ni mal s t o b e i mp ound ed (N E - L i ce ns es - Ani ma ls a t La rg e; r eg ul at io n; p e na lty ). A

m aj o ri t y o f s ta tut es i n o th e r s t at es g i ve mu n i ci p al i t ie s t h e a ut ho r i ty t o re g ula te an d p r ovi d e f or

tax ing the owne rs and harbore rs of anim al s, a nd to des tr oy s tray an imal s found at larg e

c on tr ar y to a ny o rdi na nc e. In th is per io d, no nhu ma n cr ea tur es in fe der al la ws, we re a lso

de sc ri be d a s subj ects t ha t c an b e p os se ss ed , s old, a cqui r ed a nd tr an sp or te d by hu ma n b ei ngs

( e.g ., US - Trade - Tari ff Ac t of 193 0 and Lace y Ac t in 19 00 ).

Th e s ec o nd wa v e o f a ni m al l a w ex p ans io n ap pa r e nt l y o c cu rr e d a ft e r t h e Wo r ld W ar I I.

B y the m id 1 98 0s, a ni ma ls a t ta ine d le ga l e nt ity in th e wa ke o f i nte rn at io na l dis co ur se o n

e nvi r on m en t al s ust ai na bi li ty . I t is la rge ly ac co mp ani ed b y a c ha ngi ng no ti on of t h e na tu r e

( Fr an k 1 99 7; Fr an k, H ir ona ka a nd Sc ho fe r. 2 00 0) f ro m t he re s ou rc e to the e co syst em, an d the

r is e i n i nte rna ti ona l ac ti on ( Bol i a nd Tho ma s 1 99 9). Unt il t he en d o f the Se co nd Wo rl d Wa r,

s oc ie ty vie wed the n at ur e a s a g ia nt sto reho us e of re sou rc es (Po rte r a nd Br own 19 96) .

Co n si st ent w i th thi s no ti on , h u ma n b ei ng s we r e fr ee t o ex p lo i t the e nvi r onmen t. Ho wev er , the r e

i s a ne w pha se of en vi ron men ta l poli ty pr om ot es pr ote cti ng th e " ec osys te m" t hr ou gh a n

i dent if ic a tio n o f r i gh t s o f na t ur e ( Or lo ve a nd Br us h 1 99 6 ). T h is ne w a pp ro ach ha s bee n w id el y

rec ogni zed b y me mbe rs of worl d s oci et y, an d not si mply i n re acti on t o en vi ron ment al

de gr ada tio n bu t a lso as a r es ul t o f a di ff usi o n o f t he s ci ent if ic atio n of the e co sys te m ( Fr ank

1 99 7; Or l ov e a nd Br us h 1 99 6; R edf or d i n A lc or n 19 93; So ng 2 00 8; c f. Po rter and Br ow n 19 96) .Al t h ou gh Co n ven t i on f or t h e I n te rn at i ona l R eg ul at i on o f Wh al i n g in 1 9 46 ( i n f or ce 1 94 8 ) is

o ne o f i n i t ia l p os t -w a r a t t em p t s t o b a la nc e t he e c os y s te m , t h e ma j o r c h a ng es w e re ob s e rv e d i n

th e l ate 19 60 s a nd the e ar ly 19 70s . I n th es e per io ds , b ot h t he numbe r of int er nati ona l tr ea ti es

a nd a g re em e nt s r eg a r ding e nvi r o nm en t al s us t ain ab i l it y i n c re a se d . I n t he US , b e g in n in g i n 1 9 40

( US - P ro te c tio n - B a ld a nd G ol d en Ea gl e P rot ec ti on A c t ), bo th fe de ra l a nd s ta te l aw s bec a me

mor e e nv ironme ntal -or ie nte d. T hes e laws use d di ffe ren t name s and des cr ipti on i n th e

i n tr o d uc t i on o f n e w o ne s. S t at u te s w it h w o r ds " pr o te ct i o n, " " co ns er v at i o n, " " w i ld l if e / wil d er n e s s, "

"en vi ron men tal," "en dan ge red" an d e ve n "we lfare ," inc reas ed dramati cal ly . For ex ample ,

W il d er n e s s A ct i n 1 96 4 a nd E n da ng er ed S p ec i e s Ac t i n 1 9 73 w e r e n at i o na l l eve l l aw s fo r th e

l is ti ng a nd p ro te ct in g end an ge re d w i ld l i fe a nd the ir ha bit at s. I n a dd it io n to le ga l a tte nti o n to th e

protec ti on of the natu re , ani mal wel far e r os e i n the se con d s tage of adopti on. In 1 966 , US

An i ma l We l f a re Ac t ( h e re a f te r AW A) fo cu s e d u po n h u m an a ct i vi t i es th a t h a ve bee n s h o wn t o

be a ni m al a bus e . The l a w p ro vi d es cr i min al an d c i vi l p en al ti es fo r v io l atio n o f th e AW A. It

s ee ks to c on tr ol th e li v ing co ndi ti o ns o f d om est ic , no n- ag r ic ul tur al a ni m als on ly , tho ug h, the

AW A b e c om e s m o th e r l a w f o r s u bs e qu e nt s t at e -l e v el s t a tu t es .

The l ar ge st w av e o f a ni ma l la w a do pti o n o c cur re d be tw ee n the l at e 19 9 0s and the 20 00 s. Th e

p ro li fe ra ti o n o f a ni ma l la ws is dri ve n by an thr op om orp h iz ed r ig ht s o f no nh u ma n be ing s. No t

o nl y a cti vi sts bu t s ome a ca demi c sc ho la rs gr ant mo ra l rig hts to an ima ls ( e.g. , R eg an 1 98 3,


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1 99 7 ). The y mo bi li ze t h ei r ag en cy o n be ha lf of the i m ag in ed i nt er es ts o f o the r sp e ci e s ( Mey er

a nd J e pp er s o n 20 0 0 ). S c ie nt i fi c k no w le d ge a b out p r i ma tes r e v ea ls t ha t a n im al s a r e r a ti on al a n d

a uto no mo us l ik e h uma ns . A t th e sa me ti me, it ha s bee n f ou nd t ha t n ot a ll h uman b ein gs a re

r a tio n al a g en t s. Hu ma n in d iv i d u als c it i ng th e s e sc i e nt i fi c f i nd in g s ad vo c a t e an i ma l r i gh t s. I n t h i s

s ens e, a C al if o rn i a st at u te (C A - T r ust s -T ru st f or c ar e o f an im al s; d ur a ti on ) i n 1 99 1 fir s t

a ll o ws a tr us t fo r the ca re o f a des ig na te d do mes ti c a ni ma l fo r the li fe of the a nima l . The

s t at ut e re co g ni ze s t he an im al ri gh t s t o su rv iv e e ven a ft e r th e d e ath o f h um an o wne rs .

Historical Chang es 1: from "Hu man-oriented" to "Species-oriented"

Figure 2. US Animal Laws by M odels of H uman-o riented and Species-O riented, Smoothed

A verag e of Yea r ly Ad opt ion, 189 0-2008

At t he be gi nni ng o f t he A ni ma l l a ws , a ni ma ls w er e rep re se nte d ei the r as f er al b ea st s o r

d o me st i c p ro p e r ty. U nd e r t h e m o s t l a ws , a ni m a ls w i t ho ut e c o no m ic v a l ue t o h u m an s w er e e a s il y

ne gl ec te d . H um ans h av e r i gh t s t o t am e a ni m a ls fo r l i vi ng a nd o f co ur s e, k i ll v ic io us a ni m als f or

t h e p ur p ose o f h u ma n sa fe t y. F or i nst an ce , an A la ba ma st at u te a do p te d in 1 9 15 o ut l in ed th e

l ia bi li ty of d og o wne r s a nd p rev ent io n o f hu m an d am ag es ( A L - Bi te - Li a bi li ty o f O wne r s o f

Do gs B iti ng o r I nj ur i ng Pe rso ns ). A n Io wa st at ute al s o t o ok huma n du ty t o k il l u nta gg e d do g

fo r gr ante d (IA -Li ce ns e- Ri gh t a n d du ty to ki ll u nta gge d do g in 1 91 7). In o t her wor ds ,

d om e st i ca te d a ni m a ls i n p ar ti cu l ar , w er e c ons id e red a s pe r so na l p ro p e rt y, h e nc e , th e la w s w e re

l im i te d t o t h e o wner ' s r es p o ns ib i li t i es an d m u ni ci p a l/ le ga l c o nt ro l s o ve r a ni m al s .

Howe ve r, a c le ar pa tt er n e mer ges in F ig ur e 2 . Th e r ise of so cia l c onc er ns ab ou t

e nvi r on m en t al su st ai na bi li t y a nd r ig ht s o f no n hum an ch an ge s t he m od e l o f a ni m al l a ws fr o m

h u man - or ie nte d t o s p ec ie s- or i en t ed . L aw s t ak e c a re o f l iv ing c o nd i ti on s o f e gg -l a yi n g he ns a nd

p reg na nt p ig s ( e.g ., CA - Fa rmi ng - Pr op os it io n 2 - Sta nda rds fo r Co nf in ing Fa rm Ani ma ls .

Ini ti a ti ve S ta tue , a do pte d i n 2 00 8) Mor e st ri ki ng ly , l eg al w or din g h as b een ch an ge d fr om


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hu m an -c ent er ed de sc r ip t io n, s uch as " i mp ound , " " pr op er ty , " " dan ge r ou s, " a nd " hun tin g" to

" hum an e, " " c ar e " a nd "c o mp ani on . " E nd ang er ed sp e cie s sho ul d b e p ro t ec ted fr o m h u nti ng fo r

p lea su re , e ve n t ho ugh the y ha ve no e co no mi c va lu e a t the mo men t ( e. g., US - Co ns er vat io n -

Fi sh & Wi ldl ife C ons er vati on A ct in 19 8 0 ). T radi ti onal me thods , s uc h as h amme rin g or

h oi sti n g , a r e b ann ed . Ra th e r, ca tt l e , g o at s, sh e ep a nd o t h er ca pt i ve a ni m als h av e ri gh t s t o d ie i n

p e ac ef u l wa y ( C O-H u ma ne S la ug h te r - S l aug h te r, P ro c es si n g, a nd S al e o f M ea t A ni m als A c t,

r ep e a le d a nd r e ena c t ed i n 19 8 9) .

Sp eci es -o rie nte d an ima l l aw s al s o tr eat a ni ma ls as c omp ani on s. In th e la te r pe rio d o f

obs ervati on, ani mal l aws r ecogn iz e h uman r el ati on shi p wi th non human be ings . B ey ond the

i mag es o f g ui de do gs h el pin g p eo ple , so cie ty mob il iz es a n i ntr i nsi c v alu e o f a n ima l s to h uma n

be in gs . A s a res ul t, l a ws r e qui re ma nd ato ry p syc ho l og i ca l co uns e ll in g fo r h oa de r s w ho c r uel l y

tr eat an ima l s a nd do me st ic vi ol e nce a ga in st an ima l s be co me s a " ne w cr im e" ( e.g ., N M -

Ho ar din g - C omp anio n An ima l s - N ew Mex ic o An Act Re l at ing t o An ima l s; C rea ti ng the

Cr i m e o f C o mp a nio n An i ma l Ho a rd in g; Pr o vi d i ng P ena l ti es , a do p te d i n 2 0 02 an d VT - D om es ti c

Vi ole nc e - Pe rsona l Pr ote ct io n Or de r A men dmen t to Inc lu de C ompan io n A ni mal s , ado pt ed i n

2006).

Historical Changes 2: from "Broad" to "Specialized" guidelines

R ec ent a ni m al la w s r ep r e se nt a n e r a o f sp e ci es -o r i ent e d sp e ci a li ze d g ui d el i n es . I nt e rna ti o na l

o r ga ni za ti o ns , s uc h as t he U n i ted Na ti o ns , p ro v id e m or e g r oup -s p ec if i c an d d i v er ge nt s cr i p ts i n

rec en t de cade s. S ince t he 19 70s , f or in stanc e, t he b road c onc ept of hu man ri ght s has b ee n

di ve rg ed a nd co nc en tr at ed o n p ar ti cu la r c ateg ori e s, in cl udi ng cu lt ur al r i gh ts o f indi g eno u s

pe opl es an d r igh ts of ch il dr en ( So ng 2 00 8). Th e en vi ro nment a l po li ty, t oo , s pec ia li z at io n of

i nst ru ct io n is c ap t ur ed bo th i n na mes a nd c onte nts . I nte rna tio n al tr e atie s tha t sp eci a li ze d a t

p r ot ec t i on o f ver t eb ra te a ni m als in s ci en t i fic re s ea r ch ( e. g. , E ur o pea n Co nv en t i on f or t h e

P r ot ec ti o n o f V er te b rat e A ni m als us ed f or E xp e r im e nt al a nd o th e r Sc ie nt i fi c P ur p os es in 1 98 6 )

o r wi ldl if e an d th ei r h abi ta ts ( e. g. C onve nti o n on th e Co ns er va t io n o f E ur op ea n Wi ldl i fe a nd

Na tu ra l Ha bi ta ts in 19 79) . Li kew ise , a ni ma l l aw s i n th e US ha ve bec ome mo re spe ci ali ze d. B y

th e 19 50s , mo st l aws ha d ab str act n am es and s tr ic tl y co v er ed ma mma l s. Th e wo rd " ani ma l"

i m pli es d om e st i c at e d a n im al s. Usu al l y , d og s, h or se s a nd a nim al p r op er ty i n us e, a re g o ve rn ed b y

un iv er sa l la w (e .g .,MS - Do g - Co nso li da te d Do g La ws, a do pte d in 1 950 and C T - Equ in e

Ac ti vi ty Li ab il it y Sta tute , ado pt ed in 195 8). Si nce t he spe ci ali zati on of i nte rna ti on ale nvi r on m en t al gui d eli ne s a t ec o lo gi c al s us ta ina bi l ity , h ow e ve r , a ni ma ls i n l eg al d oma i n, c a n b e

e xo ti c a nim al s: r e pti le s, fi sh, p o la r b ea rs, se a ls , d ol p hi ns a nd o t her wi l dli fe . F u rthe r, a ni ma l

s ta tute s c omp ris e r ul es f or a p ar t ic ula r ty p e o f a ni ma ls a nd s pec ifi c h uma n be ha vi o rs. A

Ca l i f o rn i a s t a tu t e r e gu l a te s k i l li n g m et h o d s f o r n e wb o rn p up p i es an d k i tt e n s ( CA - Eu t ha na si a -

5 97 v. N e wbo r n d og o r c at; m etho ds o f k i l li ng , a do pte d in 1 9 72 ). A l t ho ugh i t w as no t p ass ed a s

a bi ll , a n Al a sk a s t at ut e p r oh ib i ts a er o -h u nt i ng of w ol ve s a nd Gr i zz ly b ea r s ( e . g. , AK -

Hu nti ng - A n A ct P roh ib iti ng th e Sh oot in g of Wol ve s an d Griz zl y B ears w it h th e U se o f

Ai r cr aft, i n 2 00 8 ). Th es e ex a mp le s sh o w th e cl ea r cha ng e s in a ni ma l l aw s .


7/8

1441

Conclusions

In thi s art ic le , I cons ider t he hi stori cal ev ide nc e pertai nin g to th e argu men t about the

c ha ngi ng n atur e o f " th e a ni m als " a nd t h e a do pti o n o f an ima l la ws. T he l eg a l s ta tus of a ni ma ls

ha s be en dr ama ti c al ly c ha nge d a s a r es ul t o f the e mer genc e o f th e ide as o f en vi ro n ment al

s ust ai na bi li t y a nd t h e r ig ht s o f no n-h u ma n b e ing s. I n t he e a r li er p er i o d, a n im al s w er e a s sum e d

a s ec ono mi c pr ope rty. T hi s do min an t as su mpti on l e d t o hu man -o rie nte d la ws a nd sa ti s fie d

h u m an i n te r es t s. Ho w e ve r, t he p o s t -w a r a ni m a l l aw s w er e b a se d o n a d i ff e r en t b e li e f . P e o p le i n

mo de rn s oc i ety be co me s ci en t ize d a nd the y ad vo ca te no n huma n ent it ie s w ho a re p re su m ed to

ha ve s ome r ig hts . Sci en ti fic fin din gs c ha mp io n th e shi ft i n t he no ti on of t he na tur e.

Co n s e qu e nt l y, a ni m a l l a ws be c om e m o re sp e ci e s -o r i en t ed . Th e re ce n t e x p lo si o n o f a ni m a l l a ws

a ls o p ro vi de s sp e ci a li ze d gu id eli ne s fo r p ar ti cu la r s pe ci es u n de r th e sp e ci fi c c on d it io ns . The se

fe a tur es ar e l a rg el y i nf l ue nce d b y t he t h em at i c s hi f t in i n te r na ti o na l en vi ro n m ent al p ol i t y a nd

th e ex pa nsi o n o f sc ie nti za ti o n in t h e c ou ntr y.Al t h ou gh I m ove t he l i te r at u r e f o rw ar d by s t ud yi n g th e hi st or i ca l p a tte rn o f a ni m al l a ws i n

th e U S, th er e are more que sti ons uns olv ed. Fut ure r ese arc h s houl d e xpl ore t he caus al

r el a t i on s hi p b e tw e en st a te - l ev e l a d o pt i o n a nd f e de r al l aw s a nd t h e in f lu e n ce o f i n te r n at i on al s hi f t

o n na ti o na l l eg a l a do pti on . Ec o no mic co nd iti o ns v a ry in g i n d i ffe re nt t im es s ho ul d be c o nsi d ere d

i n ne xt r es ea r ch as wel l. As the fi g ur es in thi s ar ti cl e dep i ct , the a do pti o n o f a ni ma l l a ws

s lowed down duri ng th e Great De pre ss ion . Empi ri cal dat a and analy se s e nable t o make

i nfe re nc es a bo ut ho w ma ny l a ws b ec om e f av ora bl e to a ni mal s unde r the d i ffe r ent ec ono mi c

c ir cu m st an ce s. F ur th e rm ore , q u es t i on s a bo ut t he i n te ra c ti on o r co nf l i ct s b e tw e en gui d e li n e s

s ho uld be a ns we r ed . Und er t h e re ce nt p ara di gm o f a ni m al la ws, a ni mal s a re r e co gn iz ed as

c om pa ni o ns and ent i ti e s h av in g so me rig ht s . A t th e sa me ti m e , th e y a re c ul t ur a l sy m bo ls fo r

na ti ve s. Thus , r el ig iou s s la ug hte r of an ima ls i s pr ote cte d by l aw ( US f ede ral la w, R FRA

( Re li gi o us F ree d om Re st o ra ti o n A ct, ad op t ed i n 1 9 93 ). Re se a rc h o n d y na mi cs o f d i ve rs e n o rm s

s ho uld be d one in the f u tur e . F ina ll y, cr oss -n at io na l a nd l o ngi tu d in al a na ly se s o n a ni m al l a ws

w or ld wi d e c a n p r ovi d e bo th g l ob al a n d r e gi o na l p ic t ur e s o f an im al w el f ar e a nd no nhu m an r i g hts .

To g eth e r, th e s e f u tur e r es ea r ch p at h s w i l l d e ep e n t h e u n der s ta nd i ng of t he r is e a nd e x pan si o n

o f a nim al l aws a nd cha n gi ng c on ce pt o f an ima ls.


8/8

1442

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