SO 022 449 AUTHOR Wangen, Roger TITLE INSTITUTION 91 · DOCUMENT RESUME. SO 022 449. Wangen, Roger Model Learner Outcomes for Social Studies. Minnesota State Dept. of Education, St

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DOCUMENT RESUME

SO 022 449

Wangen, RogerModel Learner Outcomes for Social Studies.Minnesota State Dept. of Education, St. Paul.91155p.; Cover title varies from title page.Minnesota Curriculum Services Center, 70 West CountyRoad B-2, Little Canada, MN 55116.Guides Non-Classroom Use (055)

MF01/PC07 Plus Postage.Educational Objectives; Elementary SecondaryEducation; Minimum Competencies; *Social Studies;*State Standards; *Student Educational Objectives*Minnesota; *Model Learner Outcomes

Comprised of four chapters and nine appendices, thisreport concerns social studies instruction in Minnesota's publicschool. In chapter 1 the Minnesota State Board of Education lists

education values, learner values, and its philosophy, mission, andgoals. Chapter 2 contains a discussion of the roles and purpose of

social studies education. Chapter 3 ident;fies model learner outcomesfor K-12 social studies education. The list contains only the programlevel outcomes and essential learner outcomes. Chapter 4 is concernedwith how model learner outcomes can be integrated into thecurriculum; specifically, it contains curriculum development modelsand strategies for evaluation. Nine appendices include: (1)

1987--Categories of learner outcomes for social studies; (2) Scope

and sequence: alternatives for social studies; (3) Time, space, and

culture; (4) George Counts, a visionary's contribution; (5) Designing

and scope and sequence; (6) A curriculum for democratic citizenship;

(7) Social education for social transformation; (8) Social stud''

within a global education; and (9) Professional organizationsresources. (DB)

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nepruaucLIons supplied by .Ut( are Lne best that can be made 7.;

from the original document.***********************************************************************

Model Learner Outcomes

for

Social Studies

Education

MDE

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONOffice of Educational Research and Improvement

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERIC)

()Ztetis document has been reproduced asceived from the person or organization

't originating itf:3 Minor changes have been made to improve

reprOductron quality

Points of vie* or opinions slated in this doqu.merit do not necessarily represent officialOERI position or policy

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISMATF,FiIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."

Minnesota Department of Education

BEST COPY MAKE

1991

Model Learner Outcomes for

Social Studies

Roger WangenProgram Specialist

Social Studies/International Education

Gene MammengaCommissioner of Education

© 1991 MinnesotaDepartmentof Education

Permission is granted to Minnesota school districts to duplicate this document fornonprofit, educational use. All others require written permission from theMinnesota Department of Education. Inquiries should be referenced to:Manager, Curriculum Services Section, 631 Capitol Square, 550 Cedar Street, St.Paul, Minnesota 55101.

To purchase additional copies of this document contact:Minnesota Curi*.culuni Services Center

70 West County Road B-2Little Canada, MN 55116

(612) 483-4442 or 1- (800) 652-9024

MINNESOTA

STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION

Kathleen Muellerleile First District

John Plocker Second District

Thomas Lindquist Third District

Mabel EvansCason Fourth District

Douglas Wallace Fifth District

Er ling Johnson Sixth District

Marjorie Johnson Seventh District

Thomas Peacock Eighth District

Alan Zdon AtLarge

Contents

Acknowledgments

Chapter 1 Minnesota State Board of EducationEducation Values, Learner Values, Philosophy, Mission, and Goals 1

Chapter 2 Introduction to Social Studies EducationRoles and Purpose

Chapter 3 Model Learner Outcomes for Social Studies EducationConcept Level Learner Outcomes 19

Chapter 4 Transposing Model Learner Outcomes into CurriculumCurriculum Development Models, Evaluation Strategies 32

Appendix

Appendix AAppendix BAppendix CAppendix D.Appendix EAppendix FAppendix GAppendix HAppendix I

1987 - Categories of Learner Outcomes for Social Studies 56

Scope and Sequence: Alternatives for Social Studies 70

Time, Space, and Culture 76

George Counts, A Visionary's Contribution 86

Designing and Scope and SequenceA Curriculum for Democratic CitizenshipSocial Education for Social Transformation 109

Social Studies Within a Global Education 115

Professional 123

98

6

SOCIAL STUDIES CONTRIBUTORS

The Department appreciate. the assistance of the following people in the development of this document and it

antecedents:

Ms. Rachael Ackland Mr. Wesley Bodin Mr. Bruce Dalgaard Mr. Steve FrazierMinneapolis, MN St. Louis Park, MN Minneapolis, MN Minnetonka, MN

Ms. Linda Ahlers Ms. Betty Boeklioff Mr. Nhat Deng Mr. Dick GastlerLake City, MN Duluth, MN Minneapolis, MN Duluth, MN

Ms. Bernice M. Anderson Ms. Charmaine Branch Mr. Ron Davis Mr. James Gay

New Hope, MN St. Paul, MN Minneapolis, MN Worthington, MN

Ms. Connis Anderson Ma. Sue Brenden Mr. Kenneth Doucette Ms. Mary Jo Gay

St. Paul, MN Sauk Rapids, MN St. Cloud, MN St. Francis, MN

Mr. David Anderson I% . Gabriel Brisbois Ma. Barbara Dow Ma. Gwendolyn Gentry

Fridley, MN lobbing, MN Minneapolis, MN Minneapolis, MN

Mr. Larry Andersen Mr. Randy Brown Ms. Loren Dunham Prof. Orlone Gisselquist

Austin, MN Hopkins, MN Fairmont, MN Minneapolis, MN

Mr. Richard Anderson Ms. Patricia Bruder Dr. Dan Eckberg Mr. Julian GreyMinneapolis, MN Belle Plain, MN Hopkins, MN Edina, MN

Mr. Bernie Auge Dr. Lawrence Byrnes Mr. Thomas Egan Mr. Gary Gromer

Northfield, MN Moorhead, MN St. Louis Park, MN Pipestone, MN

Ms. Patricia Avery Mr. John Christensen Dr. Vernon Ege Me. Susan Gross

Minneapolis, MN St. Paul, MN Robbinsdale, MN St. Louis Park, MN

Ms. Dorothy Barrett Dr. John Cogan Dr. Patricia Elder Ms. Rita Gundacker

Mqnkato, MN Minneapolis, MN Minneapolis, MN Apple Valley, MN

Ms. Madonna Barttolet Mr. Thomas H. Collins Mr. Lynn Elling Ms. Nelda Gustafson

Edina, MN Washington, D.C. Minneapolis, MN St. Louis Park, MN

Dr. John Bastolich Ms. Jill Cook Dr. Bob Falk Mr. James Hahn

Minneapolis, MN Wabasha, MN Duluth, MN Robbinsdale, MN

Dr. Robert Beery Mr. David Cooperman Ma. Rebecca Fanning Ms. Fran Haley

Rochester, MN St. Louis Park, MN St. Paul, MN Washington, D.C.

Mr. Paul Belgum Mr. Mike Corcoran Ms. Vernese Feldman Mr. Ed Hammersten

Brainerd, MN Burnsville, MN Bemidji, MN Edina, MN

Mr. Jerry Benson Mr. Jerry Cromer Mr. Troy Field Ms. Rita Hanoff

Luverne, MN St. Paul, MN Browerville, MN St. Cloud, MN

Mr. Michael Bergmann Ms. Mary Cunningham Mr. Tom Findlay Mr. Don Hansen

Walker, MN Woodbury, MN St. Paul, MN Hutchinson, MN

Dr. Marjorie Bingham Mr. James Curry Mr. Charlie Fitzpatrick Mr. James Hanson

St. Louis Park, MN Plymouth, MN St. Paul, MN Bloomington, MN

Ms. Jennifer Bloom, Esq. Ms. Ann Custer Mr. William Fleischman Mr. Bill Hare

St. Paul, MN Edina, MN Duluth, MN Cohasset, MN


Ms. Virginia Hartle Ms. Janet Jeffrey Ms. Pamela Leindecker Mr. Joe MorenMinneapolis, MN Rochester, MN New Hope, MN Hibbing, MN

Mr. Michael Haumrickhouse Mr. Fredrick Johnson Mr. William Leslie Ms. Ruth Ann MorganSt. Paul, MN St. Paul, MN Minneapolis, MN Rochester, MN

Dr. Robert Hendricks Ms. Tiana Kinstedt Ms. Linda Lewis Ms. Katherine MorrowSt. Cloud, MN St. Paul, MN Burnsville, MN Onamia, MN

Mr. Gerald Hentgea Mr. Tony Knapp Mr. Richard Lyttle Mr. John MuellerChisholm, MN Mankato, MN Thief River Falls, MN St. Paul, MN

Mr. Dave Herzig Mr. Norman Knuttila Mr. Joe Malevich Ms. Laura MyersMinnetonka, MN Grand Rapids, MN Aitle:n, MN Mankato, MN

Mr. Dewey Hinderman Mrs. Zada Koblas Ms. Melody Mafi Mr. Jeffrey NewellHopkins, MN Minneapolis, MN Minneapolis, MN Minnetonka, MN

Ms. Eifrieda Hintze Mr. Richard Koch Mr. Robert Marcotte Sr. Andre NinesMinneapolis, MN Minneapolis, MN Brooklyn Park, MN St. Paul, MN

Mr. Bill Hobson Ma. Kathy Koebensky Dr. John Massmann Ms. Nancy NortonHopkins, MN St. Paul, MN St. Cloud, MN Osseo, MN

Me. Ann Hoehn Ms. Elizabeth Koenig M3. Roxinne Matthews Mr. Ron NuebalMilaca, MN Minneapolis, MN St. Louis Park, MN Northfield, MN

Ms. Gertrude Hoff Ms. Karen Kooda Ms. Carol Mattison Prof. Bill NunnSt. Louis Park, MN Anoka, MN North St. Paul, MN St. Cloud, MN

Ms. Dorothy Hoffman Mr. Robert Kraftson Ms. Patricia McCauley Mr. Larry NygaardMinneapolis, MN Hastings, MN Minneapolis, MN Mound, MN

Ma. Helen Holm Mr. Dennis Kramer Mr. Bill McCracken Mr. Jonathan OlesonSpring Grove, MN Buffalo, MN West Lafayette, Indiana Duluth, MN

Mr. David Holman Ms. Dorothy Kueker Ms. Corinne Melvin Mr. Jim OlsonMorris, MN Rochester, MN Rochester, MN St. Paul, MN

Mr. Jack Houge Mr. Fred Kunze Mr. Howard Mielke Ms. Lynn Ow ?nsSt. Cloud, MN Moundaview, MN St. Paul, MN Minnetonka, MN

Ms. Marlys Hubbard Dr. David Lanegran Mr. Russ Miller Dr. Lorraine PalkertMinneapolis, MN St. Paul, MN Minneapolis, MN South St. Paul, MN

Mr. Alvin Husom Mr. Thomas Lapp Mr Bill Mittlefehldt Ms. Anne ParkinsonPequot Lakes, MN Red Lake, MN Anoka, MN St. Paul, MN

Mr. Gregg Iverson Ms. Sally Le Claire Mr. Jerry Monnon Mr. Kenneth PetersonCoon Rapids, MN Minneapolis, MN Fergus Falls, MN Anoka, MN

Mr. Bruce Jasper Mr. Russell Lee Mr. David Moore Mr. Ronald PetrichRobbinadale, MN Staples, MN Minneapolis, MN Minneapolis, MN


Mr. Mel Pibal Mr. Robert Salo Dr. Patrick Struve Dr. Mark WelterMinneapolis, MN Cambridge, MN Marshall, MN Robbinsdale, MN

Dr. Gerald Pitzl Ms. Roberta Saunders Mr. Rick Temple Dr. Edith West

St. Paul, MN Minnetonka, MN Alexandria, MN Minneapolis, MN

Dr. Edward Pluth Me. Mae Schunk Mr. Rick Theisen Mr. James Whittington

St. Cloud, MN Inver Grove Heights, MN Osseo, MN Oakdale, MN

Mr. Robert Pokorney Mr. Bob Seikkula Mr. Paul Theobald Ms. Muriel Wolter

Duluth, MN Minneapolis, MN Fairfax, MN Burnsville, MN

Mr. Ronald Poukert Ms. Terrie Shannon Mr. David Thofein Dr. Bob Woyack

Rochester, MN Duluth, MN St. Paul, MN Columbus, OH

Mr. Fred Price Mr. Richard Sherman Mr. Gary Thomas Mr. Dale Zellmer

Moundsview, MN Rochester, MN Elbow Lake, MN Anoka, MN

Ms. Laure Puckett Ms. Mary Jo Skaggs Mr. Bob Todd Ms. Jackquline Zerr

Minneapolis, MN Maplewood, MN Rochester, MN Marshall, MN

Mr. Brian Richards Me. Margaret Ski Lae Mr. Frank Trejo Mr. Peter Ziegler

North Branch, MN Edina, MN Minneapolis, MN Montevideo, MN

Mr. Robert Richardson Mr. Christian Skjavold Mr. Gene Uhlenhopp Mr. Garry Zonnefeld

Austin, MN Minneapolis, MN White Bear Lake, MN Edgerton, MN

Mr. Roland Ring Mr. Harold Skogren Mr. Bill UrbanakiElk River, MN Elk River, MN White Bear Lake, MN

Mr. D. Bruce Robb Dr. Lee Smith Dr. Gilbert ValdezSt. Paul, MN St. Louis Park, MN St. Paul, MN

Ms. Cynthia Rogers Ms. Mary Eileen Sorenson Mr. Ron VaugaaMinneapolis, MN St. Paul, MN St. Paul, MN

Dr. Bruce Romanish Mr. Richard Stebbins Mr. Michael VickSt. Cloud, MN Forest Lake, MN Inver Grove Heights, MN

Mr. Ken Rood Mr. Allen Stern Mr. Gerald Vita lisEden Prairie, MN Golden Valley, MN Minneapolis, MN

Mr. David Roasetter Ms. Jean Stilwell Ms. Mary Von EversKnife River, MN Minneapolis, MN Duluth, MN

Mr. Bob Sack Mr. Jon Strauss Mr. Roger WangenMinneapolis, MN Villard, MN St. Paul, MN

Ma. Jane Sage Mr. Donovan Strickland Mg. Joyce WatrudWarroed, MN Minneapolis, MN North St. Paul, MN

Mr. Mark Salberg Mr David Strutz Dr. John WelckleCambridge, MN St. Cloud, MN Burnsville, MN

Chapter 1

Social Studies

Education

Minnesota State Board of Education

Education Values, Learner Values,

Philosophy, Mission and Goals

Chapter One


Values, Philosophy, Mission, and Goals

School districts nationwide, and certainly in Minnesota, are constantly striving toimprove the learning experiences they provide students. The last two or three decadeshave seen heightened interest in improving all parts of the education process, includingappropriate involvement of students, parents, and the community at large.

The documents that constitute the Minnesota Department of Education's CoordinatedModel for Educational Improvement incorporate many of the concerns expressed andissues addressed by the public, Legislature, and in reports on the state of publiceducation. One of these documents, titled Goal and Outcome Specification Process,suggests a set of procedures for appropriate involvement of the public. Theseprocedures include public participation on the development of statements ofvalues,philosophy, mission, and learner goals. These sets of statements are a hierarchy ofincreasingly specific concepts ranging from values, the most general, to learner goals,the most specific, that give form and direction to public education. Given thishierarchy, staff skilled in subject matter and the profession of teaching can developvery specific learner outcomes for each subject area.

The following sets of statements were adopted by either the Minnesota State Board ofEducation or the Minnesota State Legislature for two purposes. First, they provide amodel for use by communities and school staff as they strive to improve the learnn.,7experiences they provide for residents. Second, they are the hierarchy used byDepartment staff and teams of educators as they develop model learner outcomes foreach subject area. The Mission Statement for Public Education adopted by theLegislature gives explicit direction to public schools. The State Board CurriculumRule3500.1060 adopted February 1990 lists the learner goals which must be incorporatedinto each district's goal statements. All other parts of this document are models,suggestions for the consideration of residents and professionals in each district.

Education. SystemValues

We believe the following values are preeminent for the education system.These attributes are to be reflected in all educational programs and operations.

Accountability A condition in every school whereby each is able to justify its use ofpublic resources by effectively fulfilling its mission of learning.

Effectiveness A condition in every school whereby each accomplishes its mission ata performance level defined by learners, parents, citizens of the community and state,and their representatives.

Efficiency A condition in every school whereby each accomplishes the highestpossible level of excellence with available resources.

Excellence A condition in every school whereby the highest possible standards forperformance are expected of all students and staff.

Flexibility A condition in every school which results in meeting the needs of learnersthrough sensitive and creative responses to changing circumstances.

Human Equity A condition in every school which offers equal opportunity andappropriate individualized support to each staff member in employmrlit and professionalgrowth and to each learner in the educational process. Also, a condition which fully,fairly, and accurately portrays various cultures, races, and genders in the instructionalprogram.

Responsibility A condition in which the school recognizes that the parent hasprimary responsibility to assure the child is educated, and in which a partnershipexists between the school, community, parent, and the learner to identify the learninggoals and needs of the child or adult learner and provide appropriate learningopportunities through which those goals can be met.

Responsiveness A condition in every school whereby diversity of personal andgroup needs and aspirations are expected, accepted, encouraged, and routinelyaddressed.

2 ; z

System Equity A condition in the education system whereby each school is providedwith the resources necessary to assist all learners in achieving excellence.

Wholeness A condition in every school whereby each gives necessary and appro-priate consideration to the potential career needs. spiritual, social, emotional, andphysical growth of each learner and staff member as it designs and implementseducational programs.

Visionary A condition in the education system whereby emerging trends whichwill affect the knowledge and skills required to be a successful adult are examinedand the knowledge gained is used to prod ice appropriate changes in the system'scourse content, procedures, and goals for learners.

3

Learner ValuesWe believe helping students develop the following values is a primarypurpose of education.

Accountability A quality in individuals whereby each knows, understands, andaccepts the impact and consequences of personal actions and decisions.

Citizenship A quality in individuals whereby each has an understanding, appreciation,and support of the institutions of American government and society, and a willingnessand ability to participate in the democratic process and in socially beneficial serviceactivities.

Compassion A quality in individuals whereby each is sensitive to the conditionsaffecting the lives of others and each has the commitment to assist others whenappropriate and possible.

Competence A quality in individuals whereby each attains maximum levels ofknowledge, skill, and affect commensurate with his or her potential.

Cooperativeness A quality in individuals whereby each interacts with others in amanner that mutually benefits all participants in the interaction.

Creativity/Flexibility A quality in individuals whereby each acts or expresses selfin new, improved, or unique ways.

Ethics A quality in individuals whereby each displays consistent personal anaprofessional integrity and an acceptance of the responsibility to act for the benefit of all

learners.

Honesty A quality in individuals whereby each is fair and straightforward in theconduct of human interaction.

Learning A condition in individuals whereby each continually strives throughoutlife to learn more and to increase personal levels of fulfillment and competence inhuman endeavors.

Problem SolvingA condition in individuals whereby each has the ability to identify,frame, and propose new, improved, or unique solutions to existing and emergingproblems.

Responsibility A quality in individuals whereby each strives to fulfill the obligationsof economic selfsufficiency and active commitment to the common good of society.

4

Self-Acceptance A quality in individuals whereby each has a positive selfimage,through assertion of rights, holding personal, physical, and emotional wellbeing as anideal, accepting personal talents with humility, and personal limitations with theresolve to improve where possible and accept where necessary.

Spirituality A quality in individuals whereby each recognizes and accepts theimportance of nurturing one's inner spirit, that creative force that transcends thehuman and the material.

Thinking A condition in individuals whereby each continually strives to improvepersonal skills for mental manipulation of sensory perceptions to form knowledge,thoughts, reason, and judgments.

5

Minnesota State Board of EducationPhilosophy of Education

We Believe . . .

. Every person can learn.

. Learning is a lifelong process.

. Every person must understand and accept self before he or she r.;an become acontributing member of society.

. Each person has gifts which the education program must seek, identify, andhelp to maximize.

. Advancement of the human race requires individuals who are honest,responsible, compassionate, cooperative, creative, and competent.

. The state and local communities have a shared responsibility to assist eachperson in learning.

. Each community has a shared responsibility with parents for meeting the needsof each child.

. . . The community and its school system must continually look to and strive tomeet the future education needs of society.

. . . The education system must assist each person to become functional in anincreasingly global and interdependent world.

. . . The education system must lead people to value and accept a wide diversity inhuman behaviors, sophistication, and values.

. . The education system must maintain high standards for responsiveness,human equity, and system equity in the provision ofeducationalopportunities.

. . Decisions regarding planning, implementing, and maintaining learningopportunities must be vested as close to the individual learner as efficient useof public resources allow.

. . . School systems must implement programs that stress the intellectualdevelopment of each learner in concert with the spiritual, social, emotional,and physical development of the learner.

6

. . School systems must model and nurture creativity in learners.

. School systems must maintain opportunities for all learners to developcompetence in personally selected areas of human development.

. . Professional educators have a responsibility to remain current with evolvingknowledge about human growth and development, learning theory, andknowledge of subject matter.

. . Professional educators and elected or appointed education policymakers have aresponsibility to account to the public for the excellence of their efforts.

. . Professional educators and elected or appointed education policymakers have aresponsibility to use public resources prudently and efficiently.

. . . Staff employed in schools must model the behaviors they are assisting learnersto develop.

7

Mission for Public EducationAs adopted by the Minnesota Legislative Commission on Public Education

and enacted into law, Chapter 240, Laws of1985

The purpose of public ed ition is to help individuals acquire knowledge, skills,and positive attitudes toward self and others that will enable them to solve prob-lems, think creatively, continue learning, and develop maximum potential for lead-ing productive, fulfilling lives in a complex and changing society.

Mission of the Minnesota State Board of Education

The Minnesota State Board of Education will provide the vision, advocacy, andleadership to improve significantly the quality of education throughout the state.

Mission of the Minilesota Department of Education

The Minnesota Department of Education provides leadership, service, and regulationto maintain and improve an equitable, uniform, and quality system ofpublic education

for all learners.

The Department provides leadership as an advocate for education by defining qualityeducation and by seeking the resources necessary to meet the needs of all learners.

The Department provides service throughinformational and technical assistance thatwill improve the productivity and performance of students and staff, and provide

opportunities for the development ofthe potential of all learners.

The Department regulates education by maintaining, interpreting, and enforcing

Minnesota State Board of Education rules, and state and federal laws.

8


Learner Goals

Learner goals are a series of statements that describe the knowledge, skill,processes, values, and attitudes that a learner can expect to achieve as aresult of active participation in K-12 public education. They are based on thepresumed current and future intellectual, social, emotional, physical, andcareer/vocational needs of students and adults in contemporary society.

Each district shall use the learner goals contained below as the basis fordefining program-level learner outcomes that are directly reflected in thedistrict's course and program offerings.

A. To effectively participate in learning activities, each learner will:

1. master reading literacy to gather information and data, gainperspective and understanding, and as a leisure activity;

2. master writing to explain, describe, and express a point of view andfeelings;

3. master listening to gather information and data and gain perspectiveand understanding;

4. master speaking to explain, describe, express a point of view andfeelings, and to discuss an issue;

5. master numerical literacy to apply mathematical functions to lifesituations;

6. master the use of a variety of tools, including electronic technology, toenhance learning;

7. master viewing and observing to gather information and data, and gainperspective and understanding; and

8. apply skills in selfexpression through visual and performing arts.

B. To provide a foundation for meaning in life, each learner will accumulate andapply knowledge and develop the understanding to:

1. participate in lifelong learning;

2. live within local, state, national, and world political and socialstructures;

9

3. examine personal beliefs and values and their relationship to behavior;

4. make ethical and moral decisions;

5. be a responsible citizen of the community, nation, and the world;

6. practice stewardship of the land, natural resources, and environment;

7. know the impact of human life on nature and the impact of naturalphenomena on human life;

8. express self through artistic creation;

9. know career options and the general education requirements for each;

10. know world and national economic conditions to make informeddecisions on consumer products, occupations and career needs, and useof resources;

11. select or prepare for a series of occupations that will personal.: atisfyand suit one's skills and interests;

12. manage personal affairs;

13. understand the physical world using systematic problem-solvingstrategies:

14. communicate and relate effectively in a language and about a cultureother than one's own; and

15. know the importance of geographic location in the functioning ofcontemporary society.

C. To think, decide, resolve issues, and meet needs creatively, each learner will beable to:

1. compare, differentiate, and relate information and facts and applyknowledge;

2. combine various facts, situations, and theories to formulate new andoriginal hypotheses or to develop new solutions;

3. critique and make judgments about materials, conditions, theories, andsolutions;

10

4. generate and value creative alternatives; and

5. apply the concepts and processes of science.

D. To value, understand, and accept human interdependence, each learner will beable to:

1. seek interactions and feel comfortable with persons who are different inrace, religion, social level, or personal attributes;

2. understand the basic interdependence of the biological and physicalresources of the environment;

3. understand the interrelationships among complex organizations andagencies in modern society;

4. understand how the citizens of the United States are geographicallyand socially connected to people and places in other parts of the world.

E. To value, understand, and accept the diversity of humankind, each learner willbe able to:

1. base actions and decisions on the knowledge that individuals differ inmany ways;

2. base actions and decisions on the knowledge that values and behaviorsdiffer from one social group to another;

3. base actions and decisions on the understanding that lifestyles andbehaviors reflect the value system of the societies in which they werelearned;

4. judge other's actions with an understanding of the personal and socialcontext of that action;

5. accept that there is more than one way of being human;

6. base actions and decisions on the understanding that as individualsmove from one society to another they can learn lifestyles and can learnto behave appropriately in different social contexts; and

7. act on the belief that human behavior is influenced by many factors andis best understood in terms of the context in which it occurred.

11

F. To address human problems through group effort, each learner will develop theknowledge, skills, values, and attitudes essential to:

1. act in accordance with a basic ethical framework incorporating thevalues that contribute to successful community life such as honesty,fairness, compassion, and integrity;

2. understand the importance of working in groups to achieve mutualgoals; and

3. be able to provide leadership in resolving personal and societal issues.

G. Each learner will be able to effectively resolve conflicts with and among othersby:

1. assuming responsibility to form productive and satisfying relationshipswith others based on respect, trust, cooperation, consideration, andcaring for other persons;

2. acting on the belief that each individual has value as a human beingand should be respected as a worthwhile person; and

3. resolving conflict in the manner most beneficial to society.

H. Each learner will be able to act on contemporary events and issues with aperspective of their historical origins:

1. understanding the origins, interrelationships, and effect of beliefs,values, and behavior patterns in world cultures;

2. understanding one's own culture and historical heritage through theliterary, aesthetic, and scientific traditions of the past;

3. being familiar with the ideas that have inspired and influencedhumankind; and

4. understanding the manner in which heritages and traditions of the pastinfluence the direction and values of society.

I. Each learner will develop a positive attitude toward self, demonstratedthrough:

1. a feeling of positive selfworth, security, and selfassurance;

12

2. a willingness to live with one's strengths and weaknesses;

3. a basic understanding of one's own body, its systems and physiology,and a positive attitude toward one's own physical appearance;

4. understanding that efforts to develop a better self contribute to thedevelopment of a better society;

5. understanding that selfconcept is acquired by interaction with otherpeople; and

6. appropriate control or release of emotions.

J. To set and achieve personal goals, each learner will develop the ability to:

1. select appropriate personal learning goals;

2. make decisions about one's life;

3. plan, act, and organize to realize one's goals;

4. accept responsibility for personal decisions and actions;

5. work now for goals to be realized in the future; and

6. select viable alternatives for actions in changing circumstances.

K. To cope with change, each learner will develop the ability to:

1. initiate appropriate change while respecting existing structures andconcepts;

2. tolerate ambiguity;

3. understand that coping with change is a lifelong process;

4. understand and accept the changing nature of work and the potentialneed to change careers several times;

5. use career information and counseling services to make informed andsatisfying vocational choices; and

6. understand that all knowledge is tentative and that as new discoveriesare made the knowledge base grows.

13 r J

L. To lead a healthy and fulfilling life, each learner will:

1. assume responsibility for one's own physical and mental health andsafety by establishing a daily regime of health behaviors that willmaintain mental and physical health and motor fitness;

2. make informed decisions about health products and services;

3. make a lifestyle that promotes healthful family living;

4. understand public health measures and their effect on the individual,family, community, and environment; and

5. be able to enjoy playskill activities that include understanding,cooperation, accepting rules, controlling emotions, following groupprocess, and acquiring selfsatisfaction.

M. To lead a productive life and actively contribute to the economic wellbeing cfour society, each learner will develop the work readiness skills of:

1. applying the basic skills of communications, computation, and scientificprinciples to reallife situations in a technological society;

2. defining and interpreting the nature of the work force in terms of one'sown challenges and opportunities;

3. leadership and citizenship necessary to succeed as an active agent in achanging work force;

4. understanding employment opportunities, job seeking and keeping,and specific work as they relate to transition from school to economicproductivity;

5. developing pride in good work and expecting quality in products andservices; and

6. adopting a positive attitude toward work, including the acceptance ofthe necessity of making a living and an appreciation of the value anddignity of work.

14 4

Chapter 2

Social Studies

Education

Introduction

Goals

Program Level Learner Outcomes

Chapter TwoSOCIAL STUDIES EDUCATION BELIEFS STATEMENT.

Over the years, social studies educators, to guide social studies thinking and actions,have supported brief and vague philosophical statements that permitted each K-12social studies teacher to do her or his own thing. As a result, we have experienced aperiod of curriculum anarchy and student performance tests consistently show poorperformance. With the Minnesota State Board's new outcomebased education plans,the Board will drop all current requirements resulting in each district's social studiesdepartment negotiating with local boards and administrators over future social studiesprogram offerings. To improve local decisions and program offerings, we recommenda much more detailed belief statement that clearly states the intent, rationale, andcontent of a quality K-12 social studies program. Below you will find a carefully draftedmodel developed by the Minnesota social studies teachers and professors who haveserved on the last two statewide committees. We encourage you to use it in part or intotal if it captures your committee's beliefs.

VISION

Social studies education is committed to preparing enlightened and empoweredindividuals to he humane, rational, participating citizens in a multicultural andinterdependent world. Social studies education provides a structured school andcommunity focus for the preparation of citizens in a democratic society. A commitmentto foster human dignity, a variety of thinking processes, and caring attitude is key tothe organization of the social studies curriculum. The goal is notonly preparation forparticipation as an adult member of the community, society and world, but to engagechildren and youth in active participation nowto enhance their lives and communitiestoday and in the immediate future.

THE MISSION

A quality social studies program results when each teacher models, connects, andreinforces concepts, skills, and attitudes to ensure individual development. Thisrequires serious attention to instructional issues and strategies, with special attentionto :.ridividualization, learning styles, indepth experiences, and democratic practices.Each individual needs to develop dispositions, perspectives, and habits of mind forindependent and interdependent thi-,king.

Effective social studies programs must prepare young people who can identify,understand, and work to solve the problems and controversial issues that face ourincreasingly diverse nation and the interdependent and evolving integrated world.Organized according to a professionally designed scope and sequence, such programs:

15

1. Begin in preschool, continue throughout life, and include carefully identifiedlearner outcomes and sequentially developed learning experiences at theelementary and secondary levels.

2. Encourage and recognize democratic student behaviors daily.

3. Foster individual, social, and cultural identity.

4. Include observation of and participation in the school and community as part ofthe curriculum, including service opportunities.

5. Enable students to explore alternative perspectives on significant and controversialissues.

6. Enable students to make viable decisions.

7. Demand appropriate standards of performance and assess student success bymeans that require more than the memorization of information.

8. Depend on caring, creative teachers broadly prepared in the humanities, thesocial sciences, educational theory and practice; teachers who ai 3 providedgroup planning time and staff development experiences to continually improvethe student's K-12 social studies program.

9. Use the community as a resource base for program development and studentinvolvement.

Definitions

Social studies is a basic subject of the K-12 curriculum that:

1. Derives its goals from the nature of participation in a democratic society closelylinked to all peoples.

2. Draws its content primarily from human experience and the scholarly perspectivesof anthropology, economics, geography, history, political science, psychology,sociology, and, to some extent, from the humanities and the natural sciences.

3. Is taught in ways that reflect an understanding of the personal, social, andcultural experiences of learners and an understanding of developmental processes.

An enlightened, caring, and empowered citizen may be defined as an informed person,skilled in the processes of a free society, who is committed to democratic values, is able,and feels obliged to participate in social, political, and economic processes and whoaccepts responsibility for the human condition.

16 r(

The times require citizens whose participation in the social arena includes threefundamental perspectives: a pluralist perspective, a global perspective, and a participatoryperspective.

At the heart of the pluralist perspective is a disciplined respect for human L ,Threncesof all sorts, but particularly of opinion and preference, of race, religion, and gender, ofethnicity and, in general, of culture. This perspective is based on the realization thatthere is diversity among people and the conviction that this diversity is good. From thisperspective, one seeks to understand and appreciate the multiplicity of cultural andsubcultural differences among peoples. From this perspective, one regards theexistence of ethnic and philosophical differences not as a problem to be solved, but asa healthy, inevitable, and desirable quality of democratic group life. From thisperspective came the founders' determination to protect minorities from the majority.

The global perspective is the knowledge, skills, and commitments needed to live andcontribute effectively to a world possessing limited natural resources and characterizedby ethnic diversity, cultural differences, and increasing connections among countriesar people of the world. An international or global perspective means viewing theworld and its people with understanding and concern. Understanding requiresknowledge of and respect for the differences and similarities of the world's people andhow they exchange goods, services, and ideas. Concern necessitates assumingresponsibility for the needs of all people and commitment to finding just and peacefulsolutions to global problems.

The participatory perspective involves competent and caring participation insocial, political, and economic processes, as well as an ongoing critique of thoseprocesses. Committed to democratic beliefs, the constructive citizen questions thecongruence of existing processes with the principles of freedom, justice, equality,responsibility, privacy, and diversity. Constructive citizenship is, therefore, more thanthe passive, uncritical acceptance of the status quo. It includes the ability to see the"takenforgranteds" in public affairs, to examine accepted practices, to engage indialogue with others about the public and private good, and to conceive new arrangementsand ways of viewing the future that may be more compatible with democratic valuesand beliefs. It includes, too, the courage to take an unpopular position in the face ofoverwhelming social pressure to conform. Without constructive, caring citizens inthepast, it is likely that many previously accepted practices, such as patronage, theharassment of religious minorities, discrimination of people with disabilities, and thedisfranchisement of women, blacks, and other cultural minorities, would never havebeen questioned and, to a degree, corrected.

These three perspectives are themselves interdependent and together shape thequality of the citizen's participation in public life. Cultivating citizens is the specialassignment of social studies education, and fulfilling this assignment is the centralprofessional challenge faced by social studies educators today.

The foregoing definition focuses the purposes of social studies on citizenship education.It recognizes the need to deal with social studies content from a global perspective.Although it identifies the social sciences, humanities, and natural science as majorsources of subject matter, it does not make the study of these disciplines an end in itself.Finally, the emphasis is on teaching procedures and content that are linked to thepersonal experiences of the learners, knowing today's students will live most of theirlives in the twentyfirst century.

Human dignity is a core upon which all values are constructed. In American society,human dignity has long been sought through thG struggle to implement such ideas asdue process of law, social and economic justice, democratic decision making, freespeech, religious freedom, selfrespect, and group identity. The idea of human dignityis dynamic and complex, and its definition likely to vary according to time and place.The essential meaning, however, remains unchanged; each perm)°, should haveopportunity and responsibility to know, to choose, and to act. From this perspective,the idea of human dignity should extend to all people.

Thinking processes refer to any systematic intellectual efforts to generate, validate, oruse knowledge. The power of thought resides in the explicit recognition of theopportunity to decide for oneself, in accord with the evidence available and the valuesone chooses. Therein lies the link between human dignity and the thought processes.

But without action, knowledge, or thought, the belief in human dignity or commitmentto global perspective is not of much consequence. It is essential that these major goalsbe viewed as equally important; ignoring any one of them effectively weakens a socialstudies program. The relationship among knowledge, beliefs, values, and skills is oneof mutual support. Each facilitates development of the others, and, in combination,they lead to effective participation in public affairs. Thus, a balance in emphasis isnecessary.

Remember to provide inservice or professional development foryour local policymakersspecifically on how social studies education has changed since they were in school. Theabove statements and the following learner outcomes can be very helpful in thiseducation.

18

Chapter 3

Social Studies

Education

Concept Level Learner Outcomes

Essential Learner Outcomes

U

Chapter Three

Identifying learner outcomes for social studies education, a subject that traditionallyprovidedthirteen years (K-12) of instruction and focused on citizenship development involving thedisciplines of anthropology, economics, geography, history, political science, psychology, andsociology was no easy task. The review committee struggled for over a year to arrive at thefollowing outcomes. This list contains only the program level outcon,e5 and essential learneroutcomes which include ONLY about one third of the total list of social studies learneroutcomes. The full list of the 1987 outcomes is included in theAppendix of this document. The1990 social studies review committee reduced the number of categories of outcomes orprogram level outcomes resulting in the shifting of many learner outcomes from one 1987category to another 1990 category.

The outcomes are also referenced to:

State Board Rule 3500.1060Learner Goals (found in Chapter 1 of this document)

the cognitive (knowing, applying, and integrating) psychomotorand affective development domainsState Board Rule 3500.0550

* multicultural* gender fair* disability aware and

State Board Rule 3500.1075 (subject areas to be integrated)* career and work readiness* environmental issues* family life and parenting* information technology* international perspectives* media* youth services

19

SOCIAL STUDIES PROGRAM LEVEL ANDESSENTIAL LEVEL LEARNER OUTCOMES

Social studies education provides a structured school and community focus for the preparation of caring,rational, participating citizens in pluralistic and interdependent communities.

STATE BOARDLEARNERGOALS

LEARNER OUTCOMESDEVELOPMENTAND CONCEPTEMPHASIS

TESTITEMBANK

B.1, D.4, F.1,

G.2

Opportunities will be provided for each student to:

A. Develop a reasoned and caringcommitment to individual rights, free-doms, and responsibilities that protectand promote human dignity by:

1. participating in an ongoing evaluative effortto define, interpret, and apply the rights ofof the individual, including the rights to:

a. lifeb. libertyc. pursuit of happinessd. dignitye. securityf. equality of opportunityg. justiceh. privacyi. ownership of propertyj. health

2. participating in an ongoing evaluative effortto define, interpret, and apply the freedomsof the individual including the freedom of/to:

a. participate in the political processb. worshipc. thoughtd. consciencee. assemblyf. inquiryg. expression

3. participating in an ongoing evaluative effortto define, interpret, and apply theresponsibilities of the individual to:

a. respect human lifeb. ensure the rights of othersc. be tolerantd. be honeste. be compassionatef. demonstrate selfcontrolg. participate in the democratic processh. work for the common goodi. respect tr e property of others

20

The development andconcept emphasis ofKnowingApplyingIntegratingAffectiveDisability SensitiveMulticulturalInternational/globalapply to all essentiallearner outcomes

STATE BOARDLEARNER

GOALSLEARNER OUTCOMES

DEVELOPMENTAND CONCEPT

EMPHASIS

TESTITEMBANK

B.1, 2, 3, 4, 56, 7, K.1

4. participating in an ongoing evaluative effortto define, interpret, and apply thebeliefs that:

a. societies need laws that are respectedby the majority of the people

b. minorities' rights are protectedc. government is elected by the peopled. government, groups, and individuals

respect and protect individual rightse. government, groups, and individuals

respect and protect individual freedomsf. government, groups, and individuals

guarantee civil libertiesgovernment, groups, and individualswork for the common good.

g.

B. Develop a pluralist perspective forunderstanding and acting to protectindividual and group differences locally,nationally, and globally by:

1. demonstrating respect for human differences,particularly differences of opinion and prefer-ence; of race, religion, disability, and gender;of ethnicity; and, in general, of culture

2. demonstrating awareness that the existenceof ethnic and philosophical differences ishealthy, inevitable, and desirable in demo-cratic group life, rather than seeingdifferences as "a problem"

3. demonstrating understanding that globalperspectives require a view of the worldas ethnically and culturally diverse withincreasing crosscultural and crossnationalconnections among all peoples of the world,while at the same time viewing the world'speople with understanding, caring, andconcern

4. seeking knowledge of the values, beliefs,and objective conditions that are the basesfor conflict among groups within the localcommunity, the nation, and in theinternational arena

6. making sensitive, reasoned judgments aboutthe legitimacy of conflicting claims at alllevels of human organization

21 J

Youth ServiceCareer and Work

Readiness

The development andconcept emphasis ofKnowingApplyingIntegratingAffectiveDisability SensitiveMulticulturalGender FairInternational/Globalapply to all essentiallearner outcomes

STATE BOARDLEARNER


DEVELOPMENT TESTAND CONCEPT ITEM

EMPHASIS BANK

6. making decisions which reflect thoughtfuland compassionate regard for others whendealing with conflicting claims at all levels

7. cooperating with others toward common Career and Workgoals; rejecting unthinking conformity by: Readiness

Youth Servicea. accepting own share of responsibility for

the work of a group; participating activelywithout trying to dominate the group

b. abiding by rules of a social organizationunless one can get the majority tochange them

c. acting and talking in such a way as topromote effective common action; search-ing for points of agreement; being con-siderate of other people's feelings withoutgiving up own principles.

8. supporting freedom of thought and expressionor those with whom one disagrees as well asfor oneself and those who agree by:

a. speaking out for freedom of thought Youth Serviceduring class discussions or in other Mediaschool activities Environmental

b. writing letters, joining organizationssupporting the freedoms, or in otherways taking action to indicate supportfor freedom of expression (or dissent?).

9. valuing and acting to protect due process by:

a. supporting due process in discussionsand case studies in and outside of class

b. joining organizations or in other wayssupporting movements to protect thosedenied due process.

10. accepting the will of the majority until dueprocess can be changed by peaceful means orno avenues remain open for peaceful change

11. feeling a sense of responsibility for takinginformed action about issues confronting oneas an individual, and as a member of agroup, the school, the community, thenation, and the world by:

22


LEARNER OUTCOPIESDEVELOPMENTAND CONCEPTEMPHASIS

TESTITEMBANK

Al,. 3, B.3, 5

C.1, 2, 3, 4, M.3

a. formulating plans for action afterstudying an issue, analyzing causes, andconsidering alternative courses of action

b. acting upon carefully formulated plans;joining with others to help solve groupproblems

12. accepting the responsibilities, as well asthe rights and privileges of United Statescitizenship

13. valuing change as a means of achieving goalsbut not equating change with progress;evaluating alternatives in terms of probableconsequences of action.

C. Develop habits of mind for independentand interdependent thinking; applyrational and caring ways of decision mak-ing for participation in an open democraticsociety by:

1. using reflective thinking for:

a. identifying major issues and suggestingpossible alternative solutions to situationsby:

1) finding central elements, ideas, andthemes

2) applying different ways of thinking3) stating the key issues clearly4) formulating testable hypotheses

b. gathering information by:

1) observing2) analyzing a variety of sources3) evaluating and using sources in

terms of their strengths andweaknesses

4) compiling, organizing, evaluating,and reporting information

c. processing information by:

1) analyzing ideas and events2) comparing ideas and events on the

basis of similarities and differences

23 r.

t

The development andconcept emphasis ofKnowingApplyingIntegratingAffectiveDisability SensitiveMulticulturalGender FairInternational/GlobalMediaEnvironmentalInformation Technologyapply to all essentiallearner outcomes


LEARNER OUTCOMESDEVELOPMENT TESTAND CONCEPT ITEMEMPHASIS BANK

3) formulating appropriate, searchingquestions

4) classifying information into categories5) interpreting information to arrive at

general ideas6) predicting from generalizations7) communicating information and

interpretations8) revising information and interpreta-

tions on the basis of new findings,changing conditions, and newperspectives

d. making decisions by:

1) generating and consideringalternatives

2) considering the consequences of each3) justifying decisions in relationships

to democratic principles4) acting on decisions made5) evaluating consequences (results) of

the decisions made6) reporting interpretations and

conclusions7) revising interpretations, conclusions,

and decisions on the basis of changingconditions and new perspectives.

e. participating in groups by:

1) seeking clarification of values,feelings, suggestions, or ideas

2) taking turns summarizing andrestating suggestions

3) using alternative roles in groupparticipation

4) applying skills necessary forachieving a resolution of conflicts.

2. developing awareness of different ways lifeexperiences are presented, processed,interpreted, and used by:

a. applying alternative culturalperspectives

b. applying intuition

c. identifying and exploring one's feeling-caring responses

24

. ) b

STATE BOARDLEARNER



EMPHASIS

TESTITEMBANK

B.3, 4, B.12F.2, 3, I.1, 2, 45, 6, J.1, 2, 3, 4J.5, 6

3. applying knowledge and skills forresponsible citizenship by:

a. demonstrating personal action toimprove the quality of life of others inthe immediate interpersonal community

b. making personally and sociallyresponsible economic decisions

c. supporting representative democratic governance bylaw and opposing unjust applicationof law

d. applying understanding of the structure,functions, and processes of governmentat all levels when responding to publicissues and human needs

e. using rational processes in dealingwith personal and public issues.

D. Create a dynamic concept of self as anactive participant, responsible for one'sactions in pluralistic and changing local,national, and global communities by:

1. acquiring knowledge of the complexityinvolved in interpreting personal beliefs,making judgments, and acting on goals andvalues by:

a. defining and developing personal goals

b. expressing awareness of the relative,strengths of oneself and the groups withwhich one identifies; recognizing thesocietal barriers to full development thatmay exist; suggesting ways to maximizeone's effectiveness

c. examining one's own beliefs and valuesand the relationship between these andbehavior

25 )I


Career and WorkReadiness

ApplyingIntegrating

STATE BOARDLEARNER



EMPHASIS BANK

2. maintaining and further developing aconcept of self that demonstrates personaleffectiveness in human relationships andattitudes necessary to communicate by:

a. demonstrating empathy, experiencinganother person's feelings as one's ownfeelings

b. demonstrating caring for oneself andothers as:

1) liking, enjoying, and appreciatingoneself and others

2) being able to act to take care ofoneself and others

3) caring about ideas, rules, andstandards in terms of their value forpersonal wellbeing of self and others

c. being willing to take risks in relatingwith others as:

1) expressing feelings openly andhonestly

2) risking disagreeing with others3) soliciting perceptions from others

about one's own behavior4) risking displaying products of one's

own work6) seeking relationships with others

d. indicating by remarks and nonverbalbehavior that s/he thinks t/he cansucceed at a task that s/he feels goodabout by:

1) setting up goals and showing Career and Workpersistent effort to attain these goals Readiness

2) trying to do shortterm educationaltasks

e. listening to and weighing suggestionswithout reacting

f. feeling that s/he has some control overher/his own life as shown by the following behaviors:

26

STATE BOARDLEARNER



EMPHASIS

TESTITEMBANK

A.2, 4, 7K.2, 3, 6

g.

1) questioning authority when anyoneis treated unjustly by that authority

2) making judgments about participationin activities with respect to one's ownneeds, interests, and abilities

3) developing patterns of selfdirection

demonstrating political and socialefficacy. (Demonstrating that s/he caninfluence political decisions and improvesocial conditions by:)

1) engaging in work with communityagencies and youth service

2) participating in extracurricularschool activities

h. expressing awareness of the physical,intellectual, cultural, and social condi-tions of human beings, and suggestways these can be improved

i. demonstrating effective involvement insocial interaction.

E. Develop an inquiring attitude toward local,national, and global issues, a commitment toopenmindedness, tolerance for ambiguity;and the ability to recognize the tentativenature of knowledge, process, andconclusions by:

1. seeking knowledge of historical, cultural,and ethical perspectives for determiningappropriate responses to emerging events

2. developing defensible responses to worldaffairs, applying an understanding of globalinterdependence, respect for diverse politicaland economic systems, and respect for humandignity and the rights of all individuals

3. demonstrating a willingness to change one'sposition on an issue given new information

4. being curious and informed about currentissues by:

a. participating actively in discussions ofcurrent issues in and outside of theclassroom

27 ti

Career and WorkReadiness

Youth Service


Youth Service

STATE BOARDLEARNER



EMPHASIS

TESTITEMBANK

B.1, 2, 6, 7B.10, 13, 15C.1, 2, 3, 4D.1, 2, 3, 4, 5G.1, 2, 3, 4, K.6

b. making remarks which indicate use ofvaried sources as well as the evaluationof such sources

c, applying social science concepts tocurrent situations

d. raising questions about current problems,and/or expressing a need to go beyondcurrent data to understand them

5. evaluating information and sources ofinformation before accepting evidence andgeneralizations without prompting byothers

6. being skeptical of theories of single causationand being equally skeptical of panaceas;applying this through discussion and writing

7. being skeptical of the finality of knowledge;considering generalizations and theories astentative, always subject to change in thelight of new evidences and applying thisskepticism orally and in writing

8. valuing diverse ways of knowing abouthuman behavior and emotions and indicat-ing this orally or in writing and by theobserved approach s/he uses in consideringissues and questions.

F. Apply an understanding of the inter-dependent and dynamic nature of humansand their social, economic, and politicalcommunities across cultures, time, andspace by:

1, demonstrating ways of understanding howspecific elements of culture differ fromsociety to society and are structured interms of learned beliefs, values, andbehavior patterns

28


STATE BOARDLEARNER



EMPHASIS

TESTITEMBANK

2. demonstrating ways of identifying andunderstanding consequences of groupinfluences on individuals in terms of lifestage, social stratification, class, gender,and/or socially defined capabilities

3. demonstrating understanding of the waysan individual perceives others physically,psychologically, and socially and isinfluenced by the values and patterns ofbehavior of the groups to which belongs,aspires to, and identifies with

Family Life andParenting

Youth Services

4. demonstrating an understanding of the Family Life anddiverse cultural experiences of women and "arentin gmen and how the impact of institutions andsocial norms differs depending on one'sgender

5. demonstrating ways of understanding howinstitutions, such as family and religionrelate to the basic needs of individualsin different contemporary and historicalcontexts

6. demonstrating ways of understanding the Environmentalthemes of location, place, region, movement,and human-environmental interactionlocally and globally

7. demonstrating understanding of the ways Environmentalhuman beings from diverse cultures havemigrated, adapted to, and modified theirenvironments; explaining some reasons fortheir changes; and evaluating the effectsof such changes

8. demonstrating ways of understanding howlocal, regional, and worldwide events affectpolitical and -conomic decisions made byindividuals, communities, and nations incontemporary and historical societies

9. demonstrating understanding of how conflictfunctions at all levels, interpersonally toglobally, and evaluating alternative ways ofresponding to conflict

29

STATE BOARDLEARNER



EMPHASIS BANK

10. demonstrating an understanding of andanalyzing hui .n rights and welfare issuesby gender and class at all levels (from localto global), including, but not limited to:

a. resource depletionb. resource and income distributionc. environmental degradationd. population changee. economic and political wellbeingf. labor exploitationg. discrimination (i.e., racism, sexism,

classism)h. abusei. alienationj. violence

11. demonstrating an understanding of theways people and events in the world areconnected, including but not limited to:

a. ecologicallyb. economicallyc. politicallyd. sociallye. technologicallyf. historicallyg. culturallyh. ideologicallyi. religiouslyj. geographically

12. demonstrating an understanding that socialscience concepts and principles are mentalconstructs imposed on experiences; that theygain their power from their ability to explainand help organize "the facts"; and that theseconcepts, understandings, and analyticalquestions change as new knowledge andways of thinking develop. These conceptsinclude but are not limited to:

a. AnthropologyI. Culture 3. Evaluation2. Language 4. Institutions

5. Inventions

b. Economics/. Scarcity 3. Opportunity Costs2. Consumption 4. Production

5. Interdependence

30 42

Environmental

Environmental

STATE BOARDLEARNER


c. GeographyI. Location2. Movement

3. Place4. Region

5. Relationships within the Place


EMPHASIS BANK...0=111f

d. HistoryI. Civilization, Cultural Diffusion, and

Innovation2. Values, Beliefs, Ideas and Institutions3. Human Interaction with the Environment4. Comparative History of Major Developments5. Conflict and Cooperation6. Patterns of Social and Political Interaction

e. Political Science1. Citizenship2. Institutions3. Leadership4. Public Decision Making5. Ideology

f. Psychology1. Learning2. Personality3. Perception4. Values5. Needs

g. SociologyI. Culture2. Institutions3. Norms4. Groups5. Change

31

Chapter 4

Social Studies

Education

Transposing Outcomes into

the Curriculum

Chapter FourA MODEL PROCESS FOR DISTINCT

LEARNER OUTCOME DEVELOPMENT

PROGRAM PLANNINGStart planning your program at least one year prior to beginning a Progress Review byreading the following materials. Be sure to order them well in advance, it may takeseveral weeks.

1. Be sure to read the six alternative scope and sequence essays in Social Education,November/December 1986. National Council for the Social Studies. (SeeAppendix)

2. Subscribe to: Social Education, Naticnal Council for the Social Studies (seeAppendix); or The Social Studies, Heldref Publications. (See Appendix)

3. See attached. Building A History Curriculum... Bradley Commission... EducationalExcellence Network, Washington D.C.

4. Guidelines for Geographic Education, National Council for Geographic Education.(See Appendix)

5. Charting a Course: Social Studies for the 21stCentury, National Commission onSocial Studies in the Schools. (See Appendix)

Organizing The Big Picture

1. Set out a plan, however tentative, before planning inservice, writing anycurriculum, or reviewing materials for purchase. Include a timetable, availableresources, and a list of who is responsible for what. (See Appendix for a modelform.) Identify related opportunities, e.g., Planning, Evaluating, Reporting(PER), North Central Evaluation, international focus, Inclusive Education Rulefocus, environmental focus.

2. Consider all of the following components when developing a comprehensiveplan:

pre-planning - background reading, professional journals, and reports;

program development - previously written scope and sequence and visionand mission statements for the disciplines; learner outcomes (LO), essentiallearner outcomes (ELO), program outcomes, board goals, required offerings,rules, outcome based education (OBE), and student assessmentand programevaluation results;

learning/teaching - process of organizing for introduction, reinforcement,and maintenance of learner outcomes;

32

staff development involving appropriate staff in strategies for assessing,extending, and teaching the written curriculum;

teaching/learning environments "climate," includes class size, admin-istrative/peer support, physical room arrangement, school as a concept, etc.;

teaching/learning materials texts, software, supplementary, simulative,visual, and print news services, etc.;

communication how to get information about stages of program planninginvolvement to all people affected by it and how to get appropriate responsesincluding the curriculum advisory committee and school board; and

evaluation how to determine whether the program works

3. Provide effective leadership:

committee chairs with the time, training, experience, resources, support, andauthority to complete the task well;

committee members who have colleg al respect and communicate well;possibly a mix of new and experienced teachers and others;

committee members who know "up front' what their support responsibilities,time commitment, and resources are; and

a committee that is small enough to be manageable, but large enough to berepresentative of the groups affected by the curriculum work (teachers,administrators, parents, and students).

4. Don't be concerned if some steps overlap. Concurrence is a natural part ofprogram planning. For example, even though staff development is listed afterprogram development and communication in number 2, it makes sense to beginattending to staff development as program priorities emerge. This will helpdevelop buildinglevel involvement which may ease formal implementation ofthe new program.

PROGRAM REVIEW

The Dream

1. Start with small groups (representing a cross section e.g., gender, ethnicity/race,grade level, age) brainstorming: What are the problems facing humankind intoday's globalized world?

a. After about 10-15 minutes have the small groups circle the items listed forwhich their high school graduates need or deserve more instruction to beenriched, enlightened, and empowered citizens.

334 6

b. Box those listed where students already receive too much instruction.

c. Determine at about what grade level instruction could/should start.

d. Identify other subject areas that may also help teach the outcome.

From that list determine:

a. What is the nature of the contemporary world?

b. How it has changed since the 1940s?

c. How should social studies education respond to the changes?

d. What do you need individually and what does the staff need?

2. A second brainstorm might be: what are the social studieshistory concepts orbig ideas that would be helpful for the students in organizing real world data andinformation. (Repeat ad in the first brainstorm.)

3. A third brainstorm could be: what should an enriched, enlightened, andempowered citizen know, be able to do, and what democratic beliefs should onedemonstrate prior to graduation from high school. (Repeat ad in first brainstorm.)

4. A fourth brainstorm could be to identify the descriptions or characteristics ofpeople who have positive self-concepts. (Repeat ad in first brainstorm.)

5. Ask "If everything were working well, what kind of students would we beproducing?" Brainstorm a list of desirable student traits/outcomes for all agegroups.

6. Ask "In an ideal world, what would have to be in place, programmatically, toachieve these desirable outcomes?"

7. Leave the lists for the time being or go back and identify some priorities.

The result of these steps, if allowed to go forward unconstrained, will be a database fora vision statement (may have been called philosophy statement in the past) for thefuture which shapes and directs all steps and stages of the curriculum process. Work-ing toward a vision often energizes, motivates, and challenges staff members. Thevision statement should lead to a mission statement (may have been called rationalein the past) that explicates some specific actions, steps, or targets to improve the stu-dents program. Remember the activities your committee did that seemed helpful foruse later with your staff colleagues who are not part of the committee.

34

The Assessment

A next step is to assess the current status of the K-12 social studies program using ascriteria state social studies program level outcomes, essential learner outcomes,Minnesota State Board goals, and any additional goals and atcomes added locally.

1. Identify both students performance and social studies program strengths andneeds. This providers evidence of what deserves continued recognition, support,and celebration (acknowledging past good work is important), and providesstrength as well as what needs to be changed or improved.

2. Determine the system's .'apacity for change. Some things may need change, butthe system may not E ,_'::ale to respond for a variety of reasons. Whatever thecommittee does, mall it is well done even if it means leaving other thingsundone.

3. Determine, based on time and resources, whether you need a detailed or generalassessment. The former may arouse more interest by involving more people andwill establish a richer, more reliable database. The latter, if too general, rt_nsthe risk of yielding false or incomplete information.

Assessment instruments/procedures can include all or some of the following:surveys, questionnaires, checklists, interviews, formal meetings, forums, informaldiscussions, test results, samples of student work, and followup studies. Ofcourse, sampling procedures can be used with many of the above activities tolighten the task while maintaining credibility. Be sure to identify all relevanttests administered to students and analyze the results, including an item by itemdetermination of local expectations, in addition to comparisons with othernorms.

4. Use shortcuts, for example:

existing data about programs including North Central evaluation reports;

assessment instruments debigned to gather information about more than onesubject; or

modifying or eliminating certain of the program development categories ifyour committee thinks it knows enough already.

5. Display the assessment data in simple formats for easy reviewing and sharing.Give audiences examples of test items where students did well and wherestudents did poorly. The following is one sample format for assessing curriculum(student performance).

435

PROGRAM ASSESSMENT

Documented Strengths (test scores, student work samples, etc.)

1. Tenth-grade students score above the national mean in 8 of 11 history,geography, economic tests.

2.

3.

Documented Weaknesses

1. In community involvement, students show a consistent disinterest in politicalevents, reading current events, or engaging in community service activities.

2.

3.

Perceived Strengths (interviews, surveys, etc.)

1. Students at all levels have very few problems with the acceptance to qualityinstitutions of higher education.

2.

3.

Perceived Weaknesses

1. Student opportunities for advanced placement are lacking as reported in theNorth Central report.

2.

3.

36 4 5

6. Compare the ideal "what could/should be" list with conclusions drawn from the"what is" assessment data. Code or classify conclusions by program developmentcategory (program development, learningteaching, etc.).

At this point, the Program Review Section comparisons could be made to the"ideal state" brainstormed in number 1 under conclusions drawn regarding therelationship between "what is" and "what could be." Conclusions could also becoded or categorized under each of the parts of program development (i.e.,learner outcomes, staff development, etc.).

The needs assessment or program review should provide a fairly realisticappraisal of the current status. That, combined with the vision of the idealproduct, gives the committee a useful road map for future work.

Sometimes committees reach too far in the program development process andstretch teachers beyond their capability to understand or implement thechange. The result can be instructional programs which are poorly understoodeven resentedand poorly implemented. A clear example of that occurred in thelate 1960s and early 1970s when many districts across the country adoptedinnovative programs only to have them fail because most teachers were unpreparedor unwilling to teach anything but traditional social studies.

More often, however, committees do not reach far enough. This results inclutching tightly to the familiar and ignoring new and potentially betterapproaches.

This simple graphic illustrates the usefulness of comparing the real with theideal:

1 I 1

reall improved ideal exemplarystatus

quo

healthy goal

The real and ideal arbitrary points on the line provide references for setting thesights of the committee. Constructive change, particularly in schools, comesslowly, sometimes painfully so. Therefore, attempts at dramatic change areusually unwise. While change is desirable, it needs to happen in small

37

50

increments unless somewhat unique circumstances prevail (i.e., the districtemploys a high percentage of changeoriented faculty, or the district enjoys ahealthy fund balance, or things are so bad that dramatic change is the onlyanswer). Remember, change is the only way to improve. Also rememberresearch over and over reports people change when:

a. They see a need to change.

b. They know how to change.

c. They are involved actively in the change process.

d. They are secure in changing.

e. They are encouraged and supported in changing.

Program review, while time consuming and somewhat expensive, can morethan pay for itself if it helps lead to a program that meets the needs of studentsand the society while being sensitive to the political and economic realities ofthe district. If time is limited, select activities carefully and do each activitywell, leaving some activities undone until more time or resources are available.

PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT

The Program, Inservice, Evaluation

The practice in schools has often been to "write" curriculum and select new textbooksand then assume the job is done. From that perspective, program building andcurriculum writing are the same thing. It is also common practice to assume thatpurchasing textbooks is program building. The point is that a program is much biggerthan a written program or a set of books. Though important, both are just two piecesof the larger puzzle.

If, however, one were to set priorities, the written program development (meaningclearly stated goals and learner outcomes assigned to grade levels for introductionreinforcement, emphasis, and maintenance) would be of primary importance. Thefollowing triangle serves to illustrate:

How Well?Evaluation

What? When?Learner Outcomes

38

How?Instruction

The "what," and "when," represent written agreed upon K-12 program outcomes,whose specific program level outcomes and learner outcomes tell what and when areintended for students or what it is that students will know, value, and be able to do asa result of instruction. The "what" also serves as criteria for development of evaluationinstruments. As the expressed reason for being, the "what" needs to shape andinfluence every other part of the program. The "when" is determined by assigningoutcomes to grade and course level for either introduction, reinforcement, emphasis, ormaintenance.

The "how" represents delivery of instruction or facilitating of learning.Components include instructional practices, scheduling of students' and teachers'time and space, and instructional materials. To be most relevant and effective, designeach one of them to support the outcomes of the written program. For example, ifapplication represents an important outcome, it would be unwise to select textbooksand supplementary materials which are weak in that area.

The final element, representing evaluation, also needs to support and reflect thewritten program or the outcomes of the program or it will get lost or subverted. A simpleexample is the tendency to write curricular outcomes which stress "selfexpression,"but use evaluation instruments which ignore expression and instead stress knowledgeof history. Obviously, the interdependent nature of the program parts and the need tocoordinate and integrate the program development process are essential considerationsin this work.

Given a clear understanding of the role of the written program, the committee can thenmove through the steps listed in the sample plan, starting with an analysis of theresults from the program review.

It is not necessarily essential to ascertain what is currently being taught except interms of the ideal and the Board goals, program level outcomes and essential learneroutcomes. Also asking what is currently being taught may discover a program that just"happened by everybody doing their own thing and not caring what others wereteaching." If the program review did not yield enough information about that question,some additional probing may be needed. That probing can be very detailed, as incurriculum mapping, where every outcome is accounted for, or can be as simple ashaving teachers list their new priority outcomes or topics. Once a representativesample of current curricular priorities is assembled, it is possible to review the list forobvious gaps or overlaps in the program.

In addition, the committee needs to be alert to current theory and practice in the field.What is the status of thinking skills? Are the latest views on application beingexamined? How is social studies education being integrated with other subjects? Is lesstime being spent on history as an isolated discipline? Is that what the students andsociety needs? These kinds of issues may have been addressed in the program reviewstage. If not, they need to be looked at now and incorporated into the comparisonbetween the real (status quo) and the ideal. In other words, it is important to know

39

the status of the district with respect to current national and global viewsabout curricular priorities. If, for example, the curriculum is still largely historybasedstudy of wars, movement toward an integrated historysocial science curriculum willtake more time.

At this point, the committee should have a prioritized list of additions or changes whichit wishes to include in the new curriculum. No curriculum writing should occuruntil this preliminary work has been accomplished. To start writing/revisingbefore this work has been done risks building a curriculum that is disconnected fromthe past or uninspired by the future a curriculum that is either too strange or toomeek to serve the needs and interests of students, society, and teachers. Also remembermany school board members and other policy makers have "taken" social studies andtoo frequently remember how social studies has served them over the years. We needto inform them of what the current program will do for the students anisociety.

In summary, a simplified view of the learner outcome stage of program developmentmight look like this:

Phase One:Review status of the district social studies program direction and examine currenttheory and practice as reflected in its professional literature.

Phase Two:Compare current program with current theory and practice and identify prioritychanges or additions (if any).

Phase Three:Write/revise the program mission and learner outcomes.

I I 0

40

Four-Step Model for Learner Outcome Writing

Having now reached the learner outcome identification stage, a model may be helpfulfor suggesting the next steps:

Daily learneroutcomes andlesson plans

Grade level orcourse outcomes

K-12 program andlearner outcomes (Chapter 3 of this document)

Program missionand outcomes

State Board Goals (Rule 3500.1060)and district philosophy and goals

1. Review State Board's and local board's philosophy and goals.

Become familiar with the Minnesota State Board's goals (found in Chapter 1),program level outcomes, and essential learner outcomes (found in Chapter 3). Ifnot done during the program review, check the school board's overall philo-sophy and goals to see if they mention social studies topics or concepts like theState Board goals include. Often the social studies are included among the dis-trict's highest priorities when reviewing philosophical statements. If so, buildfrom that base in establishing the program's mission or philosophy. If stronglanguage concerning citizenship and social studies is in the board goals, it makessense to use that to the committee's advantage whenever possible. If there isno mention in the board goals, the committee may want to assist the boardin correcting that omission.

2. Develop mission/philosophy and major goals.

The purpose of a mission or philosophy (we do not choose to make a distinction)is to declare, clearly and boldly, why social studies is included in thedistrict's general curriculum, and what it purports to do for studentsand our democratic society. It should be a kind of public relations bannerfor staff, students, parents, and the community. It should set the direction andtone for the entire program, and all goals and outcomes should be consistent withthat direction. Over the years, social studies educators have preferred shortphilosophical statements that did not say much, permitted teachers to teach

whatever each wanted to, and did not provide any directions. But remember, ina couple of years the State Board will have no course or time regulations. So yournew mission will, hopefully, "justify" the program you are about to develop.

Start comparing the existing philosophy with the priorities you listed inPhase Two and the mission statement in Chapter 2. You may just have toadd some new language or alter the old.

If none exists, brainstorm a list of your own "we believe" statements aboutK-12 social studies education. Use small K-12 groups to generate ideas.Use information generated during the brainstorming in the programreviewand dreaming steps.

Example:

We believe that a firstrate social studies program:

a. encourages higherorder thinking through the use of all social studiesskills

b. stresses the integrated use of the social studies

c. develops empowered citizenship awareness and understanding.

Merge the products of the smallgroup brainstorming sessions into one list.Group similar items under general headings (e.g., aesthetics, lifelongskills).

Write a draft mission/philosophy. May be done by one member or several.Use ideas from your program review stage. Use language, if desired, fromChapter 2 of this document or, with proper acknowledgment, from theMinnesota Department's and other districts' mission statements.

Pass the draft through the appropriate review process before the committee'sadoption and send to the school board for approval.

Identify program level outcomes which flow from the mission andwhich giveform to the learner outcomes and essential learner outcomes that follow andreview the Minnesota Department's program level and essential outcomes(found in Chapter 3) first, then add your district's outcomes.

3. Identify outcomes; develop scope and sequence.

After identifying major program level outcomes, both state and local, identifymore specific learner outcomes in terms of where introduced, reinforced,emphasized, and maintained. Next, structure or sequence the outcomes. Theprocess will vary depending on whether the task involves revising/updating

42rI t)

existing curriculum or starting from scratch. Any existing curriculum baseshould be used no matter how outdated it appears. To not consult or start froman existing document sends a message that earlier committee work is not valued.Staff members need to see links from past to present work or they may assumethat, at some point, their work will be ignored as well.

Before writing or revising outcomes, the committee must have the list of prioritycurriculum changes or additions which came from Phase Two. We suggestinitiating the outcome identification process by using the example assessmentworksheet in A?pendix 2. List the outcomes on the sheet. Include both the StateBoard-adopted program level and essential learner outcomes and thedistrictdeveloped outcomes.

Simply go through the worksheet pages outcome by outcome, responding to thethree questions above the columns. Feel free to add outcomes if a gap exists.

Prioritize the outcomes. Think about the following as you set priorities.

Essential vs. "nice to include."

"Less is more." Provide a single, focused, and balanced direction for theprogram development and instruction. However, in outcome-based education,teachers must be responsible for teaching the teacher-determined outcomes.In the past, many districts permitted teachers to teach whatever theywanted.

Effect of departmentally selected K-12 outcomes: should encouragecooperation, innovation, feeling of being more successful, should provideeach student with a comprehensive social education and adaptation tochange.

Sequence the priorities by grades. This can be tentative, changed later ifnecessary (primary/intermediate, middle school/junior high, senior high).

Identify level of instruction to indicate difference between initial and moreadvanced learning. (I = Introduction, E = Emphasis, R = Reinforced, M =Mastery or Maintenance). You may use a different coding system.

An important distinction needs to be made between social studies and someother disciplines. Very few of the higherorder outcomes in social studies areever "mastered." For example, the outcome "the student will understand therole the United States Supreme Court plays in our democratic society" willnever really b "mastered." For instructional purposes, it might be best to use"maintenance rather than "mastery" for those outcomes which defy simplemeasurement. Maintenance is less preci7e then mastery, but more functionalfor many higher-order outcomes. A maintenance level occurs when a student is

43r

b

observed to understand a concept sufficiently well to be able to apply itindependently. Thus, a student could be observed to collect a newspaper articleon a recent Supreme Court decision and be able to summarize the "facts of case"and the importance of the decision without being judged as having mastered it.

Address this question, "What is the current opportunity for students in ourdistrict program to attain this outcome?" While not an essential step, itprovides another indicator of your district's status of instruction and helpsyou set priorities.

Some Practical Suggestions:

Ideally, at least a full year should be allocated for the curriculum writing/revising process. It may take less time if larger amounts of group andindividual time can be devoted to the project. It goes without saying that thistask demands quality time, not just before or after school or on weekends.If proper time is not available for this activity, it probably should notbe started. Another factor which affects time is the amount of attentiongiven to reviewing each new draft. Remember program renewal is a K-12team activity.

When working through the assessment worksheets, the committee shouldpace itself so that not more than five minutes are devoted to any outcome thefirst time through. Outcomes which require more discussion can be starredand returned to. If time is attended to, these assessment worksheets can befinished in about a half day. If time is not monitored, this step will drag onfor hours. Remember, you are working on a draft, not a perfected copy.Also remember that becoming familiar with the learner outcomes andimplications for instruction and evaluation are staff development activities.

The outcome identification process is probably best accomplished in a small(4-6) K-12 group representing a cross section of the total committee.

All along the way decide which tasks are best accomplished in large group,small group, or by an individual.

Need it be said? Use the word processor! It is the greatest thing eve/created for program writing.

4. Develop grade-level or course outlines.

Print out separately the outcomes (essential and district) which have beenassigned to each grade level or course. The teacher or teachers responsible forthese grade levels and courses will use these outcomes as the basis for their ownofferings. As previously suggested, perhaps 60 percent of each teacher's

44

instructional time will be devoted to the district outcomes. In order to reinforcelinkage from course to course and grade to grade, we suggest that teachers codeeach outcome (I, R, E, M) in their outline. In the Appendix, please find a modelcourse or grade level worksheet that may be helpful in grade and course levelplanning. Note: You are encouraged, at this level, to add instructionalobjectives for lesson and unit instruction, recommended materials, and possibleevaluation instruments.

The purpose of all program development is to ensure that each student isprovided an opportunity to learn what the local K-12 program committee deter-mines. Also this program development should help each teacher clarify whatlearner outcomes are to be introduced, reinforced, emphasized or maintained,what student materials are available for instruction, and what evaluationinstruments are recommended for this grade or course.

.111.4.4u I jEDUCATION FROM MISSION TO LESSON OUTCOME

LEGISLATED MISSION

The purpose of public education is to help individuals acquire knowledge, skills, andpositive attitudes toward self and others that will enable them to solveproblems, thinkcreatively, continue learning, and develop maximum potential for leading productive,fulfilling lives in a complex and changing society.

LEARNER GOAL (MRC 3500.1060B5)

To provide a foundation for meaning in life, each learner will accumulate and applyknowledge, and develop the understanding to be a responFible citizen of the community,nation, and world!

PROGRAM OUTCOME (SOCIAL STUDIES EDUCATION) (MRC3500.175 GeneralEducation Program Requirement)

A. Develop a reasoned and caring commitment to individual rights, freedoms,and responsibilities that protect and promote human dignity.

CONCEPT OUTCOME

A.4. Participate in an ongoing evaluative effort to define, interpret, and applythe beliefs that:

a. societies need laws that are respected by the majority of the peopleb. minorities are protectedc. government is elected by the people

45 5

d. government, groups, and individuals respect and protect individualrights

e. government, groups, and individuals respect and protect individualfreedoms

f. government, groups, and individuals guarantee civil libertiesg. government, groups, and individuals work for the common good

A.4. Participates in an ongoing evaluative effort to define, interpret, and applyt' e rights of the individuals, including the rights to:

a. lifeb. libertyc. pursuit of happinessd. dignitye. securityf. equality of opportunityg. justiceh. privacyi. ownership of propertyj. health.

COURSE OUTCOME

B.11. Feels a sense of responsibility for taking informed action about issuesconfronting one as an individual, and as a member of a group, the school,the community, the nation, and the world.

UNIT OUTCOME

B.11a. Formulates plans for action after studying an issue, analyzing causes, andconsidering alternative of action.

B.11b. Acts upon carefully formulated plan; joins with others to help solve groupproblems.

LESSON OUTCOME

Learners will, in small groups, brainstorm the diverse groups found in their school (e.g.,Norwegians, American Indians, a Jehovah Witness, rich, tall, or blond). Select one ofthe groups and identify some of that group's beliefs, values, and perspectives thatmight be similar and different from yours and determine what one needs to understandhow that group's rights have been denied in your school and your plans to correctthe situation.

46

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Appendices

Social Studies

Education

A . 1987 - Categories of Learner Outcomesfor Social Studies

B. Scope and Sequence: Alternatives forSocial Studies

C. Time, Space, and Culture

D. George Counts, A Visionary'sContribution

E. Designing a Scope and Sequence

F. A Curriculum for DemocraticCitizenship

G. Social Studies Within a Global Education

H. Professional

a 3

CATEGORIES OF LEAR,IER OUTCOMES FOR SOCIAL STUDIES

State Boardof EducationLearner Goals Learner Outcomes

Developmental/ConceptEmphasis Assessment

COGNITIVE OUTCOMES. The learner develops an understanding of the relationships between human beings and their socialand physical environments in the past and present; develops an understanding of the origins, interrelationships and effects ofbeliefs, values and behavior patterns, and applies this knowledge to new situations and data.

A. The learner acquires knowledge about social organizations.

A, B. 1. Identifies some groups that human beings form (e.g., family,C, D, peer, community, cultural/ethnic, national, international) andE, F, indicates some reasons wh / and how these groups form and how1. 5, 6 one becomes a member of a group.

B.2,7,8,D.1, E.1,2,F.3,4,H.1,2,3

A, B.1,2,C.1,2,D. 2,E.2,3,F.1,4,1-1.3, K.3

A, B.1,2,8,11, C.1,2,3, 0.2,3,E.3, F.3,4,5,H.3 K.1,2,3,

A, B.1,2,3,6C.1,3, D.1,2,E.1,2,3,H.1,2,3,4,K.1,3

A, 13.6,7,D, E,G .1, 2,1-1. 1, 3

A, B, C,D.3, E.2,3,F.1,2,H.1,2,3,1.6, K.1,

A, B.3,9,E. F.1,2,3,5,H.1,

2. Identifies some preferences among people that lead to groupidentification (e.g., common interest, common heritage).

3. Describes some of the functions of groups such as family, peer,community, professional, national and international groups invarious cultures and indicates how and why these functionschange; gives explanations of the consequences of these changingfunctions.

4. Describes some of the functions of basic institutions (e.g.,educational, labor, consumer groups, legal, religious, financial,health care, business) in various cultures and indicates how andwhy these functions change.

5. Identifies "cultural universals" such as shelter, food,communications, socialization, stratification, family organizationand religion; recognizes that these "cultural universals" takedifferent forms in diverse cultures and that these forms changeover time.

6. Describes some of the basic patterns of human settlement (e.g.,nomadic, village, city) and describes similarities and differencesbetween these patterns from a multicultural perspective.

B. The learner acquires knowledge about self, others and therelationships between human beings and social environments,understands some of the effects of these relationships and makesvalue judgements about the consequences of these relationships froma multicultural perspective.

1. Identifies and describes some influences including controls thatgroups (e.g., family, peer) and institutions have on individualbehavior and attitudes (e.g. , choices of clothes, food, language,recreation, attitudes toward other people and institutions, andcultural perceptions) and compares these influences with thosein other cultures.

2. Identifies individuals, females and males, and multicultural andgroups whose efforts, ideas or inventions have significantlyaffected the lives of other human beings and describes theircontributions.

DUST CO If56

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Global

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Global

Applying,Integrating,Multicultural,Gender Fair,International/

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Global


Global


Global


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Knowing,Multicultural,Gender Fair,International/

Global

(The MinnesotaDepartment ofEducationhas two pro-grams for dis-tricts thatwant to "ass-ess" theselearner out-comes. Re-quested infor-mation aboutthe TestItem Bank andthe MinnesotaAssessment ofEducationalProgress andPiggyback Op-tion. Thesetwo programsare constantlychanging incontent, formand quality.)


Developmental/ConceptEm hasis Assessment

A, B, 3. Describes major changes that have occurred in the way womenF.1, 2, and men live or work (including one's own life) and explains

What ideas and inventions helped bring about these changes.

A, D,E, F

A, B.1,2,3,6,7,8,C, H

A, B.2,3,6,7,8, C,D, E, F,G, H, K

A, C.1,2,3,D.2

A, B.9,12,D.2, E.3,G.2, 1.5,7,8

A, B.1,9,11, D, E,F, G,

4. Describes some ways ideas, customs and inventions have beentransmitted and spread from one cultural group to another.

5. Describes some innovations (ideas or inventions) and explainshow these innovations have affected social, political andeconomic life among different cultural groups.

6. Describes some factors that might promote or inhibit change,and generalizes about their effect on society.

7. Describes and evaluates some of the effects of population densityand growth on the way people live.

8. Explains and evaluates some ways human resources have beenallocated, used and conserved in the community, the nation,other societies/cultural groups.

9. Gives examples of some effects on social institutions that mayresult from contact among diverse cultures.

A, F, 10. Explains how diverse ethnic groups (both within and outside aH.1,2,4 society) have contributed to the development of a particular cul-ture.

A, 1.4, 11. Knows major schools of learning theory and stages of learning in5, L. 1, humans; and describes basic types of learning, principles3,5 involved and application to human behavior.

A, B.1, E.1,F.2, 1.4,5,J.4,5,7,L.5

12. Defines developmental psychology and discusses the majortheories of development, including psychosexual, learning,behavioral, cognitive and psychosocial theory.

A, B. 1, 13. Evaluates prominent theories, research studies and findings1.5, related to the various altered states of consciousness (e.g.,L. 1,5 physiological processes involved, interpretation, importance,

and application) according to various authorities.

A, B. 1,C.1

14. Identifies authorities and theories in human perception anddiscusses their approaches.

C. The learner acquires knowledge about the relationships betweenhuman beings and the physical environment; explains where thingsare, why, and explains some of the effects of these relationships;and makes value judgements about the consequences of theserelationships.

57 Su

Knowing,Applying,Multicultural,Gender Fair


Global


Global

Applying,Integrating

Applying,Integrating,Multicultural,Gender Fair,International!

Global


Global


Global

Applying,Multicultural,Gender Fair

Applying,Integrating,Gender Fair

Applying,Integrating,Gender Fair




A, B.1,C.1

A, B.o,7,C, D.2

1. Identifies the major geographic features of the physicalenvironment in absolute and relative location terms and knowssome of the general relationships between and characteristics ofplace, regions, and location movement in Minnesota and theworld, and determines the ways these features can be depictedin map or graphic form.

2. Describes ways human beings of diverse cultures have movedand adapted to or modified their physical environment; explainssome reasons for these changes; describes and evaluates theeffects of such changes.

A, 8.8, 3. Explains and evaluates some effects of technology (e.g.,11, K.4 inventions and methods of production) on the relationship

between cultural groups and their physical environment.

A, B.1,6,7,11,D.2, J.3

B.1,4,F.I,3,4,G.3, 1.5,6, K.3,4

A, B.2,11C, D.3F.4, G.3,H.1

A, 3.1,2,4, C,0, E, F,H

A, B, C,E.3, 11.1,3, 1.6,8,J.2,4,5,7, L.1-3

A, B, C,0, E, F,G, H, K

A, B, C,D, E, F,G,

4. Explains and evaluates ways in which natural resources havebeen allocated, used, transported, and conserved in the com-munity, regions, the nation and in other societies/culturalgroups.

D. Acquires knowledge about economic and political decision-making pro-cesses.

1. Gives examples of some decisions made at home, in school, inpeer groups or at work which affect the individual; identifieswho makes these decisions and describes how these decisionshave affected individual behavior based on gender and race.

2. Identifies how different economic systems make decisions aboutthe production and distribution of goods in community,cultures, state, national and international situations; suggestssome reasons for these decisions and indicates possible effectsof these decisions.

3. Identifies some -lecisions made about services (e.g., protection,health care, transportation) in community, state, national andinternational situations; suggests some reasons for thesedecisions and indicates possible effects of these decisions.

4. Explains the influence of location, life style, advertising, levelof income, peer pressure and governmental action on consumerdecisions; describes and evaluates individual or group actionstaken to protect the consumer.

5. Demonstrates knowledge of political science as the study ofsystems by which diverse cultural groups govern their collectiveaffairs, particularly through authorative decisions about whogets what, when and how. This knowledge includes varioustheoretical approaches (e.g. , normalities and behavioral) andbasic methods of inquiry (e.g. , case study, comparative andexperimental) and uses political concepts (e.g., power,ideology, deci-l-n making, roles, elites and classes,expectation, legislative, and judicial).

6. Describes some of the reasons why people form governments.

T iftlidELE

Developmental/Concept

_Emphasis

Applying,Psychomotor,International/

Global

Applying,Integrating,International/

Global,Multicultural,Gender Fair

Applying,Integrating,Multicultural,Gender Fair


Global

Applying,Affective,Multicultural,Gender Fair


Global


Global



Applying,Multicultural,Gender Fair,International!

Global

Assessment



A,B. 1 -9,1), F,G, li

A, B, C,D, E, G,G, H

A, B, C,D, E, F,G, H

A, B. C,D, E, F,G, H, K

A, B, C,D, E, F,G, H, K

A, B, C,E, F, G,H, I, K

A, B, CD, E, F,G, H, I,K

A, B, C,0, E, G,H. K

A, B, C,D, E, G,H, K

A, B, C,D, E, G,H, K

A, B, C,0, E, F,G, H, K

7. Identifies the legislativJ, executive, and judicial structure andfunction of governments including within their school andcommunity.

8. Identifies the rights of the individual as expressed in ideologicaldocuments (e.g., the United States Constitution) and explainsthe importance of these rights in public and private decisionmaking.

9. Explains the formal and informal relationships among thebranches of the national, state and local governments in theUnited States and other countries and analyzes the importanceof these relationships in decision making over time.

10. Identifies the changing relatir 'ships in the division of powerbetween local, state and national governments, in the UnitedStates and other countries and analyzes sorr,-2 effects theserelationships have on the decision-making process.

11. Identifies specific interests of some of the major economic,social, and political organizations in the United States and othercountries and describes some influences these groups have onthe decision-making process.

12. Compares, contrasts and evaluates ways individuals or groupscan support or effect changes in decisions that have been madeover time and identifies political thinkers from Western andnon-Western countries.

13. Identifies situations (e.g., home, school, peer groups,community, national, international) where female/male orcultural group participation in decision making has been affectedby lack of opportunity; suggests and evaluates ways ofincreasing participation.

14. Identifies and explains factors affecting political decision makingby elected officials.

15. Identifies some factors (e.g., lack or distortion of data, no clearcause and effect relationship, impact of time, conflict of valuesincluding cultural differences) that male political and economicdecision making processes difficult and uncertain.

16. Compares and contrasts decision-making processes of democraticand totalitarian political systems and socialistic and bothWestern arid non-Western capitalistic economic systems.

17. Identifies major factors and ideas which have contributed to theeconomic and political development of selected Western and non-Western countries; explains how some of these factors haveinfluenced the decision making process.

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Applying,Integrating,Affective,Multicultural,Gender Fair,International/

Global


Global


Global

Applying,Integrating,Multicultu ral,Gender Fair,International/

Global


Global


Global





Global



A, B, C.E, F,

u, H. K

A, B, C,D, E, F,G, H, K

A, B, C,D, E, F,G, H, K

A, B.3,4,7,8, C,

E, F,G, K

A, B.3,4,7,8C,), E, F,G. K

A, C, E,F, G, J,K, L.6

A, B, C,D, E, F,G, H, K

A, B, C,D, E, F,G, H, K

A, 13, C,D, K, F,G, H, K

18. Identifies and explains some of the contemporary and prevailingpolitical economic interactions among Western and non-Westernnations.

19. entifies some systems that v ous Western and non-Westernnations have developed to inN,olve the general population indecision making, and describes how these systems have evolvedover time.

20. Explains how an analysis of the political and economicdecision-making processes employed in the past may or may nothelp in making decisions about the future.

E. The learner acquires knowledge about conflict and the impact it hason individual and cultural group relationships, and m'kes valuejudgements about these relationships.

L. Identifies potential sources of conflict in groups (e.g., family,peer, school, culture, community, national and international).

2. Identifies specific situations in the community, national andinternational areas, where there is potential or actual conflict;explains some reasons for the conflict; predicts the conse-quences of the conflict.

3. Identifies ways people react to conflict in family, peer, school,cultural, community, national and international situations, andevaluates those reactions.

4. Identifies ways conflict has been nandlej in family, peer,school, culture, community, national, and internationalsituations, and evaluates the methods used in handling suchconflicts.

5. Explains how conflict er affect relationships betweenindividuals and between groups of people.

6. Gives conitructive way', of handling conflict situations.

F. The learner expresses awareness of some of the beliefs and valuesexpressed by people of diverse cultures and recognizes that thetimes and places In which people li e influence their beliefs, valuesand behaviors.

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Global


Global

Applying,Integrating,Multicultural.Gender FaiInternational'

Global


Global


Global



A, B, C,D, E. H.I, J, K,L

A, C, E,F, G, I,L

A, C, D,E, F, H

A, C, D,E, F, G,H, I, J,K,

A, C, D,E, F, G,ii

1. Identifies objects, feelings and ideas important to people indifferent places, cultures and times, and explains why somethings are valued more in some places, cultures and times than inothers.

2. Describes ways people of diverse cultures express their feelingsand preferences for objects and ideas.

3. Infers beliefs, values and lifestyles from information about thetunes, cultures and places in which people live.

4. Understands factors which influence formation of an individual'sself-concept, and understands how racial, cultural, economic,and religious status may influence self-concept.

G. The learner demonstrates knowledge of ways beliefs and values aretransmitted in diverse cultures.

1. Compares and contrasts the ways beliefs and values aretransmitted in their society with ways by which beliefs andvalues are transmitted in another society.

A, E. 2, 2. Describes ways beliefs and values are transmitted among diverse3, F, H

D, F,G, I,J, L



13, C, D

cultures.

H. The learner acquires knowledge about some of the influences thatbeliefs and values have on relationships between and among diverseindividuals and groups of people.

1. Gives examples of influences of beliefs and values of members ofone's own family, cultural, or peer group and explains some ofthe possible effects of these influences.

2. Compares and contrasts the beliefs and values of two groups ofpeople, and suggests the effects that the similarities and differ-ences in beliefs and values may have on the relationship betweenthese two groups (e.g., females/males, minority/majority).

3. Gives examples of differences in beliefs and values that havecreated a division between two groups of people, identifiesalternative ways of dealing with the situation, and explains theconsequences of each alternative.

4. Evaluates the variety of ways groups are interdependent (e.g.,city dwellers depend on farmers for food and farmers depend oncity dwellers for income, political parties depend on ethnicgroups to produce votes and ethnic groups depend on politicalparties for community services).

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Global


Global

Learner Outcomes


5. Evaluates types of intergroup cooperation (e.g.. business andlabor cooperate to acluire a governrient contract; the PTAschool board, teachers' union inn state educational agenciescooperate to get a school hung passed; political groups form acoalition to lobby for legislat.ani.

e. Evaluates types of intergroup competition (e.g., businessescompete for customers by cutting [prices; politicians compete forvoters by campaigning; sports teams compete for championshipsby playing against one another; nations engage in arms races).

7. Analyzes types of intergroup conflict (e.g., wars, riots,strikes, boycotts, demonstrations).

8. Evaluates types of intergroup conflict resolution methods (e.g.,bargaining, mediation, conquest, judicial decisions,subjugation).

9. Evaluates the variety of ways that people of the world arerelated and connected, including:

a. ecologically (e.g., sharing and conserving natural resour-ces)

b. economically (e.g., imports and exports, multinationalcorporations, international monetary system, economic alli-ances)

c. politically (e.g., shared ideologies, international organiza-tions, international laws and agreements, treaties andalliances)

d. socially (e.g. , personal, language, educational, religious)

e. technologically (e.g., new communication systems, spaceexploration, knowledge sharing, computer use)

f. historically (e.g., ove,nent of peoples, sharing oftraditions, sharing of past experiences)

g. culturally (e.g. , ethnic ties, belief s/ sterns, language)

I. The learner understands major social changes that have occurred inAmerican society and compares and contrasts them with otherWestern and non-Western societies.

1. Evaluates urban development and its impact on minority/majoritygroups (e.g., settlement patterns, population growth andshifts, involvement of federal and state governments, problemsassociated with urban development such as isolation, density,pollution, political fragmentation, housing, transportation,education)

2. Evaluates rural development and its impact on minority/majoritygroups (e.g., sett:ement patterns, population growth andshifts, involvement if federal and state governments, impact ofchanges in agriculturemechanization, credit, prices,marketing, production, specialization, subsidies, cooperatives,and problems associated with rural development isolation,declining population, transportation, education, socialservices).

FlIT COPY AVAIREIt.)C


Global


Global


Global


Global

Applying,Integrating,Multicultural,Gender Fair,International /

Global


Applying,Integrating,

Gender Fair

Learner Outc.-t-nes


3. Evaluates the impact of technolo: on society (e.g., improvedcommunications, development large industries; mechanization-of agriculture; mobility of work fJrce, specialization of labor,changes in careers and occupations, growth of a serviceeconomy).

4. Evaluates changes in racial ethnic relations (e.g., contributionsof various groups, immigration policies and settlement patterns,processes of acculturation, effects of discrimination andpersecution, government policies, court decisions,desegregation of public facilities, awareness of needs, civil andhuman rights movements).

5. Evaluates changes in female and male roles (e.g. , genderstereotyping; discrimination in income, education andemployment; liberation ant..; protest movements; governmentpolicies and laws; court den's: ins; Equal Rights Amendment;relationship of changing roles to technological, economic andpolitical c hanges ).

o. Evaluates changes it the family patterns (e.g., changes in thefunction, role and size of families; effects of mobility on familylife; Impact of changes in other institutions on the family;differing family structures; impact of increased life expectancy;impact of changing marital relationships).

7. Evaluates changes in work patterns Ce.g., the work ethic,concepts of achievement and success, unemployment andunderemployment patterns, effect of occupational mobility,impact of automation, development and influence of laborunions, the use of leisure time, importance of education andtraining).

8. Evaluates changes in population patterns and their impact onminority 'majority groups (e.g. , birth rate, increased lifeexpectancy, needs of senior citizens).

9. Evaluates social problems such as alienation, poverty, health,crime, aging, drug abuse, pollution and racism, sexism and theirinterlocking relationships, abuse of children, spouses.

10. Evaluates the development of educational institutions (e.g.,development and organization of public educational system,effect of federal and state involvement, training of teachers,control of schools, costs and benefits of education, changingcurricula, alternatives to public or f.irrnal education, vocationaleducation, equality of education, special education).

11. Evaluates development of religious institutions t e.g. , origins oforganized religious groups, basic tenets of various religiousgroups, historical events impacting on religious groups, reformmovements, constitutional view of the relationship betweenchurch and state, judicial decisions relating to religiousbeliefs).

12. Evaluates the effects and impact of demographic changes onminority/majority groups (e.g., settlementpatterns--old-young, north-south, urban-rural; limitingresources water, services).

J. Uses concepts, generalizations and theories to explain andunderstand the past of any one society and a cross section of majorWestern and non-Western societies.

1. Evaluates cause and effect including multiple causation,continuity, change, challenge and response, and leader-ship/conditions.

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Global


Global








Applying,Integrating,Multicultural,Gender Fail ,In?r.rnational/

Global

State Boardof EducationLearner Goals Learrier Outcome-3


A-L

A-L

A-L

2. Understands time perspective, including change over time,chronology, rate of change, reetitiveness and uniqueness ofchange.

3. Evaluates human experience including culture, cultureperception, independence' interdependence, institution,symbol-3 and traditions.

4. Uses historiographic skills including evidence, frames ofreference, empathy, interpretation, objectivity, primary andsecondary sources, societal and cultural, concerns andquestions.

Applying,Integrating,Multic u It u ra 1 ,Gender Fair,International/

Global


Global


Global

THINKING AND PROCESSING SKILLS. The learner develops the competencies to acquire, organize, evaluate and reportinformation for purposes of solving problems and clarifing issues.

A, C

A, C

A, C

A, C

A, C

A, C

A, C

A, B, C

A, B, C

A, B C

A. The learner identifies the central problem in a situation; identifiesthe major issue in a dispute.

1. Clarifies vague and ambiguous terminology.

2. Distinguishes among definitional, value and factual issues in adispute.

B. The learner applies divergent thinking in formulating hypotheses andgeneralizations capable of being tested.

1. Uses processes of logic (e.g. , scientific method, sequencing,rneasunng, formulating models).

2. Uses processes of creative, intuitive holistic synergisticsystemic (e.g., delphi, brainstorming, matrices, future wheels,and trend extrapolation).

C. The learner identifies and locates multiple sources of information andevaluates the reliability and relevance of these sources.

1. Identifies and locates sources of information appropriate to thetask (e.g., authorities or resource people, from diverse groups,books on subject, reference works, maps, magazines,newspapers, fiction, radio, television, computers, aerial photo-graphy, interviews, surveys, experiments, statistical data,case studies, systematic observations, personal experiences,artistic representations, community and cultural resources).

2. Distinguishes between relevant and irrelevant sources.

3. Distinguishes between reliable and unreliable sources.

D. The learner demonstrates ability to use reliable sources of infor-mation.

1. Uses more than one source to obtain information.

2. Develops questions appropriate for obtaining information fromsources.

3. Records observations and information obtained from sources.

"C"' 41"rrif AVA!iri E6










Applying,Integrating,Psychomotor



A, B, C 4. Identifies points of agreement and disagreement among thesources.

A, B, C. 5. Evaluates the quality of the availabl, informatinn.

E. The learner organizes, analyzes, interprets and synthesizesinformation obtained from various sources.



A, B, C 1. Identifies central elements in information. Applying,Integrating

A, B, C 2. Classifies information.Integrating

A, 13, C 3. Distinguishes statements of fact from statement, of opinion. Applying,Integrating

A, B, C 4. Distinguishes statements of inference from statements of fact. Applying,Integrating

A, B, C 5. Identifies stated opinions, biases, cultural and gender Applying,stereotypes and value judgments. Integrating

A, B, C 6. Differentiates between points of view and primary and Applying,secondary sources. Integrating

A, B, C 7. Recognizes logical errors. Applying,Integrating

A, B, C 8. Recognizes inadequacies or omissions in information. Applying,Integrating

A, B, C 9. Makes inferences from data. Applying,Integrating

A, C 10. Identifies cause and effect relationships and differentiates Applying,between causation and correlation (e.g., relationships among Integratingcultural, religious or political groups).

A, C 11. Recognizes interrelationships among concepts. Applying,Integrating

A, C 12. Identifies nature of sample. Applying,Integrating

A, C 13. Identifies state-1 and unstated assumptions. Applying,Integrating

A, C 14. Summarizes information. Applying,Integrating

F. The learner uses summarized information to test hypotheses, drawconclusions, offer solutions to problems, clarify issues, forecast andcreate scenarios.

G. The learner validates outcome of investigation.

A, C 1. Tests solutions to problem or issue when possible. Applying.Integrating

A, C 2. Modifies solutions in light of new factors or considerations. Applying,Integrating

A, C Analyzes trends and m' -lifies projections when necessary. Applying,Integrating

H. The learner appraises judgements and values that are involved in thechoice of a course of action.

C 1. Identifies and weighs conflicting values which serve ascontradicting criteria for judging courses of action.

65




C 2. Develops a set of criteria for ;udgeing proposed courses of action Applying,in terms of actual And projected conseluence.i. Integrating

3. Appi:es the establishe i criteria to actual and projectedconse.;uences of a pr000ae i course of action.

A, C 4. Selects and lefends a position Jr course of action consistent withthe estiblished crhteria.



AFFECTIVE OUTCOMES. The learner examines own and others' feelings, beliefs, and values, recognizes the relationshipnet wren own value structure and own behavior and develops human relations skills and attitudes that enable one to act in theinterest or self and others; is developing positive self-concepts.

A, C

A, C, E

A. The learner expresses awareness of the characteristics that giveidentity to females and males of diverse cultures.

1. Identifies a range of individual (personal) characteristics. Applying

2. Identifies the characteristics of the individuals, groups,institutions, or associations, with which people identify (e.g.,socioeconomic, ethnic race, gender, religions, peer, age).

A, C, E 3. Identifies the similarities and differences between one's owncharacter and those of the groups with which one identifies.

B. Expresses awareness of one's goals (aspirations), the different goalsof the different groups .vith which one identifies, and compares andcontrasts those goals.

Applying


.A, C, I, J 1. Identifies one's own goals. Applying

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A, C, I, 3. Evaluates the changing nature of goals. Applying,J, K Integrating

B, F

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A, C, F,C, I, J

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A, 3.9C,1.5

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1. Identifies one's strengths. Applying

2. Identifies the strengths of the groups, Instauticns andassociations with which one identifies.

3. Identifier the relationship between one's strengths and thestrengths of the different groups with which one identifies.

4. Recognizes the societal barriers to full cievolopment that mayexist (e.g.. racism, sexism, ageism, classism).

5. Suggest ways of maximizing one's effectiveness individually andin groups.

D. The learner examines own beliefs and values and the relationshipbetween these and behavior.

1. Describes and explains own feelings and preferences aboutdiverse cultural groups, females/males, beliefs and ways of lifeand is willing to trust feelings and preferences of others.

2. Describes ways one expresses own feelings and preferencesabout diverse culture groups, females/males, beliefs and waysof life.

C, D, E, 3. Identifies and gives reasons for one's own criteria for judgementof beliefs and actions of other people, and for judgement of ownbeliefs and actions.

66

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

Applying

Applying

Applying



Applying

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J, L 4. Demonstrates a growing awareness of responsibility for one's Applyingown behavior.

I, J, L 5. Demonstrates awareness of one's own acts and of how they affect Applying,others. Affective,

Psychomotor

A, C, I, 6. Describes own personal response !action or attitude) to a Applying,J, ' dilemma situation and the possible consequences of the response Affective,

to self and others. Psychomotor

A, C, 7. Identifies own beliefs and values, and those of others, in a Applying,F, I, dilemma situation involving members of family, or peer different Affective,J, L cultural groups. Psychomotor

A, C, 8. Identifies alternative responses to a dilemma situation, Applying,F, I considers the possible consequences of these responses, and Integrating,

selects and defends a position. Affective,Psychomotor

A, C,D, G

A, C,D, E, G

E. The learner develops the human relations skills and attitudesnecessary to communicate with females and males of diverse culturalgroups.

1. Has positive interactions with females and males of all races,cultures, religions, mental and physical characteristics whenpresented with such opportunities.

2. Respects the rights of others to behave in humanistic wayscongruent with their value systems.

D, E, F 3. Encourages others to express their feelings and opinions.

G, G 4. Demonstrates understanding of others' viewpoints and feelings.

A, C, G 5. Asks for clarification and elaboration of ideas of others.Clarifies and elaborates own ideas.

6. Provides emotional and intellectual support for others.

67


C'obal


Global


Global


Global


Global


Global

'4tate Board.)1 EducaticnLearner Goals Learner Outcomes


F. I-he learner expresses awareness of the physical, intellectual,cultural and social coridition of human beings, and suggests waysthese can be improved.

A, B, C 1. Expresses an interest in the phy.aical, intellectual, cultural andsocial conditions of human beings.

A, C,E, F, H

A, C, D,E, F. H

A, B, CD, E, F, H

A, B, C,D, E, F, H

A, B, C,D, E, F, H

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2. Suggests ways society can help improve the condition of humanbeings in all cultures and ;.stn genders.

Applying,Affective,Multicultural,Gender Fair,International/

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Global

3. Suggest ways one an 1,ersonally and practically help in Applying,improving the conditions of human beings in all cultures and both Affective,genders. Multicultural,

Gender Fair,International/

Global

G. The learner demonstrates a commitment to female/male and diversegroup rights and acts in support of equal opportunity.

1. Demonstrates respect for the moral and legal rights and basicfreedoms of females/males of diverse groups, other people, andindicates wh' such respect is important.

2. Acts in support of the rules or laws of one's society; worksresponsibly to change those laws which function unjustly.

3. Demonstrates an interest or willingness to act in supporting openand equal opportunity, and explains why this is important.

4. Participates individually, or with others, in promoting orremoving legal, social, educational and economic obstacles to thefull development of females/males or diverse groups.


Global


Global


Global

Applying,Integrating,Multicultural,Gender Fiir,International/

Global

5. a) Acquires and uses information; Applying,b) Assesses own involvement Integrating,c) Makes decisions Affective,d) Makes judgements Multicultural,e) Communicates Gender Fair,f) Cooperates International/g) Promotes diverse group interests Global

h) Reaches out and renews relationships with adversaries.

H. The learner demonstrates effective involvement in social interaction.

A, B, C 1. Participates in making decisions at home, in school, inpeer/cultural groups or at work.

2:ST CSPY AVAILABLE 6B

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Developmental/ConceptEmphasis Assessmel,t

2. Participates, in setting, planning, achieving and evaluating theC, E goals of the groups to which one belongs.

A, 6.C, F

3. Participates in social, political, economic and cultural activitiescarried on in own community, nation and the world.

I. The learner is developing a positive feeling about one's self.

es

Applying,Integrating,'lulticultural,Gender Fair

Applying,Integrating,Psychomotor,Multicultu ral,Gender Fair,International/

Global

Scope and Sequence:Alternatives for Social Studies

the National Council for theSocial Studies House of Delegatesmeeting in November 1979, a

resolution proposed by the CaliforniaCouncil for the Social Studies was passed,asking the Board of Directors to appointa special task force to examine the matterof developing a "series of option - forscope and sequence for the K-12 cu rricu-lum in social studies which is based onthe NCSS Curriculum Guidelines."

While the resolution asked for a taskforce composed of a cross section of socialstudies educators, the Board of Directorspostponed action on the resolutionbecause of budgetary considerations. InJune 1981, however, President TheodoreKaltsounis appointed an ad hoc commit-tee of the Board, chaired by Jan L Tucker,to investigate the possibilities and hold aseries of hearings at state and regionalmeetings. The Committee recommendedto the Board of Directors in June 1982 thatthe Council develop a scope and sequencefor the K-12 curriculum in social studies.

The Board accepted the report andasked President James Banks to appointa task force. Because of severe budgetaryconstraints, Banks was unable to appointa group from all parts of the country, buthe assembled a volunteer group of distin-guished professionals by concentratingthe effort in the Northwest under the veryable and respected leadership of JohnJarolimek, a former NCSS president.

The Task Force met during 1982-83and presented its report to the Board ofDirectors at its June 1983 meeting. Inorder to assure a national spectrum ofopinion on the Task Force's report, Presi-dent Banks had also appointed a NationalAdvisory review panel representing awide sampling of all segments of theCouncil's membership for an initialreview. That review served as a "fieldtest" of the document, and, based on Ihecomments received, the Task Force

INTRODUCTIONDonald H. Bragaw

made some changes that it felt weremerited.

In November 1983, the Board of Direc-tors accepted the Task Force Report as apreliminary statement and decided thatthe revised document should be circu-lated to the membership in the April 1984issue of Social Education along with com-mentaries from a sampling of membersacross the country, and from the samemembership spectrum of social studiesprofessionals. The publication of thedocument brought a limited, but signifi-cant response, which again showed thatteachers and supervisors of social studiesacross the country thought that the reportwell represented what the social studiesscope and sequence should be. A smaller,but highly articulate group, primarilyfrom the college and university member-ship, believed that the report represented,at best, a reinforcement of the status quo,if, indeed, it were not a step backward.

The composition of the Board of Direc-tors had also changed since 1981 and1982, and strong feeling emerged that thereport was an acceptable position.However, given the diverse nature ofsocial studies in both its discipline baseas well as its state requirements across thenation, the Board felt that the professionwould be ill-served if the National Coun-cil for the Social Studies were to endorseone scope and sequence designwhichmight have implied a "national scope andsequence."

It opted instead for the position of theoriginal house resolution, that the Jaroli-mek report represented only one possibleway in which a K-12 social studies pro-gram might be organized. Taking thatposition, the Board, at its November 1984meeting, discussed ways in which to pro-vide the membership with other possibleways to organize a K-12 scope andsequence. The program committee of the1985 Annual Meeting was asked to pro-

vide for a major session to deal withpossible alternatives. Following that ses-sion and after intense discussion, theBoard of Directors adopted the idea thatthe scope and sequence discussion shouldbecome a continuing dialogue for theCouncil and directed that professionalassistance be sought to develop alter-native scope and sequence designs.

It was further decided that such alter-natives would be published in Social Ed-ucation in time for the Annual Meetingwhere sessions would be held to continuethe dialogue. This issue of Social Educa-tion, then, is a key document closelyrelated to the Annual Meeting and to con-tinued professional discussion.

While several scope and sequenceideas have emerged over the years, therehas been a fairly consistent adherence tothe "expanding horizons" model formu-lated by Paul Hanna in the mid-1930sand cemented into place by textbookcompanies. Hanna's ideas reflected boththe previous work done by various socialstudies educators and commissionsassumptions about how a child's socialworld grows--as well as a growing recog-nition of the United States' economic andpolitical interdependence with otherareas of the world that were also attempt-ing to climb out of the depression. Therapidly accelerating involvement of theUnited States in the conflagration of warand its aftermath intensified the accep-tance of the public's need to know aboutall the places where United States militaryforces were stationed and sometimeskilled.

The notions of "distant" lands and"exotic" peoples were somewhat miti-gated by filmed newsreels that became amajor part of going to the movies duringthe late 1930s, the 1940s and the early50s. That phenomenon was continued bythe advent of television, which frequentlyused the medium to explore the vast

SOCIAL EDUCATION November/December 198670

Scope and Sequence.Alternatives for Social Studies

wonders of the "unknown" and knownworld. The presence of numerous warbrides from all over the world also helpedto break down stereotypes of grass skirts,wooden shoes and Brunhilda-likemaidensall of which expandedpeople's horizons to a centralizing ideathat people were as much alike as theywere different.

The academic world of the social andbehavioral sciences were significant con-tributors to this universalizing principle.Textbook writers tended to reflect that ac-ceptance. But however one arranged sub-ject matter in the social studies, certainconstants remained:

A clear commitment to democraticvalues.A need for students to know, to takepride in, and be able to call upon theirhistorical roots.A need for students to know the struc-ture and function of their governingand economic institutions, and to beable to compare them to others.A need to engage in more active civicparticipation.A call for student learning that commitsthem to active learningsocial inter-action.A recognition of other cultures and thevarying values systems that existthroughout the world.Dick Gross and Tom Dynneson's task

in the introductory article is to put theprogression of the arrangement of theseideas into historical perspective. Suchperspective can give a greater sense ofhow the social studies profession (and theNational Council for the Social Studies inparticular) has responded to the notionsof scot 2 and sequence and the influencesthat have shaped those reactions.

The Alter _atives ConsideredThe original report of the Task Force

on Scope and Sequence was published inthe April 1984 issue of Social Education,which in effect, constitutes a sixth alter-native. A copy of the report can be ob-tained from Social Education at the NCSSoffice.

Adopting for his rationale thetentralityand thus the integrative miture ofhistory and cultural geography to thesocial studies program, Matt Downey

asserts a schema that with the exceptionof one year, focuses on an ''expandinghistorical horizon" consistent withDowney's understanding of the learningtheory undergirding a child's perceptionof time and space. The social sciencesprovide the "theoretical insights," "con-cept rigor," and "precision of language"by which to study society and cultures.

Mike Hartoonian and Margaret Laugh-lin see education as having two majorpurposes: to maintain our cultural heri-tage and to improve self and society. Thesocial studies in their view has the majorintegrativefunction for all schooling. Butwhat specific social studies subject(s)should be presented at each grade levelis a matter for local curriculum commit-tees and teachers to decidefor suchdecisions are essentially political innature. Laughlin and Hartoonian do see,however, broad themes that should guidesuch decision making and offer a seriesof questions linked to their view of learn-ing theory, which might help a local com-mittee to focus both its own thinkingabout the developmental nature of thesocial studies and the selection of gradelevel social studies topics

Social studies, according to ShirleyEngle and Anna Ochoa, should be the"confrontation of young citizens with theproblems contained in the disciplines andin the unfolding of society, past, presentand future." Continuing a heavy relianceon geography and history, Engle andOchoa opt for a problerii-solving rationale.Avoiding prescriptive grade by gradetopics, they offer seven curriculumstrands that offer curriculum decisionmakers a basis for the content of a K-12social studies program.

Basing their rationale on the ideas ofsocial transformation, Bill Stanley andJack Nelson are less concerned with thewhat of social studiesfor they woulduse traditional sources of data fromhistory and the social sciencesthan thehow of how the subjects are taught. Thefocus of such studies would be on the"continuing improvement of society byapplying social criticism and ethical deci-sion making to social issues." While offer-ing general guides to content selection forsocial studies at the K -3, 4 -8 and 9-12levels, Nelson and Stanley believe that

social education (the preferable tenshould be "constantly open to analyscomparison, skepticism and criticjudgment."

Willard Kniep ventures into the areof global education by offering a rationthat would assert that all subjectsrjust social studiesshould be couchedterms that help students to see the v;network of interrelationships that pernate a constantly changing world. Like tprevious three scope and sequence pposals, the specific content offered is sigestive and, within the guidelines offenshould be selected locally.

Accompanying the current discussiare voices from the past. Special boxitems distill the essence of what thewho helped to set the terms of deb,about scope and sequence for the pastyears had to say.

Recent challenges to the way in s,vhsocial studies is organized and tauttoday is but another reflection of the n(for the profession to seriously evaluwhere it has been along the scope asequence road, and where present cdomestic and global imperatives seenbe pointing. To paraphrase Shakespezthe problem, Dear Brutus, may not b(our scope and sequences, but in our fure to stake out clear and achievagoals for the school area called solstudies. That larger issue is the motivatforce behind the effort that the NatioCouncil has initiated to establisl-National Commission for the So,Studies.

In close cooperation with natiohistory and social science organizaticthe objective of such a commission wehe to consider what the goals for sostudies should be in the 21st centsReaders might well examine the rationin each of the above scope and seguealternatives to see how they could a5such a commission to more clearly fcon future needs in the area of sostudies education. Such reflection weprovide social studies faculties evwhere with a provocative basis for anzing their own programs.

Donald H. Bragaw is Chief, BureaSocial Studies Education, New 'forkEducation Department.

November/December 1986 SOCIAL EDUCATION71

CI Reprinted by perrniss


A Century of EncounterThomas L. Dynneson and Richard E. Gross

For more than 100 years, educatorshave struggled to develop an effec-tive scope and sequence for the

schools that can meet the needs ofstudents and society while preparing thenext generation for the challenge of thefuture.

The scope and sequence is the infra-structure (range and order) of the curric-ulum. It also is the connecting link be-tween the theoretical foundation of thecurriculum and the applied instructionalmaterials used in the classroom. Scopeand sequence encounters are rootedmainly in philosophical disagreements,the contemporary agendas of specialinterest groups, and the social issues thatinfluence society. Encounters over scopeand sequence are the battlefields onwhich educational decisions are foughtand won or lost.

Scope and Sequence, 1886 to 1986Encounters, 1886-1906: The Role of theSecondary Public School

In the 1880s the enrollment of thepublic schools overtook the enrollmentof private schools. Public secondaryschools were spreading across the nationand there was a need to define their role.With expanding enrollment in highereducation, high schools tended more inthe direction of college preparation andwhat was deemed necessary for entranceand success in the university.

Between 1894 and 1906, a number ofinfluential national committees wereformed to determine the nature of thehigh school and to prescribe a curriculumfor these emerging schools. They recom-mended scope and sequence patternsthat eventually would be adopted by theschools. During these early years, thesocial studies were especially influencedby the efforts of the American HistoricalAssociation (MIA) and the National Edu-

cation Association (NEA) (Gross and Dyn-neson 1983, 19-20).Encounters, 1906-1926: The Curriculumof the Secondary School

National committees continued towork on specific problems, but they oftenwent beyond their assignments in orderto advance the interests of their subjectmatter organizations. The historian tend-

Encounters over scopeand sequence are thebattlefields on which

educational decisions arefought and won or lost.

ed to advance the cause of history andmany social reformers and educators ad-vanced the cause of progressive educa-tion. In 1916, the National EducationAssociation formed a Commission on theReorganization of Secondary Education,which established a scope and sequencefor the social studies that in time becamethe standard secondary social studiesframework.1916 Scope and SequenceGRADE SEVEN European history and

geography

GRADE EIGHT American history

GRADE NINE CivicsGRADE TEN European history

GRADE ELEVEN American history

GRADE TWELVE Government or prob-lems of democracy

(Gross and Dvnneson 1983, 20 -21)History maintained an important posi-

tion in the cut riculum when the socialstudies program was formed as a resultof the NEA Commission. The influence

of progressive education was felt whenthe Commission combined the theoriesof Herbert Spencer and the pedagogicalprinciples of John Dewey with the prin-ciples of a new social histor) e..-,poused byJames Harvey Robinson. The "newhistory" promoted "social efficiency" andcitizenship education. The result was ahistory with two missions. Academichistorians were put off by these "reforms"and continued to promote "scientifichistory" for the schools (Hertzberg 1981,27).

In 1926, the American Historical Asso-ciation organized a committee on historyand the social studies to revitalize theteaching of history in the schools, but thework of the multidiscipiinary committeedid not begin in earnest until the 1930s.Meanwhile, the historians remained un-settled by the conditions of history in-struction in the public schools. The en-counters of this era brought the idea of thesocial studies to the forefront, but curricu-lum and instructional practices of theschools remained quite traditional.Encounters, 1926-1946: The SocialStudies Under Attack

The National Council for the SocialStudies had been founded in 1921 andhad close ties with the American Histori-cal Association. Historians helped to carrythe Council through some very difficulttimes. During the Great Depression,some liberal historians became affiliatedwith the ideology of "social recon-struction."

They also attempted to reconcile oldprogressive principles with the newvalues and principles of the "New Deal."Harold Rugg, an advocate of "socialreconstruction," crusaded to change theway history was being taught in theschools (Rugg 1923,9- Hy lie especiallydisliked the ridttire of the social studiestexlrooks. Rugg promoted die idea that

SOCIAL EDUCATION November /December 1986

hiqury and public education had a socialmission to perform, to reconstructAmerican society (Rugg 1921, 249-252).During this same period, the eminenthistorian Charles Beard directed theAmerican Historical Association's Com-mission on the Social Studies.

The Commission completed 17 reportsthat essentially promoted the disciplinaryapproach to the teaching of history. TheCommission ended in a split decisionover the acceptance of its own "Conclu-sions and Recommendations" (Gross andDynneson 1983, 22). One year later, theNCSS published a yearbook that called forthe use of a wider range of materials fromthe social sciences in an attempt tobroaden the social studies scope andsequence of the curriculum.

In 1939, NCSS issued the first of a cur-riculum series entitled The Future of theSocial Studies: Proposals for an Experi-mental Social Studies Qin-int/um. Theeditor, James A. Michener, invited 15social studies leaders to propose experi-mental scope and sequence designs forthe social studies curriculum. The follow-ing approaches have been distilled fromthe experimental proposals:

A Community or Civic-CenteredApproachA Social Problems ApproachA World Study or Global ApproachA Social Reconstruction ApproachA Child-Centered or IndividualizedApproachA Good Citizenship Approach

(Gross and Dynneson 1983, 22-29).While none of the proposals was adopted,the publication demonstrated the impor-tance of scope and sequence experimen-tation to the social studies early in itshistory.

Scope and sequence in the socialstudies was also influenced by the NEA.The National Education Association,working with the American Associationof School Administrators, sponsored theEducational Policies Commission. ThatCommission supported the curricular"fusion" approach or core curriculum.The core curriculum cut across subject ordisciplinary lines (Hertzberg 1981,56-57). This approach had great appealto those who preferred an integratedapproach to scope and sequence. The

Scope and Sequence:

Alternatives for Social Studies

, '2114:10

core approach added more fuel to the firein the encounters that would follow be-tween academicians and educators.

In 1941, historian Ralph W. Robey ofColumbia University compiled abstractsof 800 social studies textbooks in a studycommissioned by the National Associa-tion of Manufacturers. It was charged inthe New York Times that the texts tendedto criticize the U.S. government, werecritical of the free- enterprise system andwere poorly written (Hertzberg 1981, 66).

In another encounter, U.S. historianAllan Nevins charged that Americanhistory was being neglected. Nevins andothers preferred the pure disciplineapproach as opposed to the more inte-grated approach of the social studies,which he designated as "social slush."Clearly, the encounters of this era did notserve to gain agreement on scope andsequence or to unify the field.Encounters, 1946-1966: History andthe Social Sciences vs. Citizenship andthe Social Studies

The encounters of an earlier age con-tinued into the late 1940s and middle1950s. In 1953 and 1955, historianArthur Bestor criticized the schools inbroad-based charges that included ahazing of the social studies. Integrated in-structional programs were the target ofBestor's attack. According to Bestor, thesocial studies approach led to a watered-down history (Bestor 1956, 126-29). TheCold War that had followed World WarII led to open public debate about the

ability of our educational system to pre-pare students for the new Soviet threat.

During this same period, Paul Hanna,working from a child development per-spective, worked out a scope and se-quence model. According to his model,students would begin a K---6 social studiesprogram by starting with the experiencesof the student.Hanna's Proposed Scope and ,c,cluenceModelGRADE ONE 1. The child's family

community2. The child's school

GRADE TWO 3. The child's neighbor-hood co, rirriunity

GRADE THREE 4. The child's local com-munities: city, county.metropolis

GRADE FOUR 5 The child's state com-munity

6 The child's region-of-states community

GRADE FIVE 7 The U.S. nationalcommunity

GRADE SIX 8. The cummui :i!ies ofAND ABOVE the voridThe Hanna model (Hanna 1963 19:31,

with some variations by different statesand publishers. became the standard forelementary social siudies

The Soviet Union's Lionchil,,led politicians and others to L..technological failures on U S educationAsa result, the federal government spon-sored and helped to finance a new educa-tional reform movement The reformmovement led to the rise of the disciplin-ary approach in the social studies.

Separate protects in history and thesocial sciences eventually were startedand before it ended, more than 100 proj-ects were organized in the social studies.New experimental scope and sequencepatterns emerged out of these efforts. Themajority of these projects focused on whatJerome Bruner had termed the "structureof the discipline" in which scope andsequence patterns were organizedaround key disciplinary concepts (Grossand Dynneson 1983, 38).

As a result of these efforts, the socialstudies curriculum came under tremen-dous pressure to change and to accom-modate new subjects. There simply wasnot enough room for all that was being

November/December 1986 SOCIAL EDUCATION

73 5 6Reprinted by permission_

proposed. This produced a "do-your-own-thing" mentality that led to nearanarchy and a balkanization of the socialstudies. Again, encounters within andwithout the field brought greater diver-sificatioe.. - ninicourses to mountingelectiv d that old patterns werefini' ,nattered (Gross 1977, 196).Fn 1966-1986.. Academician

:d Ethical Education, mid-1960s, the Vietnam War

and the Civil Rights movement changedthe mood of the nation. Scholars beganto reflect on the moral nature of ourdomestic and international affairs. In1968, the country was in turmoil becauseof a series of social crises that directlyaffected the schools. Ever since the earlyprogressive years, the social studies hadhad a natural concern for social problems.These concerns prompted encountersbetween the academic advocates of thedisciplinary approach and those whofocused on the social problems of oursociety (Morrissett 1979, 12-17). This ledto various approaches that were designedto explore and investigate value issuesand promote character and citizenshipdevelopment.

By 1979, the fragmentation within thefield was obvious. The profession begana search for unity and direction, Thestability that remained in the curriculumwas due mainly to a traditional scope andsequence pattern that had remained inplace despite the pressures for change.The back-to-basics movement was alsoabout to threaten the position of the socialstudies in the schools, and social studiesleaders needed a program to defend theirunsettled and shrinking terrain.

Considerations for the FutureAs early as May of 1963, Richard E.

Gross and Dwight Allen published anarticle in the Phi Delta Kappan calling for:

the establishment of a national researchcenter for social studies and a compre-hensive, coordinated assessment of thesocial studies curriculum and instructionby a national commission responsible forplanning alternative social studies pro-grams, grades K through 14. (Gross andAllen 1963, 360)

Gross and Allen made recommendationsregarding the future role of the professionin development and research on scope

Scope and Sequence-Alternatives for Social Studies

and sequence issues.During the summer of 1979, a group of

social studies leaders met at StanfordUniversity in order to clarify the problemscaused by encounters over scope andsequence issues. They formulated eightquestions related to scope and sequenceproblems in order to find direction andconsensus in the social studies (Gross andDynneson 1980, 370-374).

101111111F IIMUNIMMIN

In 1982, the NCSS board

organized a Task Force to

study and to makerecommendations onscope and sequence.

In 1980, educators associated with theSPAN project located at Boulder, Color-ado, identified six important problemsthat currently plagued the social studies.In an attempt to stimulate a new wave ofcreative thinking on scope and sequencethe SPAN project developed an experi-mental scope and sequence that focusr"'ion the seven social roles that a person ex-periences during a lifetime (Morrissett,Hawk and Superka 1980, 558-586).

In 1982, the NCSS board organized aTask Force to study and make recom-mendations on scope and sequence. TheTask Force issued its final report inNovember 1983. The report contained aproposed K-12 scope and sequence thatemphasized a citizenship approach. Thescope and sequence pattern within theTask Force recommendation was similarto the traditional pattern (Jarolimek et al.1984, 249-262).

Those who are dissatisfied with thedominant scope and sequence within thesocial studies, as well as the one proposedby the Task Force, tend to fall into one ormore of the following categories:1. Those who feel that social studies does

not meet the current or future needs ofstudents.

2. Those who see social studies as a cata-lyst for social change.

3. Those who would promote researchand development in scope andsequence models as a means to

4.

5.

6.

revitalize the field.Those who support a specific project orprogram that is not currently in themainstream of social studies instruc-tion in the public schools.Those who feel that a more academicapproach is needed in the socialstudies.Those who would like to balance thesocial studies curriculum by de-emphasizing the influence of history,civics or geography.

ReferencesBestor, Authur. The Restoration Of Learning A Pro-

gram 1.10 r Redeeming The Unfulfilled Prorruse ofAmencan Education New York: Al irmi A. Knopf,1956.

Gross, Richard E "The Status of the Social Studiesin the Public Schools of the United States- Factsand Impressions of a National Survey," Soda!Education, 41 (March 1977): 191.

Gross. Richard E., and Thomas L. Dynnescq WhatShould We Be Teaching in The Suctal Studies?Bloomington, IN Phi Delta K -ippa EducationalFoundation, 1583.

Gross, Richard E., and Thomas L 1)Brecon,"Regenerating the Social Studies Fr, .rn t m Dirgesto New Directions." Social Education. 11 (May1980): 370.

Gross, Richard E., and Dwight W Allen 'A "I i,lie

for a National Effon to Develop the Social StudiesCurriculum.- Phi Delta Kappa', (May 19r13).

Hanna, Paul R "Revising the Social Studies Whatis Needed." Social Education 27 (April 1963).190-196.

Hertzberg, Hazel W. Srniol Re6,77n 1.480 -1950Boulder, Colorado. Social Science Education COT

sortium, 1981.Jarolimek, John, et al. "In Search of a Scope and

Sequence for Social Studies," Report of theNational Council for the Social Studies Task Forcein Scope and Sequence, No' ember I, 1983 SocialEducation. 48 (April 1984): 249-273.

Morrissett, Irving, Sharryl Hawke and Dwight PSuperka. "Project SPAN Analysis and Pi oposalsfor the 1980s."Social Education. 44 ( "November/iber/December 1980): 570.

Morrissett, Irving. "Citizenship, Social Studies, andAcadeniician." Soo( 'Edwotion .13 (May 1979):344-347.

Rugg, Harold 0. "On Reconstructing the SocialStudies." The Historical Outlook. (October 1921).

Rugg, Harold 0., et at Social Studies in the Elemen-tary and Se«imkny School, Part II, 22nd Year-book, National Society for the Study of Education,1923.

Thomas L. Dinnesan is a Professor of Ed-ucation and Anthropology at the Univer-sity of Te.vas of the Permian Basin.Richard E. Gross is Chair of Teacher Edu-cation and Curriculum at StanfordUniversity in California.

SOCIAL EDUCATION November/December 1986 74 CR


Time, Space and Culture

The purpose of the social studies isto help young people understandthemselves and the society and

world in which they live, so that they mayact intelligently and responsibly as indi-viduals and as citizens. In recent years,social studies educators have emphasizedthe importance of their subject in prepar-ing students for the role of citizen. Whilecitizenship education is an important pur-pose, we must make the case for thesocial studies in broader terms. The socialstudies prepares students to participate ina great variety of roles, private as well aspublic, personal as well as civic. It iscapable of doing this because of the broadnature of its subject matter.

The social studies has a rich intellectualheritage upon which to draw. It is

grounded in history and geography, is in-fused with conceptual and theoreticalknowledge from the social sciences, andhas access to the wide range of humanthought and achievement embodied inthe humanities. History and culturalgeography are mirrors of collectivehuman experience that reach backthrough the ages and across national andcultural boundaries. The social sciencedisciplines of economics, anthropology,sociology, political science, andpsychology give to the social studies thetheoretical insights, the conceptual rigorand the precision of language that are in-dispensable tools for the study of socie-ties and cultures. From the humanities,the social studies has borrowed other ap-proaches to knowledge: from philosophy,questions of meaning and rules for logicalthinking; from literature, ways to plumbthe depths of human experience; from artand music, windows into the highest as-pirations of the human spirit. No otherpart of the school curriculum is so wellendowed to broaden the students' intel-lectual and social horizons, to expand the

Matthew T. Downey

"known universe" in which they live.A solid grounding in the disciplines is

essential to the welfare of the socialstudies. It is the best safeguard against anaimless ecclecticism that would dilute thesocial studies curriculum with any sort ofcontent that could arguably have socialutility. However, to keep the curriculummoored to these academic disciplinesdoes not mean that the social studies is,to paraphrase Edgar B. Wesley, the socialsciences and the humanities simplifiedfor pedagogical purposes.'

A scope and sequencestatement is the frameworkupon which a curriculum

is constructed.

The social studies has developed anidentity of its own. Social studies subjectsthat are taught in the schools differ inseveral respects from the social scienceand humanities courses offered in theuniversities. As a school subject, socialstudies is more interdisciplinny, moreconcerned with skills development, andmore normative. Its concern with valuesreflects the function of the schools as in-struments of socialization as well as in-stitutions of education. The social studies,to return to Edgar B. Wesley's definition,may be more accurately defined in itsrelation to the academic disciplines as thesocial sciences and the humanitiesadapted to meet the needs of young peo-ple and the requirements of the schools.

Goals in social studies education areusually stated in terms of knowledge,skills and values. These are the basiccomponents of social studies instruction.Although there is currently wide agree-

ment among social studies educatorsabout the importance of each of theseareas of instruction, each component hashistorically enlisted quite different constit-uencies in its support. From this perspec-tive, "knowledge" has tended to be thebanner under which social scientists andother academicians involved in socialstudies education have marched; "skills"is more often the rallying cry of socialstudies reformers from outside theacademic disciplines; and "values" hasbeen the identifying badge of culturalconservatives who call for greater em-phasis on history and civics to inculcatepatriotism and traditional moral values.2

Each of these central components ofthe social studies commands differingdegrees of loyalty and commitment fromteachers and educators. Although few in-dividuals are committed to each in equalmeasure, most will agree that a socialstudies curriculum must embody allthree.

Toward a New Scope and SequenceThis article presents an alternative to

the scope and sequence recommendedby the 1983 NCSS Task Force.3 This alter-native is derived from several sources, in-cluding the preceding brief statement ofrationale. The scope of the content wasdetermined partly as a perception of whatstudents need to know to be able to actintelligently and responsibly, and itsplacement by assumptions about howchildren learn.

The nature of the subject matter of thesocial studies has also had a shaping in-fluence. Time and space are difficult no-tions for young children to grasp, but theyare integral to the social studies. The cur-riculum must be arranged to help themdevelop an understanding, of how people,places and things are related in space andtime. The scope and sequence described

SOCIAL EDUCATION November/December 1986 76 rird

Scope and Sequence:


here departs in several respects from theone presented by the NCSS Task Force.

This scope and sequence abandons theexpanding environments model, whichbears little or no relationship to what weknow about how children learn. As DianeRavitch has persuasively argued, thatmodel from the 1930s was grounded notin learning theory, but in the educationalideology of its time. "It is important torecall that the expanding environmentapproach was established not as a resultof the findings of cognitive or develop-mental psychology, but as a result ofspecific social and political values,"Ravitch notes. "The psychological claimson its behalf have never beenestablished."'

The scope and sequence widely used

today fails to provide an adequate struc-ture for teaching history and geography.The primary grades do not preparestudents for the formal encounter withhistory and geography in the laterelementary grades by developing theskills necessary to deal with concepts ofspace and time. Once history instructionbegins at grade 4 or 5, the present cur-riculum virtually assures that student in-terest in the subject will be quickly stifledby having ,J cover too much ground toorapidly and superficially.

For history instruction, the present cur-riculum relies largely on repeated use ofthe survey approach. Surveys of UnitedStates history are presented usually atthree grade levels, with surveys of worldhistory appearing in two grades. While

the survey approach has value for thepurpose of synthesis, by its very natureit sacrifices depth of learning to breadthof coverage. Its proper place is near theend of a history curriculum, after substan-tial learning has already been achieved.Repeated surveys are especially out ofplace in world history. Attempts to coverwhole civilizations in a few days or, atmost a few weeks, result in treatments toosuperficial for much permanent learning.

The scope and sequence presentedhere uses a chronological organizationthat places history and geography at thecenter of the social studies curriculum. Ofall the social science and humanitiesdisciplines, history is the one mostcapable of synthesizing the varieties ofhuman experience. Its chronologicalorganization provides a suitable frame-work for integrating much of the subjectmatter of the social studies. "Crowningthem all is history, which began with thesongs of bards and ends in philosophy,"wrote Charles A. Beard in the 1932 reportof the Commission on the Social Studies."So conceived, history can furnish ce-ment to bind all other social disciplinesinto a workable unity, giving to them apatterned background and, by virtue ofits basic time element, a dynamic whichpertains to the future."5

wemcd rature and the humani-ties as w, it as to the social sciences,history is narrative as well as analytical.As Beard pointed out, the narrative de-scription of es eats unfolding over timegives the social studies curriculum itsdynamic quality. No less important isgeography. which is concerned about thespatial context in which historical devel-opments take place. As history helps stu-dents acquire a sense of historical time,geographs gives them an understandingof the importance of place. Time andspace are the fundamental dimensions inwhich human cultures evolve andhuman beings interact.

The proposed scope and sequence pro-vides for an integrated social science andhumanities curriculum. Each level of thecurriculum and virtually each year ateach level draws its content from a greatvariety of sources. including history,geography, anthropology, economics,political science, sociology and

November/December 1986 SOCIAL EDUCATION77


psychology, as well as literature,philosophy, art and architectural history,and music. One device that permits us tointegrate knowledge from these severaldisciplines is the concept of culture. It isan important component of this proposedcurriculum. The term culture is used herein its structural sense, as defined in thefollowing way by Clyde Kluckhohn andW.H. Kelly: "A culture is an historicallyderived system of explicit and implicitdesigns for living which tends to beshared by all or specially designatedmembers of a group."6

Culture, by this definition, includesvalues, customs and beliefs, but alsoother aspects of patterned and systematicgroup behavior. It includes social interac-tions that vary from one culture toanother, patterns of political behavior,and artistic and literary expressions of apeople. With culture defined in this wayas a core concept, the curriculum permitsthe inclusion and cross-cultural com-parison of a great variety of forms ofhuman activity. It depends upon thehistorical dynamic to prevent the analysisof culture from becoming static and two-dimensional. The curriculum focuses onhuman cultures as they evolved overtime in response to the actions of peoplewithin the cultures and interactions be-tween cultures.

This scope and sequence also marks adeparture from the prevailing pattern ofrepeated history surveys. It does not at-tempt to cover the whole of United Statesor world history each time the subject oc-curs. Instead, this framework emphasizesa different period at each grade level togive students time to examine eachhistorical era in much greater depth thanis now possible. It also develops asomewhat different historical synthesis ateach grade level. The emphasis in grades5 and 6 is on social history; economic andsocial developments receive major atten-tion at grades 7 and 8; and a political/eco-nomic/social history synthesis is pre-sented at grades 10 and 11. This designdoes not abandon the survey approachaltogether. Each year of history instruc-tion begins with a backward look at whatcame before, reaching back especially forthe antecedents of major developmentsto be examined during that year.

Illustrative Scope andSequenceContent

The scope and sequence statement thatfollows presents a model curriculum forsocial studies from kindergarten throughgrade 12. It is divided into three sections:primary grades (K-3), elementary grades(9-8) and secondary grades (9-12).Dividing the curriculum in this wayserves to recognize that learning in thesocial studies is cumulative and that eachstage of instruction should preparestudents for more advanced learning atthe next highest level.

Grade Level Placement:Primary Grades

In the primary grades, students are in-troduced to the concept of cultureanidea much too abstract to be used at thislevelby looking at three of its most con-crete dimensions. Cultural patterns aremost visible in the way people (1) providefor theirecessities of life, (2) live together,and (3) enrich their lives and expressthemselves through the visual arts,storytelling and literature, music anddance. Learning how people have livedin other places and times helps childrendevelop new vantage points from whichto see themselves and the world aroundthem.

Learning to view the world from alter-native perspectives is an essential step indeveloping reflective and critical think-ing. Social studies instruction in theprimary grades contributes fundamental-ly to the development of higher-levelthinking skills.

The primary social studies curriculumalso helps children learn how to think indisciplined ways about space and time,two of the mast difficult concepts thatstudents must master.Kindergarten: The Children's World

The children's first encounter with thesocial studies in kindergarten should bea wide-ranging introduction to the waypeople live as seen through the eyes ofchildren. They should be introduced toall kinds of children, those who live faraway as well as nearby and those wholived in remote times as well as thepresent. They should also become ac-quainted with children in literature andin fantasy.

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SOCIAL EDUCATION November/December 1986 78

During each encounter, studentsshould be given time to compare theirown experiences with those of thechildren they are learning about. Instruc-tion this year should examine children'splay, nursery rhymes and children'sstories, conditions of family living and avariety of relationships between childrenand adults. Kindergarten should alsobegin formal instruction in spatial andtemporal relationships, concentrating onpersonal space (school and home) andpersonal time (daily routines).

1111111MilIIN

The scope and sequencepresented here uses a

chronological organizationthat places history

and geography at thecenter of the socialstudies curriculum.

Students should learn to make simplemaps of the spaces around them, to telltime and make simple time schedules.Above all, social studies instructionshould help make this an exciting year,a year filled with mental adventures outinto space and back in time.Grade 1: Essentials for Living

Social studies instruction at grade 1should focus or the most basic elementsof human culture, things that people de-pend upon to meet their daily needsshelter, food, clothing, tools, means oftransportation, and, in modern societies,basic services. While instruction shouldfrom time to time be concerned with thehere and now of the students' own lives,the sense of adventure planted inkindergarten must be nurtured by ex-amining how people in other places andtimes have provided for basic needs intheir own unique ways. The studentsshould compare types of houses, clothingstyles and levels of technological develop-ment at various times and places, asdepicted in art and literature, especiallychildren's literature, and in factual ac-counts. They should also examine thekinds of work people have done, and the

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music they have composedboth aboutwork and to help ease the drudgery ofwork. They should discover similaritiesin the human experience, despite greatdifferences in the way people have mettheir basic needs.

Their learning about spatial relation-ships can continue by examining thelocation of essential places and servicesin their neighborhood and community.They can map their way to school or tothe shopping center. They may look attime in terms of family or generationaltime, comparing physical aspects of theirlives with those of their parents whenthey were children.Grade 2: Living Together

At the second grade, attention shouldshift to the social groups in which peoplelive and to the institutions and customsthat groups of people create. Instructionshould begin with the family, move on toexamine kinship groups, work groups,social groups and people grouped into na-tions. As in the earlier grades, thestudents' encounters with groups of peo-ple should be wide-ranging in space andtime, although never losing touch withthe here and now. In each instance, in-struction should focus on the '.-tumanneeds that groups help people fulfilllinking this knowledge to that already ac-quired in the 1st grade about the way peo-ple meet and have met essential needs.The students should also look at customsand traditions developed through groupliving, including special family days andnational holidays.

Social studies at grade 2 should also beconcerned about the quality of life thatliving in groups makes possible, foreshad-owing the qualitative emphasis that willreceive major attention in the grade 3.The development of the students' under-standing of spatial and temporal relation-ships should continue by having themmap spaces related to their own familyand kin, including family migration pat-terns, and by examining the temporaldimensions of family and group ex-perience. Constructing family trees,timelines and finding out about thehistory of their family are suitableactivities.Grade 3: Living Well

At the 3rd grade, the focus of social

studies instruction shifts once again, thistime to qualitative dimensions of living.People do more than survive and orga-nize themselves into societies; they alsoexpress their feelings and aspirations intangible ways, decorate their surround-ings and develop visions of a better life.Although these dimensions of culturehave been touched upon briefly inprevious grades, here they should begiven major attention. The studentsshould look at I- styles of clothing andshelter reflect a people's artistic tastes andnotions of beauty as well as practicalnecessity. They should explore some ofthe ways that groups of people have usedliterature, folklore and myths, and art andmusic to give meaning to their daily ex-periences and to express hopes andaspirations; and they should comparethese to aspects of their own culturetoday.

Introducing students to folklore andmyths can also help prepare them fortheir encounter with cultures of primitiveand early peoples in the elementarygrades. Students can continue learning touse concepts of space and time by beingintroduced to the history of their com-munity and by making maps that showits relationship to other communities intheir state and region.

Gra .Je Level Placement:Elementary Grades

The elementary social studies cur-riculum introduces students to the formalstudy of history and geography. Equippedwith an understanding of the basic com-ponents of the concept of culture (anabstraction that most students will not yethave grasped) and with the capacity tothink backward in time and outward inspace, students are ready to investigatepeople and culture in historical times. In-struction must still be kept concrete, withmany opportunities provided for thestudents to relate past to present.

Instruction at the elementary level pro-vides the historical knowledge thatstudents must have to understand 20thcentury societies and cultures, whichthey will examine at the secondary schoollevel.Grade 4: Early Peoples of the World

The 4th grade is a transitional year


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Scope and Sequence:


when instruction is designed to con-solidate the knowledge learned in theprimary grades and to prepare the stu-dents for the formal study of history andgeography that will begin in grade 5. Itconsists of an examination of primitivepeoples and cultures. Much of the timeshould be spent on native Americangroups in North and South America, in-cluding an investigation of Indiancultures in the students' own locality andregion.

For comparative purposes, studentsshould also be introduced to early humansocieties in Africa and Europe and toprimitive cultures that still exist today.This year of study should challengestudents to push back their conception oftime to prehistorical eras. It should alsogive them practice in viewing cultures ina holistic way, seeing how one aspect ofliving relates to another. This is moreeasily done with primitive cultures thanwith more complex modern ones. It isalso easier to understand the relationshipbetween human culture and the physicalenvironment by studying primitive so-cieties. Finally, this venture into primitivesocieties will provide the perspectiveneeded for the students to grasp thesignificance of the classical civilizationsthat they will encounter in grade 5.Grade 5: Classical and MedievalCivilizations

Instruction for this year formally beginsthe study of history and geography in thesocial studies curriculum. Students willstudy civilizations on three continents,Asia (including Japan), Europe andAfrica. Each unit of study should be con-cerned about the evolution of a cultureand how people of different culturesresponded to their physical environment.The year should begin with an examina-tion of early civilizations of the Near Eastand of classical Greece and Rome, fol-lowed by a unit on China through theHan Empire (220 AD) to give the studentsan opportunity to compare culturaldevelopment in the West and East dur-ing approximately the same historicalera. But these should not be static com-parisons. Each unit must show how theculture developed and changed over timeand how Greeks, Romans and Chineseinteracted with other peoples.

A third unit should present the expan-sion of Islam and examine what life waslike in Islamic civilization at about theend of the 8th century. Another set ofcomparative studies should focus onWestern Europe during the Middle Agesand the emergence of feudal society inJapan. A final comparison should ex-amine Western Europe during theRenaissance and China during the Mingdynasty (1368-1644). Treatment ofRenaissance Europe should include theexpansion of European commerce dur-ing the 16th century and European

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Adequate attention shouldbe given to the art, music,folklore and customs, and

religious beliefs of thepeople who helped build

the new nation.

voyages of exploration. Thevear shouldconclude with an investigation of anAfrican culture of the premodern period,such as the Benin kingdom in West Africaduring the 16th and 17th centuries.

In each study, students should ex-amine multiple dimensions of eachculture, observe how the culture changedover time and view it within a largerregional and world context. The focusshould be kept concrete, emphasizingsocial history.Grade 6: U.S. History:Building a New Nation

U.S. history should be introduced inhis grade, with major attention given to

the colonial background, the creation ofthe United States and the expansion ofthis new nation across the continent.Each unit should include instruction ingeography, including the physicalgeography of each region studied and theinterplay between culture and environ-ment. Although basically a course inUnited States history, this year shouldalso help give students a hemisphericperspective.

When appropriate, they should haveopportunities to examine paralleldevelopments in North and South

America, especially European coloniza-tion and movements for national in-dependence. Instruction this year willbring U.S. history to the end of the Mex-ican War. A unit on state history may heincluded at an appropriate place to ex-amine larger historical developments ina local context. Despite the emphasis onnation-build:11g, this should not be

primarily a year of political history. Thefocus should be on social history, in-cluding everyday lives of ordinary peo-ple, and on the social and cultural diver-sity of the early United States. Adequateattention should be given to the art,music, folklore and customs, andreligious beliefs of the people who helpedbuild the new nation.Grade 7: World History:Early Modern and Industrial Eras

Students in the 7th grade will return toa world history and cultures perspective,with the focus on the web of relationshipsthat developed between Europe, Asia andAfrica during the 18th and 19th centuries.The students' geographical education willcontinue, with the emphasis this year onworld economic geography. Instructionshould begin with a review of the socialand cultural developments examined inthe 5th grade, especially the intellectualawakening of Western Europe in theRenaissance.

During the course of the year, thestudents should examine the followingareas and periods in depth: Europe dur-ing the Enlightenment (1689-1789), theIndustrial Revolution in England(1750-1850), China in transition(1700-1900), the modernization ofJapar.(1850-1900), Africa under colonial rule(1825-1900) and tradition and change inIndia and Southeast Asia (1763-1900).The students should consider why somecultures were more successful thanothers in resisting Western ways duringthe era of European expansion. Specialattention should be given to develop-ments in European art and music, and tothe emergence of modern literary styles.Grade 8: United States History:Making an Industrial Nation

In the 8th grade, students will studymodernization and social change in asingle nation by examining U.S. historyfrom 1789 to 1914. Geographical educa-


1, 2

Er./T rPTv A"Prt4).


tion will emphasize changing patterns ofland use that accompanied industrializa-tion and urban growth. The year shouldbegin with a review of early Americanhistory, with emphasis on the develop-ment of trade and handicraft manufactur-ing during the colonial and early nationalperiods.

Instruction should focus on economicchanges associated with industrializationand on the impact of these developmentson American society and culture. Politicalhistory should receive more attentionthan it did in grade 5, with particular at-tention given to the growing sectionaldivisiveness that led to the Civil War.

Students should also look at U.S.literature, art and architecture, especial-ly as these cultural forms reflected socialchange. Although the course shouldfocus on the United States, it should notpresent U.S. history in isolation. It shouldlook at the expansion of the United States'commercial influence in Latin America,at territorial expansion in the Caribbeanand in the Pacific, and at the complexweb of cultural and intellectual ties thatdeveloped between the United States andEurope.

Grade LeNel Placement:Secondary School Grades

The modern world is the focus of thesocial studies curriculum in the secon-dary school years. The historicalknowledge about societies and culturesthat the students acquired in elementary

school will provide a solid foundationupon which to build a mature under-standing of the 20th century world.History instruction in the secondarygrades should consist mainly of modernhistory. However, both years of historicalstudy should begin with a modifiedsurvey to provide students with a histori-cal synthesis to enable them to place 20thcentury developments within a larger his-torical framework. Social studies instruction in the secondary years should focuson civic educationpreparing studentsfor their role as citizens in a democraticsociety and interdependent world.Grade 9: Community Civics

In this year-long civics course, studentslearn about their community, become ac-quainted with local public issues and getinvolved in community service. Thefocus of instruction is the public life andinstitutions of the town or city in whichthey live. To become better acquaintedwith the community, students shouldundertake either a local history project oran investigation using a social scienceresearch method. This activity will alsohelp them develop research, writing andthinking skills. Students should also learnabout the community, its history and op-portunities available for citizens to con-tribute to the welfare of the community.This can be done, in part, throughpresentations by and interviews withcommunity leaders and public officials.

A second major project for the year willrequire students to become involved in

some useful community service as thebasis for a reflective essay to be submittedby the end of the year on the value of civicparticipation. This course in communitycivics is grounded on the assumption thatgood citizenship begins at home.Grade 10: The World inthe 20th Century

Instruction this year will consist ofworld history emphasizing the 20th cen-tury. An introductory unit should reviewthe students' knowledge of world historyacquired in earlier years, looking ataspects of European, Islamic, Asian andAfrican cultures that have endured overtime as well as those that changed dur-ing the process of modernization.

This broad synthesis will help studentsplace the 20th century world in historicalperspective. Students should examinethe growing instability of Europe duringan era of world wars and economic de-pression and the growth of nationalismin areas of the world colonized by Euro-pean nations. They should look at peo-ple and cultures that v + ere resisting Euro-pean influence by mid-century and tracethe demise of colonialism after World WarII. These developments need to be ex-amined within the context of theideological and political conflicts of theCold War era and the emergence of theThird World as a force in world affairs.Students should also examine invest-ment and trade patterns and the growingeconomic interdependence of nations.Aspects of cultural change and culturaldiffusion should also be explored by ex-amining the impact of mass media andmodern corn munications technology onpeoples and cultures in the world today.Geographical instruction should em-phasize world cultural geography in this20th century and the growing in-terdependence of the world's peoples.Grade 11: The United Statesin the 20th Century

The year of modern world history willbe followed by a course on the UnitedStates in the 20th century. It should beginwith a survey that traces major threads ofhistorical development that made possi-ble the emergence of the United States asa major industrial and world power by1900. However, most of the year shouldhe devoted to 20th century develop-



rnents. Students should examine theemergence of the modern corporateeconomy, changes in the social structureand ethnic composition of U.S. society inthe 20th century, and changes in thefamily and other social institutions.

Political history should focus on the ex-panding role of government in U.S. lifeand the success of our political institu-tions in adapting to change. This shouldalso be a course in cultural history, de-fined broadly enough to include popularculture and the mass media as well as artand literature. Geography instructionshould focus on U.S. cultural geographyin the 20th century, with particular em-phasis on our people's changing percep-tions of environmental resources.Grade 12: U.S. Citizenshipin the Modern World

The capstone of the social studies cur-riculum is a year of national and worldcivics designed to help students definetheir role and responsibilities as citizensof a modern democratic society in an in-creasingly interdependent world. The

Values education is anissue that the social studiesprofession has approachedwith considerable caution.

year should begin by looking backwardto the roots of U.S. political culture andthe meaning of citizenship in ademocratic republic. The students shouldexamine the assumptions about the in-alienable rights of human beings that datefrom the 18th century Enlightenment andwere embodied in the Declaration of In-dependence and protected for Americancitizens by the Bill of Rights.

They should also consider the implica-tions of the nation's commitment torepublican government and to humanrights in U.S. foreign policy and for theresponsibilities of U.S. citizens in theworld community. Students should beresponsible for two projects during thisyear. One will require research leading tosome course of action on a public issueof national importance. For the second

project, they must do the same for anissue of international significance. Whilewe assume that good citizenship beginsat home, we do not assume that it endsthere.

Values and Social Studies EducationPublic schools have an important role

to play in transmitting values from onegeneration to the next. In many ways,schools influence what young peoplevalue and believe, an influence broughtto bear indirectly as well as throughclassroom instruction. Even within theclassroom, students may learn as muchabout valuing from the example providedby the teacher as from the precepts oftextbooks.

As James P. Shaver and William Strongnote, "In short, the hidden curriculumthat is, the pervasive approach to

discipline, the approaches to 'teaching'that are shared from one classroom to thenext, the techniques of hallway-lunch-room-playground managementhas apowerful educational influence."'

Of course, children do not learn aboutvalues only or even primarily in school.Their family, their peers, the religiousgroups and youth organizations to whichthey belong, and, not least, the com-munications media to which they aredaily exposed exert a strong influence.However, formal classroom instructionplays a part in values education, andsocial studies instruction can contributeto that education in significant ways.

Values education is an issue that thesocial studies profession has approachedwith considerable caution. True, virtual-ly everyone agrees that schools have aresponsibility in the area of values educa-tion. Frameworks and guidelines forteaching social studies have traditional-ly included values as one of the areas inwhich goals should be set for socialstudies instruction. But what valueseducation entails is usually carefully cir-cumscribed. For example, the 1983 NCSSTask Force report limits the role of socialstudies in values education to teaching"democratic beliefs and values" andmakes it clear that it is referring only tocivic values about which a consensus isthought to exist among the Americanpeople'


82 1G


As a result, such documents rarely getbeyond a discussion at the most generallevel of those beliefs that most of us wouldagree make up the American civic creed.They reiterate our belief in the value ofequality, liberty, justice, freedom ofspeech and religion, and our respect forthe democratic process and the rights ofothers. While reinforcing such values isimportant, this should not be the onlygoal of values education in the socialstudies. The social studies curriculummust also recognize that values governprivate as well as public behavior and thatvalues produce controversy and conflictin our society as well as national unity.

Let us look first at the most commonlyaccepted role of the social studies invalues education, the perpetuation ofcivic values that are part of our commondemocratic culture. There is wide agree-ment that social studies teachers have aresponsibility to deal explicitly with thebasic values of our society. Many edu-cators also agree that teachers should tryto encourage and strengthen theirstudents' commitment to democraticvalues. The question is not whether thisis a legitimate responsibility, but what isthe best way to fulfill it?

The teaching of civic values should beapproached historically by helping stu-dents understand why people havethought certain beliefs worth valuing andwhy they have found certain valuesworth perpetuating over time. Thisshould include values of both their ownand other cultures. Above all, it meanstreating values as a legitimate historicalsubject and valuing as a human activityworth historical consideration in theclassroom.

Values education in the social studiesmust examine private as well as publicvalues. While history is a suitable vehiclefor teaching about standards of personalethical behavior, other humanities sub-jects serve equally as well. The capacityof the humanities to explore such ques-tions is a major reason for introducingmore humanities content into socialstudies instruction. "Basically thehumanities are modes of thinking that arevalue laden," noted A. Bartlett Giamattiat a recent humanities conference at YaleUniversity. "They are different from other

1r"

academic or human modes of thinking inthat they don't wish to presume that truthwould be found by denying value. orpretendi,ig as much as possible to hevalue free, despite the fact that we knownothing is."9

For the purpose of values education,literature is an especially worthy ally ofthe social studies. Mark Twain'sIlucklebeny Ann is a great deal morethan a novel about growing up inMissouri in the 19th century, as AlanDonagan reminds us. Its subject is itshero's education in how to valuerightlyan education he acquires large-ly outside the classroom . . . And if youwere asked what is to be valued in theway [Huck and Jim] behave towards oneanother (I cannot imagine anybody whoN,ould need to ask) perhaps the bestanswer would be: that is how peoplebehave who respect one another simplyas people, and are not seeking tomanipulate or exploit one another."0Questions about how to treat otherhuman beings are as essential to valueseducation in the social studies as arequestions about principles of democraticgovernance.

Finally, the social studies classroomshould become a forum for examiningvalue conflicts. It may be the only neutralenvironment that students have to ex-plore value differences that are sourcesof disharmony and conflict in our society.Although dealing with value conflicts thatmay be rooted in religious beliefs, ethnicsubcultures, or regional and local tradi-

lions requires sensitivity, it need not betraumatic. The historical orientation ofthe social studies allows students to raisequestions about values and valuing incontexts other than their own immediatesocial environment.

Because many of the value issues thatdivide us today reflect fundamental con-cerns of people over time, we can ex-amine and approach present conflictsfrom distant vantage points. To look onlyat those core values about which mostAmericans agree is to deprive students ofopportunities to learn about fundamen-tal differences that divide our society andhow they came to exist. It is also to robthe social studies of the vitality that coniesfrom studying the real world that liesbeyond the classroom and textbook.

Values education should be a continu-ing strand woven into the social studiescurriculum at each grade level. With eachhistorical period and culture studied, in-struction should be provided about whatpeople placed value upon and what werethe individual and social consequencesof these value choices. Instructionalmaterials that address questions of valuesand of valuing in various historical andcultural contexts must be made availableto teachers.

Skills in the SocialStudies Curriculum

Public schools are responsible for help-ing young people develop a wide varietyof intellectual and other skillsbasicskills of reading, writing and workingwith numbers; thinking skills and habitsof critical thinking; skills related to suc-cess in school (study skills, library skills,test-taking skills), and skills related toworking with other people. Social studiesinstruction can play a major role in help-ing the schools meet this importantresponsibility.

Unfortunately, the profession has failedto present a convincing case for the valueof the social studies as a vehicle for skillsinstruction. The skills sections of scopeand sequence statements are invariablythe most deadening, mechanicallypresented and presumably the least con-sulted part of these documents. Theyusually feature a taxonomical listing ofthinking skills based on the work of Ben-

SOCIAL EDUCATION November/December 198683 r6

Scope and Sequence:


jornin Bloom, a continuum that beginswith classification skills, extends throughskills of interpretation, analysis and syn-thesis, ending with those skills pertinentto the evaluation of information.

While such lists may help some of usthink abstractly about skills, they areotherwise quite sterile. They do not leadto a better understanding by the generalpublic or by school officials or even byclassroom teachers of the value of socialstudies for advancing the most basic pur-pose of the schools. Like those displaycases of stuffed birds in natural historymuseums, the lists of skills remain lifelesstaxonomies.

Taxonomic lists of skills are verymisleading, especially as a description ofskills development in the social studies.The mechanical arrangement of discreteskills belies the dynamic way in whichthey are actually used and learned in asocial studies classroom. As every teacherknows, skills are not isolated, discretebehaviors. They are interrelated, in-terdependent and used in endlesslyvaried combinations.

Such lists also leave the impression thatskills are generic, that one uses the sameskills to interpret a poem, a historicalevent or an index of economic statistics.Skills are obviously grounded in subjectmatter, have limited transferability fromone subject to another and cannot belearned in a content vacuum

The fact that intellectual skills are in-terrelated and content-based gives thesocial studies an extraordinary versatili-ty as a vehicle for skills development.Representing many disciplines, contentareas and modes of inquiry, the socialstudies curriculum provides a large arenato develop skills in various combinationsand in overlapping patterns. It is difficultto imagine a skill-learning environmentas rich and complex as a social studiesclassroom.

Making the public aware of the valueof social studies as a resource for skilldevelopment is one of the major chal-lenges facing social studies educators to-day. We must develop an alternativemodel for skills development that reflectsthe complex and dynamic process bywhich skills are actually learned in asocial studies classroom. In the absence

84

of such a model, we must at leastdemonstrate how social studies instruc-tion relates to each of the major areas inwhich the schools have responsibilitiesfor developing skills. The following is anoutline of how such a presentation mightbe organized.I. BASIC SKILLS

The subject matter of the social studiesprovides students with extensive oppor-tunities to learn or further develop basicskills, including the following:A. Reading skills: social studies assign-

ments require reading of historicalnarratives, first-hand accounts andother primary sources, and greatliterature from many cultures andperiods of history.

B. Writing skills: social studies assign-ments require students to writereports, book reviews and essays,which Mick. use as a vehicle for im-proving writing skills as well asevaluating other kinds of learning.

C. Oral language skills: students in socialstudies classes take part in discus-sions, respond to questions posed bythe teacher and give oral reports,

D. Information-gathering and researchskills: social studies instruction re-quires students to seek out informa-tion through independent investiga-tions using libraries and repositoriesof information,

E. Memorization skills: to keep informa-tion available in short-term memorylong enough to organize and syn-thesize it, students learn basicmemorization techniques in socialstudies classes.

F. Study skills: through social studies in-struction, students develop a widerange of study skills.In social studies instruction, these skills

are not developed independently or inisolation. The skills are used in varyingcombinations, with a typical socialstudies assign it requiring a demon-stration of competence in several of theabove skills. Social studies instructionprovides for integrated skills learning.II. SKILLS SPECIFIC TO THESOCIAL STUDIES

In social studies classrooms, studentsdevelop basic skills, such as thosedescribed above, in conjunction with

Scope and Sequence: _


other skills that an. specific to the subjectmatter of the social studies. That is, theylearn to apply basic skills in a variety ofskill-learning contexts. Among the skillsspecific to the content of tire social studiesare the following:A. Skills related to understanding time

relationships: understanding howevents and people are related in timerequires both knowledge arid skills.These knowledge-based skills includethe ability to see causal and ()ther rela-tionships between historical develop-ments,ments, events and actors.

B. Skills related to the analysis and inter-pretation of historical info! [nation thecritical use of historical infornrat ion nsquires a \ide range of skills. fromdetecting bias in historical evidence todetermining the frame of referencefrom which a historical narrative waswritten.

C. Skills related to understanding spatialrelationships: these skills include avariety of geography skills, includingthe ability to prepare and read roan':.to visualize topography mid tr ) see lel&tionships between spaces.

D. Skills related to the use of socialscience knowledge: concepts cleric edfrom the social sciences are power fultools for generalizing about busmanphenomena and understanding lel&tionships between them. The socialsciences also provide skills in methodsof research and in the analysis of socialdata.

E. Skills related to (he use of knowledgegrounded in the humanities: thehumanities disciplines provide train-ing in a great variety of skills, especial-ly proficiency in the application ofrules of logic and methods of criticalanalysis.In real classroom situations, the basic

skills and specific skills described aboveare highly interactive. The discussion ofa single historical document calls upon astudent's ability to see chronological rela-tionships, to discuss contort in terms ofabstract concepts, to analyze a textcritically and to engage in the give-and-take of an oral presentation.III. THE ABILITY TO THINKCRITICALLY

The ultimate goal of social studies

41111111111

education in the area of skills develop-ment is to piornote the ability to thinkcritically While c,vide agi cement existsamong Sou cal studies educators about theimportantimportanter of critical thinking, there isnot a consensus about what the termmeans It is often used as a synonym for'.higher level thinking," %chic II can meanalmost am thing beyond the le el of mit.learning. For our put-flow 11( re. We willUSeJOhli McPeck's definition (4(1161:althinking live scepticism. itsmost notable cliar.P.teristic hiringtail ,....epticism or suspension of assenttowards a given statement, estdblhedlo.nlin co ;node of doing things.

'ro tic reflective, such gi.e1111( mustbe grounded i n knowledge of a pattictbrsubject. As Mt. Peck notes, the ciincalthinker must know when ro ask quo's-lions and what questions to ask. Both re-quire knowledge about the sublet t. I )e.

fined in lids way, c ritical thinking r an

only he taught in the schools within thecontext of a school subject 1\ bile onecrindevelop the ability to think critic all\about any subject, the skill is not transfer-'able to a sultjet t ,iltottt h tine is notwell informed.

The ultimate goal is re,rc twit whenstudents develop the ability to thinkntically about people and e% (las in the

world today -the k n wrung to 111011110Hof social studies education, the 11.111mm kof an educated person (111d Ole prereq-uisite for responsible citizenship. Onlythrough the kind of education embodiedin the social studies curriculum is the goalattainable. From kindergarten on, thesocial studies student learns to view theworld from many vantage points, to in-terpret reality from the pet sire( rives ofvarious peoples and cultures.

As a result, students learn that w luletruth may seem absolute, it is also ten-tative Not all the evidence is our hand vet.They learn that how one inlet pros reali-ty also depends upon one's time, placeand perspective. Still, one !mist tel on thebest evidence, the most per suasive inter-pretation, the fullest truth available. Thedevelopment of such refleok e st ep-ticism, combined with know ledge and(he good citizens' willingness to act, iscentral to the purpose of schools in ademocratic society.


41111111111111111P

So,pe and Sequence.Alternatives for Social Studies

Notes.Thi, was Wesly's famous definition The social

studies are the SOCIII! SCo'fiCes simplifivd for pedagogicalpurposes Edgar B 11 esiev, Teaching the Social Studies(New York D C Heath. 1917). 4

2 This is a reworking of John D Haas's reformulationof the three approaches to the social studies described inRobert D Barr. James L Barth and S Samuel Shermis.Defining the Social Studies (Arlington VA National Coun-cil (or the Foetal Studies, 1977). For Haas's model of thecompeting traditions in the social studies. see Irving %ler-rissett and John D Haas. "Rationales. Goals and Objec-tives in Social Studies," in The Current State of SocialStudies A Report of Project SPAY (Boulder. CO: SocialScience Education Consortium. 1982); 19-29

"In Search of a Scope and Sequence for Social

Studies R.Tort of the National Council for the SocialStudies Task Force on Scope and Sequence. NovemberI 1983.- Social Edo' aim 18 (April 19811: 252.

' Diane Ravitch. "The Erosion of History in AmericanSchools. ni th Especial Attention to the Elementary SchoolCurriculum"(Paper delivered at the 1986 Annual Meetingof the Organization of American Historians and the Na-tional Council on Public Historyl. 13

Beard. A Charter for the Social Sciences in theSchools. 18-19, 20

° Quoted in Julius Could and William Lhonor} of the Social Sciences (New York. The Free Press.1964). 166.

James P Shaver and William Strong. Facing ValueDec, isions. Rationale Building for Teachers (B.-Imunt. CA.Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1976). 69

"In Search of a Scope and Sequence for Social

Studies 235-257.Quoted in "Education Watch." New York Times.

April 13. 1986.t" Alan Donagan. "The Humanities and the Problem of

Teaching Values" (Paper presented to the CaliforniaHumanites Project. Conference II. Pomona, CA. February21. 1986.1

" John E N1cPeck, Critical Thinking and Education(New York St Martin's Press. 1981). 6, 19

Matthew T Downey is Professor ofHistory at the University of Colorado, cur-rently serving as Visiting Professor in theGraduate School of Education at theUniversity of California, Berkeley.

George Counts,A Visionary's Contribution

Bruce Romanish

eorge S. Counts was an American visionary who sawLI the need for education as pivotal in the democratic lifeof the future. The nature of change itself coupled with thefeatures of the emerging world order led him to proclaim,"Although the earthly neighborhood is fantastically smallwhen measured in terms of speed of communication, it isvast indeed when viewed from the standpoint of humanunderstanding."I

Schools area reflection of the society they serve and there-fore reveal much about a culture. According to Counts:

There have been as many educations in history as there havebeen human societies. It is as much an integral part of a cultureor civilization as an economic or political system. The veryway in which education is conceived, whether its purpose isto enslave or free the mind, is an expression of the societywhich it serves ...of necessity an education is a most intimateexpression of a particular civilization.'Its aims should be clearly known for "the record should

teach us that only an education designed to serve beneficentends can ever be beneficent in any human conception ofthe term."3

The social obligations of an education serving democraticends are central in Counts' outlook and place social studiesat the heart of the enterprise:

Love of liberty, even love of country, cannot be compelled bylegislation. And the same may be said of a sense of fairness,a spirit of tolerance of differences, an abhorrence of injustice,an acquiescence in majority rule, devotion to the Bill of Rights,and an experimental and inquiring mind.4He saw the dignity and worth of the individual as the most

notable of democracy's attributes: "Probably the most dis-tinctive feature of a democracy is the value which it places

on the individual human being. regardless of race, creed,family, or other social category." He continued by stating:

In the measure that individuals are treated unequally and arbi-trarily with respect to educational advantage, economic oppor-tunity., administration of justice, enjoyment of rights andresponsibilities, or access to social rewards and honors, thesociety involved violates this basic principlesYet the beliefs are meaningless in the absence of the demo-

cratic spirit, the jewel of the American heritage, which is thefeature Counts sought to preserve through the schools:

If America should lose her[sic) revolutionary temper, she willno longer be America. In that day, if it has not already arrived,her spirit will have fled and she will be known merely as therichest and most powerful of the nations. If America is not tobe false to the promise of her youth, she must do more thansimply perpetuate the democratic ideal of human relation-ships: she must make an intelligent and determined effort tofulfill it. The democracy of the past was the chance fruit of astrange conjunction of forces on the new continent; the demo-cracy of the future can only be the intended offspring of theunion of human reason, purpose, and will. the conscious anddeliberate achievement of democracy under novel circum-stances is tne task of our generation.6

NotesEducation and the Foundation of Human Freedom (Pittsburgh. PA: University of

Pittsburgh Press, 1962) 40.2 "A Rational Faith in Educatioo. bathers College Record 60 (1958). 257.

"A Rational Faith in Education." 2.!7' 'The Intangible Supports of liberty." Educational Forum (January 1956): 139.

"Educate for Democracy." Phi Delta Kappan 30 (1949): 194.Dare the School Build a New Social Order7(New York: John Day Company. 1932): 37

Bruce Romanish is an Assistant Professor at St. Cloud Uni-versity, St. Cloud, Minnesota.

Norpber/December 1986 SOCIAL EDUCATION

86 Reprinted by permission.


Designing aScope and Sequence

H. Michael Hartoonian and Margaret A. Laughlin

The design for curriculum develop-ment suggested here is basedupon the assumption that specific

scope and sequence decisions should bemade by local curriculum committeesand teachers. For the most part, thesedecisions are political. They are decisionsbased upon the authority and power of in-dividuals and groups, and are steeped intradition and the conventional wisdom ofthe profession.

Given this assumption, it is our inten-tion to suggest an alternative approach tocurriculum decision making based upona series of necessary (though not suffi-cient) themes and questions that can in-itiate a dialogue about the logical,philosophical and psychologicalrelevance of scope and sequence to theteaching and learning of social studies.

RationaleEducation must always be defined

within the context of a particular society.This is the case primarily because educa-tion is responsible for maintaining thecultural heritage and improving self andsociety. This requires freedom and con-tinual criticism, including the opportuni-ty to search for truth and to test ideas.Basic to continual criticism is the avail-ability of information, refining of the skillsof communication, and respect for selfand others.

Improvement of civilization incor-porates the thoughtful consideration ofchange, an understanding of the work-ings of society and the courage to actupon reasoned convictions. The schoolshave a major responsibility in thedevelopment of civilization by providingnew generations with knowledge, skills,attitudes and perspectives that permitfreedom, continual criticism andimprovement.

Certainly, other social institutions such

as the family, church and media alsohave responsibilities to transmit informa-tion and knowledge important to thedevelopment of informed and thoughtfulcitizens. In a democratic republic, how-ever, education becomes even more im-portant because our system is built uponthe concept of the "enlightenedcitizen"that is, an individual in touchwith the cultural heritage; possessing aworking knowledge of the economic,

Education must always bedefined within the context

of a particular society.

political and social factors that make upthe human ecosystem in which we allmust function; an individual who under-stands the principles of rule of law, legallimits to freedom and majority rule withminority rights; and an individual whopossesses the attitudes of fair play, seekscooperation and demands quality in thecharacter and work of self and others.Without a conscious effort to teach andlearn these things, a free republic will notlong endure. Thus, our first priorityourfirst public policy goalis to ensure oursurvival as a free nation through thedevelopment of enlightened citizens.

Social studies is fundamental to thisprimary purpose of schooling. It is theschool subject most directly concernedwith the study of civilization, the develop-ment of critical thinking and the improve-ment of society through enlightenedpolitical participation. While this respon-sibility falls partly on other school sub-jects, it is the social studies that assumesdirect responsibility, because no one elseon the teaching staff is better qualified

and no other curriculum area is betterorganized to assume this task. The follow-ing scope and sequence design presentsand represents a way of thinking aboutthe social studies curriculum consistentwith this responsibility.

GoalsSocial studies is concerned with

developing reflective, democratic citizen-ship within a global context, and includesthe disciplines typically classified asbelonging to the social and behavioralsciences as well as history, geography andcontent selected from law, philosophyand the humanities. It also includes thosetopics that focus on social problems,issues and controversies. The socialstudies is both single discipline andmultidiscipline oriented, depending uponthe topic being studied. The social studiesaddresses four educational goals:

The development of enlighteneddemocratic citizenship in order to par-ticipate effectively in local, state, na-tional and international affairsThe appreciation and understanding ofour cultural heritage and its role in con-temporary societyThe acquisition of academic knowledgeand skills related to the study of themotives, actions and consequences ofhuman beings as they live individual-ly as well as in groups and societies ina variety of places and time settings;and the joy of learning about self, othersand human historyLearning "how to learn"how tounderstand complex ideas and how tocreate new ideas.All of these goals are equal in impor-

tance, for they reinforce eacli other. Thus,the goal of citizenship is supported by thegoals of disciplined, academic study, andongoing learning. Stated another way, thestudent should be able to:

SOCIAL EDUCATION November/December 198688 1 ri

Scope and Sequence:


Use reasoning processes in economic,political, social and personal decisionmakingAppreciate and value the diversity andcommonality of the human familythroughout historyComprehend the vocabulary, logic andmethodology of the several academicsubject areas that make up the socialstudiesCommunicate ideas through speaking,listening, writing and the use of othersymbolsUse the social sciences, history,literature, social mathematics (statistics,probability, social indicators, databased management systems) and thefine arts to describe and explain socialphenomena.Most important, a thorough under-

standing of the social studies can providefor the development of perspective.Perspective is an understanding orwisdom gained by a temporal and spatial

knowledg' that transcends the presentsetting and allows one the courage to asksuch questions as, What is the good socie-ty? What is the good person? What obliga-tions do I have to the ideals and peopleof the past, present and future? What isthe proper relationship between the in-dividua and the state? How, and to whatextent, should I be involved with peopleand institutions on this globe? Can ourcivilization endure? What values do wewish to preserve?

Program Scope: MajorCurriculum Themes

The particular curriculum design sug-gested here is based upon seven themesthat logically extend from the abovestated goals. These themes appear ineach grade level and constitute, in largemeasure, the nature of the programscope. The themes help define the pro-gram's scope to the extent that they pre-sent perspectives that allow students the

temporal, spatial and cultural criteria sonecessary for cornpretension and ra-tional action. To some degree, anydelineation of major themes is arbitraryWhile different themes may be empha-sized at various grade levels, they shouldbe included at every grade and may bepresented in any coherent order.

With the above in mind, see Figure 1.Cultural Heritage

The cultural heritage of a people is em-bodied in stories about their values, theirhopes and dreams, and their fears anddilemmas. The major responsibility of theschool is to transmit the cultural heritageto the next generation. This is accom-plished by putting students in touch withhistorythe people, ideals, artifacts anddilemmas of the past that need to be partof our present and future.

Every human society (and groupwithin larger modern societies) has par-ticular patterns of behavior that make upits culture. A culture consists of language,

November/December 1986 SOCIAL EDUCATION89 U


tools, important documents, customs,social institutions, beliefs, rituals, games,attitudes, utensils, clothing, ornaments,works of art, religion and more. Withinsocial groups, individuals learn acceptedmeans of meeting their needs and copingwith problems of living in groups. Theseways of perceiving, thinking and behav-ing are part of their heritage.Global Perspective

Notions of "global community,""spaceship earth," "the shrinking globe,"and "global interdependence" abound inpopular literature. Every society struggleswith the ongoing conflict between thedesire for independence and the realitiesof interdependence. The world is becom-ing more crowded, more interconnected,more volatile. There is the desire forpeace but the preparation for war con-tinues. What happens in the furthest cor-ner of the world may affect us quickly.

Students need to understand thedistinctions between political and cultural"maps." This distinction suggests thatculture is not necessarily confined topolitical boundaries. Students must alsounderstand the worldwide dynamic ofthe human, technological, and ideologi-cal milieu as culture is shared across theworld. Interdependence demands thatour perspective be global.Political/Economic

One of the fundamental attributes of acitizen of the republic is the ability to func-tion within its political and economicsystems. This means the ability to makepersonal decisions and judge the deci-

sions of others often with little time andincomplete information. From serving onlocal political action groups to under-standing monetary and fiscal policy,students need experience in the disci-plined study of economics and politicalscience. Citizens need to become awareof their political and economic oppor-tunities and obligations.

To a large extent, citizens still see theircivic roles as public and their economicroles as private. We see all "civic" citizensas equal because of the one person onevote concept, but the "economic" citizenas unequal due to different standards ofliving. Within the republic, the citizenmust understand the relationships be-tween civic and economic justice andpower, and work for the public as well asthe private good.Tradition and Change

People, events, tools, institutions andideas change. History records the strug-gles of people and groups who favorchange and those who oppose it. The rateof change is uneven among and withindifferent cultures and societies, butchange is continuous and the rate ofchange is accelerating.

As change accelerates, we must placegreater importance on anticipating thefuture. Clearly, we cannot accuratelypredict the future, but we can envisionvarious scenarios and be ready for morethan one possibility. Futurists havedeveloped a useful kit of processes fordealing with the future. These includecross-impact matrix, scenario writing,

Figure 1. Major Scope and Curriculum Themes

SEQUENCE

K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Cultural Heritage

Global4 Perspective

Political/Economic

Tradition and Change

Social History

Spatial Relationships

4 Social Contracts 11.

0111

trend extrapolation, brainstorming andtechnological assessment.

Important as change is in our lives, wemust recognize that human experienceis continuous and interrelated. Continuityand traditions are facts of life and providelife with meaning, beauty and truth. Insome ways, "nothing new occurs underthe sun." All persons, events, actions andchange are the outcome of things thathave gone before. We are inevitably aproduct of our past and in some waysrestricted by it. Students should learnhow change and continuity constantly in-fluence their lives.Social History

The need for equity, justice and a bet-ter reservoir of historical and contem-porary evidence demands that we in-clude in our study of the human family,women, minorities and the so-called or-dinary people. Human values come to lifethrough the stories of people who playedmany roles in the drama of history. Forexample, courage can be learned fromthe stories of children and justice can betaught using the songs and poetry of thedowntrodden.

Ideas about work, sorrow and joy areto be found in letters and journals ofmany who are not "real" authors orauthorities. Social history encourages thestudy of the pastthrough primarysources and personal accounts. Whenconcerned with the study or process ofhistorydoing historythe student willdiscover the texture and grace reportedin those narratives that somehow havenot found their way into full view in textsand other materials.Spatial Relationships

The study of areal distribution, the ex-amination of particular places and thedelimitation of regions helps the studentto understand how earth space is orga-nized. People use similar earth spaces orareas in different ways. They line or inter-connect the different areas with transpor-tation and communication routes. Theymove themselves, messages, and goodsand services over the routes. They con-duct their governments and engage in

:Arious types of activities, such asreligious or recreational, within particularspatial arrangements.

The discipline most involved with


.1


spatial relationships is geography.Geography is concerned with under-standing the location and spatial arrange-ments of items on the earth. Simplyknowing the location or the spatialdistribution, however, is not enough.Students also need to learn the causesand consequences of such spatialarrangements.

As part of this study, they need todevelop a knowledge of the physicalearth itselfits size, shape, movementsand the materials and natural processesof its surface. They should learn to buildmental-image maps of the spatial ar-rangements over the earth of differentkinds of phenomena. This skill beginsearly and the mental maps increase innumber and refinement with each yearof maturity.

The study of geography not only in-cludes people and almost all of their ac-tivities, but also the earth and earth pro-cesses. Consequently, geography linksthe social and the natural sciences, andprovides for us the spatial perspectivenecessary in understanding culture andhuman behavior.Social Contracts

The idea that one is part of a societyalso affirms the "signing" of a social con-tract with our citizens. This con-tract outlines our public behavior anddefines our privileges and obligations ascitizens. In a sense, this contract providesthe criteria for our ethical behavior fromcivility to jurisprudence. One must cometo respect the full citizenship of those whoare different, those who have differentbackgrounds and talents, and those whotake unpopular positions on social issues.

Social contracts are not only signed by

people as they approach the age of ma-jority, they are also a real and necessarypart of the society we call family, school,athletics, social clubs, etc. The social con-tract suggests that we are social andpolitical at the same time, and it is crucialthat within the democratic republic,citizens understand not only the contoursof the contract but the fine print as well.

Program Sequence:Major Content Focus

Many social studies scope and se-nuence models recommend a spiral orexpanding horizon content approach,starting with the immediate, familiar andconcrete environment in the primary

The important thing is thatthe content is taught and

that it be current, accurateand comprehensive.

grades and moving outward to the moredistant and abstract in high school. Thedesign outlined in Figure 2 is a somewhatsimilar organizational pattern except thatits content focus is organized on the basisof grade level clusters developed aroundthe seven major curriculum themes.

In organizing the curriculum withineach grade level cluster, students andteachers are asked to address a series ofbroad content focus questions that allowfor the gathering and integration of datafrom multiple sources, the developmentof convergent and divergent thinkingskill& and the making of reasoned

judgments about such findings.The suggested questions can be used

to construct content and identify key con-cepts and topics for the K-12 instructionalprogram. Further, these questions can beused to encourage students and teachersto become active inquirers seeking to findanswers or solutions, however tentative,to these questions, issues, concerns andtopics.

The grade level clusters would be or-ganized with the focus shown in Figure 2.

Again, within each of the grade levelclusters, illustrative examples of ques-tions are used to organize the curriculum.Naturally, many other questions could beposed and numerous related questionscould be formulated within each of thebroad question categories. The choice ofquestions to be used in selecting contentis the responsibility of the local cur-riculum committee.

In the following section, the authorsbriefly identify key characteristics oflearners at various grade levels and offerseveral illustrative examples of studentactivities to encourage active learningand skills development. We do not, then,answer questions like "Should Mexico orLatin America be taught in the fifth orsixth grade?" We believe that in truth itdoes not make much difference.

The important thing is that the contentis taught and that it be current, accurateand comprehensive. Grade-level assign-ments of topics are important, as theyprovide for the elimination of gaps andoverlaps in the scope and sequence; buta curriculum plan is a good deal more. Acurriculum plan is fundamentally a wayfor teachers to communicate with eachother and the larger community as well.

Figure 2. Grade Level Clusters

GradeLevel

Primary Grades(K-2)

IntermediateGrades (3-5)

Middle SchoolGrades (6-8)

Secondary Grades(9-12,

ContentFocus:

My Orientation tothe World

Expanding MyWorld Horizons

Viewing theWorld from

DifferentPerspectives

Assuming FullCitizenship in a

Changing World


1'


THE LEARNER ANDCURRICULUM CONTENT

Primary Students (Grades K-2)Students in the primary grades bring to

social studies classes a variety of previousexperiences which form the foundationsfor learning and for their intellectual,social, emotional and physical growth.The social studies program at thesegrades should enable students to movefrom a largely egocentric view of theworld and enable them to develop anunderstanding of their roles and respon-sibilities in their family, at school and invarious social institutions and settings.

In these grades, it is important to pro-vide a variety of meaningful first-hand,concrete learning experiences that drawupon experiences from the home, school,neighborhood and the world beyond. Forexample, opportunities should be pro-vided that allow students to developsocial participation skills through com-mittee work, role playing, creativedramatics, greeting classroom visitors,classroom discussion and informal inter-views; research skills may include thegathering and recording of informationfrom various sources such as films, pic-tures, stories, music and field trips; thedevelopment of citizenship skills arelearned through sharing, by acceptingresponsibility for their own actionsthrough cooperative planning, makingcompromises, resolving conflicts andmaking decisions; and communicationskills are enhanced through drawing,reading, writing, listening and speaking.

Within this grade level cluster, studentsneed to have opportunities for individualas well as group learning activities. Ap-propriate to their maturity level, studentsshould be introduced to concepts andvalues from the several social studiesdisciplines through varied concrete learn-ing experiences that will lead to activecitizenship participation. There should benumerous opportunities to celebrate andtake pride in our heritage by focusing onstate, national and ethnic holidays in-cluded in the social studies curriculum.

My Orientation to the WorldWho am I?What can I learn about me? What isexpected of me?

What is a friend? How can I be friendswith both girls and boys? What can weshare? What games do I play?

How can I be a good citizen?

What responsibilities do I have athome, at school and in myneighborhood?

Why do we need rules at home, atschool and in my neighborhood tolimit what we do? What rights do Ihave?

How can I describe my environmentat home, school and in my neighbor-hood? How do these environmentschange?

How have music and the arts influ-enced our environment?

v/ hat is a family? How are familiesa::!.:e? How are they different? Whatare the main functions of families?

From where did my family come?What family traditions and events dowe celebrate in my family?

What are families like in other parts ofthe world? How can we describethem? What are some customs andtraditions celebratej by familiesaround the world? What are somewords you know from otherlanguages?

How can I meet my basic needs? Whatgoods and services are available tome?

Why do some people have so muchand others have so little? Is this fair?

How do I depend on others? How canI help others?

How can numbers help me makedecisions?

How can numbers help me describefamilies, schools or neighborhoods?

Who are some community helpers?What are some jobs which can bedone by women? by men? by either?

What can I do to help ensure peace athome, at school and in myneighborhood?

How has technology changed the wayI live compared to the way my parentsand grandparents lived when tneywere my age?

What social knowledge can we learnthrough classroom creative dramatics?

Intermediate Students(Grades 3-5)

The social studies curriculum for thisgrade level cluster provides an opportuni-ty for interdisciplinary study of our com-munity, state and nation, with attentiongiven to our culture, environment, peo-ple, challenges and successes. By study-ing the community, state and nation,students have the opportunity to learnsuch concepts as diversity, environment,migration, urbanization, transportation,heritage, ethnicity, technology, beliefs,etc., as well as institutional variables suchas family, government, economy and ed-ucation in selected settings at varioustimes and in different settings that pro-vide foundations for ongoing learning.

Students should explore a variety ofprint and nonprint resources to learnabout their cultural, geographic,economic, political and historicalheritage. Most students also enjoy read-ing and studying the biographies of greatand common women and men in various

GEST CgPY AVARASE:92 Nc 'eni)eii/December 1986 SOCIAL EDUCATION

;

Scope and Sequence:


geographical and historical settings.Children's literature, music and art pro-vide opportunities to integrate socialstudies with other areas of the school pro-grain. Other excellent sources for data in-clude field trips to museums, historicsites, local businesses, agriculturalcenters, governmental agencies and envi-ronmental areas.

Students in these grades need to havenumerous activities, experiences and op-portunities to refine and developpreviously learned skills and to developnew learning skills, including inquiry andresearch skills from ever-wideningsources to develop critical thinking andproblem-solving abilities. Numerous op-portunities for meaningful individual-ized, small group, and entire group in-struction should be offered throughoutthe year so that students have the oppor-tunity to develop knowledge and skillsneeded for productive living and learning.

Expanding My World HorizonsHow do communities help peoplemeet ilwir basic needs? What goodsand services are produced in our com-munity and state?

What special features does our com-munity and state have to make themunique and special?

How do communities show diversity?How are communities similar?

What are the characteristics of a goodcommunity? A good citizen?

How are components of culturereflected in our community, state andnation?

How does our community, state andnation rely on other parts of theworld?

What are sonic important historicaldocuments in our society? How havethey influenced our past and ourpresent way of life?

How have women and men influ-enced our history and the reportingand writing of history?

What arc some examples of the con-tributions of ethnic and culturalgroups in our community, state andnation?

What are some special geographicfeatures of our landscape?

How has technology changed the waywe live?

How can numeric data help us under-stand changes in history and in ourpresent environment?

What changes are likely to take placein our country and the world in the21st century?

How do ideas, people and productscirculate in our community, state andnation? How do people in our regioninteract with people in other regions?

How has the past shaped our tradi-tions, customs, heritage, attitudes andvalues?

How did the present come to he as weknow it today?

flow do laws provide for political,economic and social stability and con-trol in our daily lives?

Why is there so much political,economic and social instability in (heworld?

What are some ways to resolve con-flicts between individuals, groups andnations?

Middle School Students(Grades 6-8)

Middle school students are at an age of

transition that includes rapid physicalgrowth, intellectual development fromthe concrete to the more abstract, andsocial and emotional change as theymove from childhood to adolescence.They begin to see themselves and theworld around them in different ways. Thesocial studies curriculum for thesestudents is critical becaiiso studentstlfto form their own values. life views. al idmodes of living, and begin to come togrips with the many complexities ofadolescence and adulthood. The devel-opment of a positive self-concept is criticalbecause strong peer pressure is a majorinfluence in their lives. They need todevelop a healthy respect for self andothers in our pluralistic world.

It is important that the social studiescurriculum include topics which engagethe student's interest as well as extend heror his context for learning to regions ofthe earth in order to gain a more glohalperspective. Students can begin tounderstand situations from otherperspectives and recognize the right ofothers to express differing I points of view.Learning activities need to he varied, dueto the short attention span of students,should include both physical and son ialinvolvement, such as rule play Mg andsimulations; and should in olve both in-quiry and didactic teaching and learning

It is also useful to integrate socialstudies content with ad, music, literature,science, mathematics and environmen-tal studies. Interdisciplinary content andmultiteam teaching are becoming morecommonplace at these grades. The use ofa variety of media can serve as sourcesof both motivation and information. Theyassist students in making connectionsand linkages to their world of heir andnow and to the rest of the world.

Viewing the World fromDifferent Perspectil'es

How can content from the socialstudies provide a perspective when e estudy events, institutions and peoplearound the world?

Where can I find and how can I usestatistical information about socialinstitutions?

What is culture? How ,ire cultural



regions similar and how are they dif-ferent? What are some issues, crisesand opportunities facing each cultureregion at present? How might they beresolved?

What is the social nature of human be-ings? How do leaders exercise powerand authority? How have leadersshaped the course of history? Howhave common people contributed toour well-being?

What values are important to ourculture? How are these values used inpersonal and national policy making?

How can we use numeric data tomake decisions in ow personal lives?

How does the perception we have ofourselves as individuals and as a na-tion influence the way we behavetoward one another?

What is the nature of the earth and itsenvironment today?

How have world regions become in-creasingly specialized in the produc-tion of certain goods and therebyforming systems of economicnetworks?

What is the nature of our democraticgovernment at the local, state and na-tional levels?

What legal rights and responsibilitiesdo individuals and groups have in ourcountry and in other countries?

How has the United States respondedto the many challenges facing ourcountry throughout its history?

What challenges does our nation face inthe coming years? How might the nationrespond?

How has technology influenced our life-styles, values and expectations? Howmight technology shape our lives in the21st century? How has technologychanged the lives of people around theworld? How has technology changed theways persons and nations view theworld?

How might peace be achieved within andamong the cultures of the world?

High School Students (Grades 9-12)Social studies in grades 9-12 should in-

clude the opportunity to study in greater

depth (1) our national heritage throughthe study of history and government; (2)other nations, cultures and environmentsof the Western and non-Western world bystudying content and concepts fromeconomics, history, geography and an-thropology; and (3) other social sciencestudies' through synoptic, behavioral oranalytic disciplines. High school studentsshould be provided with opportunities todevelop and apply previously learnedacademic and social participation skills tonew content by examining critical issuesfrom different perspectives.

Social studies instruction should in-clude both descriptive (content) and pro-cedural (methodology) knowledge of theseveral social sciences disciplines. Criticaland creative thinking and problem-solv-ing skills should be emphasized to enablestudents to gather and weigh data fromseveral sources, make judgments, andformulate conclusions (however tenta-tive). These skills are basic to the develop-ment of enlightened citizens who will en-sure our survival as a nation. Classroommethodology needs to be varied to ac-count for different learning styles,abilities, talents .nd interests of thestudents.

Questions need to be posed that willtruly promote classroom discussion andallow for the development of inductive,

deductive and evaluative thinking skills.Active learning opportunities, includingscenario-building for individuals andgroups should be emphasized. Ideally,students will be required to take a socialstudies course during each of their yearsin high school and the opportunity for in-struction in courses that focus on synop-tic, behavioral and analytic studies. Awide range of instructional materialsshould be available for student andteacher reference to promote learning tolearn and life-long education.

Assuming Full Citizenship in aChanging World

How do the histories and cultures ofvarious Western and non-Westernsocieties contribute to our understand-ing of the world today?

What are the major philosophical,religious, economic and political ideasof our society? How do they help toexplain a worldview?

What are important values held byvarious nations and cultures through-out the world?

How have the forces of nationalism,industrialism, imperialism, militarism,revolution, technology and othersbrought about changes in the at-titudes, values and actions of people inboth the Western and non-Westernworld?

What has democracy contributed tothe world? What are some characteris-tics of other government and econom-ic systems?

How do people actively participate inpolitical and economic processes anddecision making in order to ensurepolitical and economic justice?

How do the media, government andprivate industry use statistical data toinform the public?

What happens when different groupsof people come in contact with eachother? How have cultural differencesled to conflict? How has cultural diffu-sion been of benefit to humankind?

What are the major social, political,economic, cultural and technologicalchanges that have occurred in theUnited States and elsewhere since

SOCIAL EDUCATION November/December 198694 .1 6

World War II? How have thesechanges impacted on us as individ-uals, as a nation and as members ofthe global community of humankind?

How might these changes influenceour values and lifestyles?

What will our planet Earth be like inthe coming years and decades?

How might civil wars and interna-tional conflicts he eliminated' Howmight world peace be achieved?

What moral, ethical and legal obliga-tions do we have toward other humanbeings and our environment?

Why has there been tension and con-flict between and among variousminority groups? How have rising ex-pectations of minority groups broughtabout change? What challenges re-main to be resolved?

How have changes in societies'expectations, values and lifestyles in-fluenced the role of women and theopportunities available to them atpresent and in the coming years?

A Word About Skill DevelopmentIn the social studies curriculum, we

believe that thinking and reasoning arethe abilities toward which we shouldmove students. It is further suggested thatreasoning is a function of a combinationof skill competencies. It is this combina-tion or network of skills that becomescritical in curriculum development.

Three assumptions are advanced here.First, skills should not be sequenced. Sec-ond, the same set or network of skillsshould be taught each year, K-12. Third,any skill list, including this one, is some-what arbitrary.

What is important here is not the skilllist per se, but the interrelatedness of theskills within the network. Thus, the skillsdelineated in the following network areto De taught in ever-increasing levels ofsophistication from kindergarten throughhigh school. (See Figure 3.)

The umbrella of the "integrated skillsnetwork" is thinking and reasoning.While logic and ethics in Western thoughtemphasize inductive, deductive and anal-ogical reasoning modes, the network alsomakes use of other creative-thinking pro-


cesses. The following components offoundation skills, processing skills andoperations suggest the scope of the skillnetwork.

Foundation skills are basic to the per-formance of more complex pro.. ';ses andskills. All thinking and reasoning skillsbuild on the ability to observe, classify,order and place items in space. Process-ing skills are those relied upon to givemeaning to data. They build upon the

Finally, it must be stated,and restated, that

curriculum isfundamentally a matter

of communication.

foundation skills and are used in com-bination with each other. Basic socialstudies operations or activity categoriesbecome a key focus of skills work in thecurriculum.

It is important to realize that operationsare activities that draw on the foundationand processing skills. Thus, operationsare the organized activities and strategies

that can help develop and apply thinking.In a very real sense, we need to buildorganized, rather than disconnected ap-plications of reasoning processes. At alllevels, students should be developingtheir ability to work with these basicoperations.

ConclusionBecause of the growth in the creation

of information and knowledge, an in-triguing concept has now been applied tothe area of knowing. That concept is"half-life." For example, the half-life of anengineering degree is now said to be fouryears. What i; the half-life of a newlydeveloped curriculum for the socialstudies? It is not very long, and so weneed, as never before, to place additionalemphasis upon professional growth,communication among colleagues andthe develocment of a school climate thatwill facile' to curriculum development.These components of development in-clude a sustainable and ongoing programof curriculum implementation, evalua-tion, revision and staff development thatwill allow teachers, administrators,students and community members theopportunity to talk about the curriculumin precise ways.

This would mean that the responsibili-

Figure 3. An Integrated Skills Network

THINKING/REASONING

Deductive Inductive Analogical

SearchGroup ParticipationCommunication

Operation SkillsQuantitative/InterpretiveSocial JudgmentDecision Making

PredictingTranslatingMeasu ring

Processing SkillsInterpretingInferringHypothesizing

ImaginingQuantifyingAnalyzing

ObservingClassifying

Foundation SkillsOrdering (seriation)Spatial Relationships

95November/December 1986 SOCIAL EDUCATION

1 I


ty for the know ledge, skills and valuestaught within the K-12 social studies pro-gram would be placed more squarely onthe local staffa staff with the mandateand resources (empowerment) to carryout the goal of continual development ofthe curricular and instructional pro-grams. Further, attention would heplaced upon the relationship of the schwith the larger community, as studentsshould have opportunities to serve theircommunity, and learn firsthand about itssocial, political and economic cultures.

Finally, it must be stated, and restated,that curriculum is fundamentally a mat-ter of communication. Thus, the real pur-pose of a scope arid sequence design is toserve as a grammar or metalanguage that

professionals can use as they talk abouttheir craft. In a sense, a scope and se-quence can be arbitrary. What cannot hearbitrary, nor without structure, is thecommon language of the profession thatallows for criticism, freedom and growth

ithin a community of scholars.

NotesThis article is a further reflection of workon a curriculum guide recently com-pleted by the authors and a task force ofWisconsin educators including WilliamDunwiddie, Phil Ferguson, GeorgeMeeks, Gail Moran, Art Rumpf, NorrisSanders, Ma rk Shug. Jim Snavely,Catherine Warnecke and DeanZimmerman.

Readers will note that little attentionhas been given to the placement of skillswithin the K-12 sequence. The authorsbelieve that the same network of skillsshould be used to engage students at allgrade levels.

Illus move examples of synoptic studies include suchcourses as religious studies, humanities and globalstudies ( samples of behavioral studies include sociology,ethnic studies and anthropology, examples of analyticstudies include lawrelated education, economics andsocial mathematics. 1.3

Michael Halloo:lion is Supcivisor ofSocial Studies Education for the Viliscon-sin Department of Public Insbuction;Margaret Laughlin is an Associate Pro-fessor in Education at the University ofli'isconsin-Green Bay.

Rolla. Tryon onOrganizing Instruction

Stanley P. Wronski

olla M. Tryon's major publication was The Sociali\Sciences as School Subjects, Volume XI of the 16-volumeReport of the Commission on the Social Studies issued inthe mid-1930s. In it he never uses the term scope andsequence, although he cites numerous examples of coursesof study used in various states and school districts. One is"the pioneer effort" of the Denver schools, which in 1926had these topics for the first four grades:

Grade 1Home lifeGrade 2Community lifeGrade 3Indian life; child life in foreign landsGrade 4Colonial life; Westward movementThe remaining middle and junior high school grades in

Denver contained "unified" social studies. But in grades10-12 "no attempt was made to unify" the curriculum; it con-sisted of "separate courses in world history, American his-tory, American problems, economics and world relations."

Tryon's conception of the nature of the social studies canbe inferred by his endorsement of the recommendation fromthe influential 1916 Bulletin, The Social Studies in Second-ary Education, that instruction be organized "not on the basisof the formal social sciences, but on the basis of concreteproblems of vital importance to society and of immediateinterest to the pupil."

If there was any focal point to Tryon's concerns about thesocial studies curriculum, it was his detailed analysis ofvarious ways of organizing curricular content. His treatmentof the pros and cons of such organizational schemes asseparate subjects, correlation, integration and fusion hasalmost a contemporary ring:

As long as material from the field of social sciences exists in theschools the quest for the most desirable adjustment betweenthe subjects composing the field will continue. The day of isola-tion is probably gone in theory, even though it still remainsin practice. The future will probably see more and moreemphasis on the interrelations of the social sciences. This, ofcourse, does not mean that history, political science, eco-nomics, and sociology will necessarily disappear as indepen-dent subjects of study in the schools. It simply means that asindependent subjects each will be expected to live other thana hermitic life.Through Tryon's views on organizing social studies con-

tent, we can gain a worthwhile perspective on the natureand scope of the social studies. His treatment of sequence,on the other hand, deserves its fate of banishment to educa-tional oblivion.

Stanley P. Wronski is a Professor Emeritus of Michigan StateUniversity.

SOCIAL EDUCATION November!December 198696 / 1/ Reprinted by permission.


A Curriculum forDemocratic Citizenship

Shirley H. Engle and Anna Ochoa

he following article is adapted from "A Curriculum for Dem-ocratic Citizenship,- Chapter IV of the forthcoming bookSocial Studies for a Democracy. An Alternative View by

Shirley H. Engle and Anna Ochoa.In that work, Chapter I deals with the implications of the

democratic idea for citizenship education. It notes that citizenshipeducation in a democracy must be different from citizenship educa-tion in autocracy: rather than demanding a passive acceptance ofauthority, democracies must produce citizens who have a reasonedcommitment to democracy and the capacity for criticism. question-ing, decision making and active participation in public affairs.

Chapter II analyzes the unique characteristics of democraticcitizenship.

Chapter III analyzes and appraises the possible contribution todemocratic citizenship education of seven different, and in someways incongruous, conceptions of citizenship education as follows:

I. The exposition of facts and generalizations (or what is pre-sumed lobe the facts) selected from the social sciences and history

to be held in memory.2. The exposition of a particular version of these facts andgeneralizations to the exclusion of others for purposes ofindoctrination.3. The exposition of facts and generalizations as in 2 and 3 abovebut organized around topics rather than disciplines.

4. The critical study and questioning of the facts and generaliza-tions presented as the true facts in the several disciplines.5. The study of social sciences and history by replication of disci-plined study.6. The focus of the study of disciplines on the solution of socialproblems, past and/or present, to which the disciplines relate.7. The direct study of major social problems.The first three conceptions listed are generally approached in the

expository mode, via textbook and teacher-talk, and they generallyhave as their expected endproduct knowledge of specific facts andgeneralizations, usually to be memorized. In stark contrast. the: latterfour conceptions listed are ordinarily approached in the hypotl reheatmode and immediate and unquestioned correct answers are notexpected. Instead, the goal is more general knowledge of the natureof disciplines and disciplined thought, of the problems that con-front disciplined study, and of the problems that confront Joy

together with intellectual skills needed to study and resol e suchproblems.

The curriculum proposed moves away from dep. icience on ex-position and memorization to the hypothetical study of problems-past and present, both within the disciplines and within the societyat largeas. being the more appropriate way to prepare citizenswho, in a democracy, are expected to be active decision makers,

Chapter IV, an excerpt of which follows, is a response to theeducational needs of democratic citizens, identified in Chapter II.

Introduction and BackgroundThe curriculum that we envision for

the citizens of a democracy moves awayfrom conventional implementations ofthe social studies, based on conceptions1, 2 and 3, described above, toward amore open-ended and problem-centeredtreatment of the social studies more close-ly related to conceptions 4. 5, 6 and 7,described above.

In short, we would move away fromthe unqualified exposition to students offacts taken as truths, whether embodiedin the social sciences or elsewhere,toward the confrontation of youngcitizens with the problems contained inthe disciplines and in the unfolding ofsocietypast, present and future.

We see the problems of democracy asthey have developed historically and theproblems of democratic societies today asthe appropriate locus for the trulydisciplined study of democracy. We seeparticipation in problem solving as theappropriate instructional genre for thenurture of citizens who will respectdemocracy and who will be able to makethe decisions needed for its continueddevelopment. We do not see democracyas a way of life that can be transmitted un-thinkingly to students, but one that islearned as it is questioned, thought about,criticized, practiced and improved.

The key to a curriculum purporting toprepare citizens of a democracy is itscapacity to encourage young citizens to

think about and make considered deci-Fions; its content is never merelyremembered without being thoughtabout and utilized. This suggests that aproposed curriculum must provide amore probing treatment of problems,ideas, values and materials, coveringfewer topics than usual, but going deeperinto each, and ultimately leading to someworthwhile conclusions.

In the light of this general purposeand believing, as we do, that improve-ment in the ability of young citizens tomake intelligent and socially responsibledecisions is the ultimate goal of the socialstudies, and also believing with Dewey(1929, pp. 187-188) and Bruner (1965, p.94), that the only way to learn to resolve


problems is to engage in problemsolvingwe suggest the following guide-lines for social studies curriculumdevelopment:1. The curriculum should he confron-tational rather than strictly expository.It should confront students with impor-tant questions and problems for whichanswers are not readily available. Thestudy of problems n,:eds to be open end-ed, in the hypothetical mode (Engle 1972;Longstreet 1978), and without thepressure for closure on a correct answer)2. The curriculum should be highlyselective. The topics to be chosen shouldbe those having the greatest potential forencouraging and supporting thinking,and even controversy, about an impor-tant social problem. Traditional topics forwhich no such connection can be con-ceived should be dropped from thecurriculum.23. Each unit of instruction should beorganized around an important prob-lem in society that is to be studied to thegreatest depth possible, given the cir-cumstances of schooling, as well as withas much independence from the otherproblems selected for study as isreasonable. Problems ma,' take the formof judgments of the "rightness" or"wrongness" of actions followed aboutimportant matters in the past and in thepresent; or they may take the form of asearch for a solution, however tentative,of pressing social problems. Variations ofthe first form of problem would be theverification of different versions of pastevents or the construction from raw dataof one's own version of these events. Insome cases, the very discovery within ageneral state of public uneasiness or con-cern of what the problem is, and why itexists, is in itself an important socialinsight.4. The curriculum should utilizerelatively large quantities of data froma variety of sources such as history, thesocial sciences, literature and journal-ism, as well as (and possibly most im-portant) from students' first-hand ex-periences. In all likelihood, far greaterquantities of materials would be usedthan is ordinarily possible under ground-covering techniques. The informationsought, however, would be uflized as

Scope and Sequence.


evidence in making decisions and wouldnot require memorization.

From these guidelines, a number of im-plications flow. The organization of thecurriculum into units around a smallnumber of highly selected topics focusingon problems suggests the virtual aban-donment, or considerable modification,of survey courses such as those typicallyfound dealing with United States history,that students encounter two and possiblythree times during their school yearscourses covering essentially the sameground with equal superficiality. It sug-gests considerable modification of surveycourses in geography and the other socialsciences, which frequently require the

memorization of the abstract ideas thatframe a discipline, without sharing withstudents the problems within thediscipline or the relationship of thediscipline, if any, to the problems of soci-ety. If survey courses are to be utilized atall, they need to be slowed down. That is,major social problems need to be pursuedin depth even in a survey course, whichmeans that the current time allocation forsurvey courses would have to be ex-tended, and the often repetitiouscoverage of such courses avoided.

In addition, the study of the socialsciences needs to be approached with anattitude of tentativeness; even econo-mists, notwithstanding their air of certain-ty, have difficulty in agreeing on themeaning of any economic event. Prob-lems that students themselves experiencein their own studies and investigationsare also worthy sources for curriculumdevelopment.

Focusing on problems should allowgreater flexibility in the selection and se-quencing of study. To accommodate thestudy of newly developing problems andjettison those no longer significant wouldrequire that the curricular selection ofsocial problems be an ongoing process.Chronology and the abstract frameworkof disciplines, the usual basis for sequen-cing social studies curricula, would notnecessarily be the best way to handle theproblem of sequence and certainlyshould not be the only way. An equallyimportant approach might be that of cur-rency or perceived immediate utility.Searching history for the background ofa recognized social problem may be amore effective way to open the study andutilization of history than to movethrough history from beginning to endwith no other reason than to follow a timesequence to be held in memory.

For instance, must we wait to study theproblem of terroris. n, which is oneverybody's mind at the time this is be-ing written, until we reach its temporalplace in history, when it will be treatedsuperficially (if ever), in a survey of U.S.or, possibly, world history?

Terrorism, which is being consideredtoday in a state of great emotionalism andalong with many half-truths, does in facthave a long history. It has taken many dif-

Nioy9mber/December 1986 SOCIAL EDUCATION99

ferent forms. It has served many differentpurposes. It has been used by many dif-ferent peoples including, at times, someAmericans, It has been used for what areperceived to be honorable purposes aswell as for dishonorable ones. It has beenutilized in history by the oppressed toescape their oppressors, by the op-pressors to keep the oppressed in check,and by religious fanatics to destroy thoseseen as enemies. Would not the balancedstudy of this problem be better dealt withnow when it is on everybody's mind thanto wait until its time comes, if ever, in thesurvey of U.S. or world history? Thetopical approach focused on problems af-fords greater opportunity for teachers andstudents to take charge of the curriculumand to make reasonable modificationsthat would render the curriculum morerelevant to the real world.

Another implication of this approachis the inappropriateness of basing theassessment of achievement on themeasurement of isolated bits of informa-tion that can be recalled on short answertests. More appropriate assessment ofachievement would attempt to deal withthe degree of comprehension of prob-lems, the ability to gather and interpretevidence, and mastery of the intellectualprocesses needed in the resolution ofproblems.

In some respects, the curriculum weenvision is a modest enough change fromthe traditional curriculum. For instance,heavy reliance will continue to be placedon United States and world history andgeography. However, the study of historyand geography will be conducted in avery special way. The study will be lessconcerned with memorization. Instead,it will be brought to focus on problems,past and present, which students will beencouraged and helped to think aboutand also to reach decisions about. Fur-thermore, the usual content of these sub-jects will be broadened and sometimescombined with content from otherdisciplines and from other fields of studyto accomplish the broad purpose of be-ing fully relevant to society and its prob-lems. But with all this, we believe the cur-riculum will still be recognized as goodgeography and good history, or possibly,better geography and better history.


In other respects the curriculum envi-sioned will be a daring departure from thetraditional. Innovations will be suggestedin response to the problem of how thesocial studies can be made more directlyand immediately relevant to the realworld of the citizen.

Curriculum for DemocraticCitizenship

Believing that the educational needs ofcitizens in a democracy should determinethe content of the social studies cur-riculum, we suggest the following cur-riculum strands, each of which will bedeveloped in some detail.'1. Environmental Studies. The study ofthe relationship between human beings

We do not see democracyas a way of life that can

be transmitted unthinkinglyto students, but one that islearned as it is questioned,thought about, criticized,practiced and improved.

and the earth and the problems con-fronted in developing the best possiblerelationship between them.2. Institutional Studies. The study of thefull range of social institutions of theUnited States, of their origins and theproblems that were overcome in theirdevelopment and also the problems thatattend their further development.3. Cultural Studies. The study of selectedworld cultures and of the problems of liv-ing more effectively in a world character-ized by greater interdependence and vastcultural diversity.4. Social Problems. The sustained studyin depth of a few major social problems.5. Special Problems in Citizenship. Anin-depth study of three intellectual prob-lems that are basic to intelligent decisionmaking in a democracy as follows:

How can citizens judge the depend-ability of the information they mustutilize in decision making?How can citizens judge the reliabili-

ty of the media by which informationis communicated?How can citizens decide between thecompeting values that are at stake inmaking decisions?

6. Citizen Internship. Regular participa-tion in a civic activity.7. Electives.8. The Hidden Curriculum.

Environmental StudiesEnvironmental studies is the study of

problems surrounding human use of theenvironment. The study should befocused, in each of its parts, on a problemthat arises out of this relationship. Thisstrand should be organized around alisting of the important environmentalproblems; the list should be revised fromtime to time to correspond to currentrealities and concerns,

At this writing, for example, the prob-lem of what to do about nuclear wasteand nuclear fallout from testing nuclearweapons may well be our most pressingenvironmental problem locally, national-ly and worldwide. But there are otherissues of almost equal weight such as theproblem of what to do about industrialtoxic wastes; the rapidly growing globalshortage of potable water; the destructionof the rain forest and swamp lands soessential to ultimate survival on the earth;the growing shortage of viable agricultur-al soils and related shortages of food thatconfront the peoples of the earth;' the ex-tinction by industrialization of manyplant and animal forms and the conse-quent loss of genetic materials useful toscience in the further development of theearth's resources; or, to cite a more exoticproblem that might be of immediate in-terest to third graders, what to do aboutthe whales.

This list could be extended manytimes. The questions will change fromtime to time as science discovers newtruths about the earth, as technology in-vents new ways to utilize the earth, andas people develop new ways to relate toone another. Still, it is to such a list ofproblems that environmental studiesshould continually relate. The goal is thatyoung citizens will not only come to'understand the various ramifications ofthe environmental problem being

SOCIAL EDUCATION November/December 1986100 I

Scope and Sequence-Alternatives for Social Studies

studied, (hat they will come to ap-preciate tilt seriousness of the problemand enlist in doing something sensibleabout it.

Obviously geography can play an im-portant role in furnishing the materials forthinking about such problems as thoselisted above. However, this is not thestudy of geography for its own sake, butgeographic information brought im-mediately to use in thinking about asignificant problem. Remembering theproducts of the nations of the world is oflittle benefit and is quickly forgottenunless one puts this information to use inthinking about a serious problem such asthat faced currently by the United Statesconcerning its unfavorable balance oftrade. Furthermore, such a list will prob-ably be out of date by the time it is

memorized.Progression from grade to grade may

be based on selecting problems for highergrade levels that are more difficult ormore comprehensive than problemsstudied at lower grade levels. For exam-ple, what to do about whales is not real-ly a simple problem; it can be expandedto encompass the ecological crisis of thewhole universe. But it is not as complexas the problem of how to reconcile theseeming need of advancing nations fortechnological development on a largesc;2Ie, and the tendency of those same na-tions to produce unmanageable quan-tities of toxic waste that is spread over thelands and waters of the world.

In the process of assigning problems forstudy to particular grade levels, we

should studiously avoid the fiction thatchildren cannot deal with problems atany acceptable level until they have a vastbackground of memorized knowledge ofgeography. Such memorized knowledge,superficially learned because it is notused immediately, is quickly forgottenand students are no more ready to dealwith problems than they were in the firstplace. We will have only wasted precioustime and the considerable intellectual

Terrorism, which is beingconsidered today in a

state of great emotionalismand along with many

half-truths, does in facthave a long history.

resources of even our youngest students.To the extent that the discipline of

geography will be the primary source ofinformation for studying environmentalproblems, it must be expanded to includeelements of geology, astronomy, andpossibly paleontology, as well as someaspects of biology, ecology, physical an-thropology and climatology. Informationshould be readily sought, wherever itmay reside, that will throw light on ourenvironmental problems.

Institutional StudiesInstitutional studies probes the origins

and the present circumstances of the

broad range of social institutions of thet States, including the study of theproblems that were met as these institu-tions developed and the problems thatare being faced in their further develop-ment. The study is an attempt to movebeyond the superficial, oneevent-after-another understanding of our democracyexhibited by so many citizens, and toachieve instead a more fundamentalunderstanding of our most important in-stitutions and the problems that confrontthem. It is intended to involve the youngcitizen in a meaningful defense and im-provement of democratic institutions,somewhat along the lines suggested morethan 40 years ago by Harry Elmer Barnes:

The real friends of the American way oflife are those who recognize and fearless-ly reveal the obvious danger signals thatare evident on every side, and who seekto eliminate the threat to our social orderwhile there is time and opportuni-ty.. The real menace to our civiliza-tion is to be found in those who insist onliving in a "fools paradise" of smug conceit and compliancy, conducting a sortof "sit down strike" against intelligenceand insisting that nothing is wrong in thebest of all possible worlds. (Barnes 19.12,p. viv)

The study of U.S. social institutionsmight be toughly divided into the follow-ing categories:1. Institutions that express and protect

the fundamental freedom of theUnited States, the rights and beliefsthat underlie all institutionalarrangements

2 Economic institutions



3. Political institutions4. Institutions that define our relation-

ship to other peoples of the world5. Institutions that exist primarily in the

private sector as the family, religiousgroups and social groups of all kinds.

The study of institutions would focusat all times on the hard questions thatconfront institutional development in theUnited States todayalways, of course,in the light of institutional history and thenation's democratic aspirations. By hardquestions, we mean questions that are ac-tually problems because there is no cer-tain and immediately obvious answerand because decisions must be made, iftentatively, about them. They may beopen issues in the society at the time theyare studied.

For instance, in the case of fundamen-tal rights and beliefs (to which the studyof history of the American RevolutionaryPeriod would contribute much useful in-formation), such questions as the follow-ing might be used to give focus to thestudy: What does it mean to be free? Whatdoes it ,neap to have freedom of one'sperson or freedom of one's home? Whatdoes it mean to have freedom of the press,or freedom of speech, or freedom ofreligion? Which of these freedoms are themost basic or important? Are there limitsto the exercise of any of these freedoms?Who has the right to limit one's freedom?For which of these freedoms, if any,would you lay down your life? In whatways, if any, has the nature of ourfreedoms changed since the Revolu-tionary Period?

Do you think all citizens of the UnitedStates are equally free? Are the poor asfree as the rich? Are minority groups asfree as the majority? Are the uneducatedas free as the educated? To whom or whatwould you turn for an enumeration ofyour freedoms? How can we decide whenour freedoms are being violated? What dowe really mean when we say we are the"land of the free"? w hat do we meanwhen we say that we will defend thefreedom for which our forefathers foughtand died? Would the Founding Fatherslikely be concerned about the state offreedom in the United States today?

What are the most bothersome prob-lems of freedom before the country

today? (A selected list might include theconflict between the idea of religiousfreedom and compulsory school prayer;the conflict between freedom of the pressand censorship in the guise of protectingnational security;6 the conflict betweenthe idea that citizens may do what theywant with their property and the right ofthe citizen to be protected from toxicwaste dumped over our land and waterby industrial corporations and others;and the conflict over whether it is con-stitutional to establish quota:, to insurethat the hiring and firing practices ofemployers do not discriminate againstthe members of any minority groups.)How do you think the founders would

By hard questions, wemean questions that are

actually problems becausethere is no certain andimmediately obviousanswer and because

decisions must be made, iftentatively, about them.

have resolved such problems? How doyou think they should be resolved today?

In the case of economic institutions (towhich the study of the history of the Post-Revolutionary Period would make im-portant contributions), such questions asthe following might be the focus: Whatare the most basic economic institutionsin the United States? Which of the follow-ing has had most to do with the develop-ment of these institutions: the hard workof individuals wanting to improve theireconomic lot; an open land of rich naturalresources: the help of the government inbuilding major industries, such as rail-roads, waterways, air transport, and ir-rigation dams and canals; provision bythe government of the infrastructure ofthe nation's industry, such as highwaysand postal service; foreign investors; im-migration; a seemly insatiable market inEurope for exports; governmental regula-tion of business practices and trade; warsand/or avoidance of international en-

tanglements; or free public education? Ifall,. in what order of importance? Whatare the relationships between them? Towhat extent, if at all, is it a misreading of11.S. history to propose that the role ofgovernment in the economy should beminimized?

Is economic disharmony or conflictgood or bad in each of the following cases:the struggle between organized labor andemployer for the control of industry; thestruggle between those who believe inunlimited free enterprise and those whobelieve the government should regulateindustry to protect the rights of labor andthe consumer; and conflict between dif-ferent sections of the country foreconomic advantage?

How are we to meet the economicproblems that beset our country today, forexample, unprecedented levels ofunemployment and poverty at the sametime that many are better off than everbefore; a growing unfavorable balance oftrade; increasing indebtedness, bothpublic and private: agricultural bankrupt-cy; declining efficiency of basic industrieslike steel, electronics and automobiles inthe face of stiff foreigr, competition; theproblem of how to control, if at all, the ac-tivities of multinational corporations; acircular economy that rotates betweenboom and bust; neglect of the public sec-tor, which includes schools, roads, publicparks, and welfare; and an unprece-dented problem of pollution.

In a similar vein, the problems that at-tend the other groups of institutionswould need to be identified and used asa guide for study. For instance, an impor-tant question that might be raised as westudy political institutions would be, whatshould we do, if anything, in the light ofour history as a democracy to change agoverning system in which it now costsa single congressman or senator millionsof dollars, paid by those who expectfavors from the government in exchangefor their support, to run for office (see TheWashington Spectator, February 15,1986, and Harper's, July 1982)? Whatshould we do, if anything, to change alaw-making system in which highly paidlobbyists, who outnumber congressmenin Washington by nearly 20 to 1, playsuch a decisive role in determining

102Vovernber/December 1986 SOCIAL EDUCATION

Scope and Sequence.


legislation? (See Time, March 3, 1986,among many other places, for informa-tion on lobbying in Washington.) Equal-ly compelling questions could no doubtbe identified upon which to focus thestudy of other groups of our nationalinstitutions.

Obviously United States history is aprimary source of information for thestudy of such questions as those posedabove. This is true despite the importanceof current periodical material suggested.Some will say that this app:oach presentsnothing really new, that institutionalstudies is just a new name for the studyof United States history. But those whosay this have missed the critical point.The study of the period of the AmericanRevolution for ,stance, takes on an en-tirely differen, 'ature when it is focusedon the resolution of such a question asOliver and Newmann posed in theirPublic Issues Series unit on the AmericanRevolution (Oliver and Newmann 1967)when they asked "Who had the bestgrounds for refusing to obey their legallyconstituted government, the Minutemenat Concord or the blacks at PettusBridge?"

The question posed that is very closeto events today as well as Revolutionarytimes requires a far more serious andmeaningful study of history than is or-dinarily the case in survey courses inUnited States history. Furthermore, theskill called into play is that of thinkingrather than just remembering.

But, if United States history is used toexplore questions such as those posedabove, it needs to be a very different kindof historya history both wide and deep.It needs to encompass myriads of factsand not just a selected few. It needs tohonestly expose the problems of inter-pretation and the problems of verificationthat confront the historian. It needs to af-ford the opportunity to consider alter-native versions of history.

In short, it should provide youngcitizens with the opportunity to thinkabout the history of our democracy andto think about its problems in the light ofthat history. The continuing purposewould be to enlist young citizens in work-ing to prese, ve and improve thedemocratic institutions they have in-

herited from their elders, and to do thiswith the fullest possible understanding ofthe origins and problems of thoseinstitutions.

Obviously this kind of historical treat-ment cannot be the ordinary textbookvariety. It needs to include both broaderand deeper versions of events. Quiteaside from all the other problems thatbeset textbook publication, textbook ver-sions of events are ordinarily too narrowin scope, too shallow in their treatmentof events, too parsimonious in providingdetail and too preoccupied with merelychronicling a highly select set of eventsto be remembered. It is not this kind ofmastery of events that the active

But, if United States historyis used to explore

questions such as thoseposed above, it will need

to be a very different kindof history.

democratic citizen needs, but a muchdeeper and more involved grasp of themeaning of democratic institutions usefulto the challenges of citizenship. If text-books are to be used at all, generousreferences should be made to contentwritten by historians writing as historiansrather than as textbook writers.

Not only will the historical contentused in this curriculum be different thanthat ordinarily used because it will probemore deeply into the background andproblems of social institutions, but, evenmore important, the way in which thatcontent is used will be starkly differentfrom that ordinarily displayed by themere exposition of textbook material.The purpose of study is more to make fac-tual and moral judgments on events thanmerely to remember them.

As Henry Steele Commanger hasbrilliantly argued in his essay "ShouldHistorians Make Moral Judgments?"(Commanger 1966), history is not somuch to be remembered as to be judged.Quite aside from the argument that hasranged among, historians since history

was first written by Herodotus,Thucydides, Livy and Plut h as towhether historians pass judgme, on theevents they record, the usefulness ofhistorical writing to the citizens comes intheir efforts to pass moral judgment onthe events in history. Students of socialinstitutions are best instructed byhistorical writings when they placethemselves in the position of passingmoral judgment on the events in history.As Carl Becker once argued, "Every manmust be his own historian" (Becker 1936),or as Commanger puts it, "The assump-tion behind the expectation that thehistorian should make our moral judg-ment for us is that the reader has no mindof his own, nor moral standard, nocapacity to exercise judgment . . . .Arethose mature enough to read serioushistory really so obtuse that they cannotdraw conclusions from the facts that aresubmitted to them?" (Commanger 1966,p. 93).

Since the making of moral judgmentsis the most basic of all functions of thecitizens of a democracy, we would con-tinually cast students in the role of mak-ing judgments about events rather thanmerely remembering them. Thereforesuch questions as the following are ap-propriate in the serious study of social in-stitutions: Was the violence and terrorperpetrated on loyalists during theRevolution justified in the cause offreedom? Was the forced ejection ofNative Americans from lands they hadoccupied for centuries right or wrong?Was there a better way to have dealt withthe conflict between the Indians and thesettlers? Were John Brown and hisfollowers at Harper's Ferry justified in kill-ing people in their effort to free the slaves?Were the oppressive measures taken tokeep workers from organizing and strik-ing at Haymarket Square right or wrong?How might the conflict between workersand their employers have been more fair-ly settled? Did the people out of work dur-ing the Great Depression deserve helpfrom the government?

By no means to be ignored in the studyof social institutions in-depth is the con-tribution of great works of literature, art,music and journalism. Great humanisticworks are more likely than historians to


Edgar Wesley and theDefinition of Social Studies

S. Samuel Shermis

I n 1974, the late Edgar Wesleyteacher, professor, author,a founder of the National Council for the Social Studies in

1921 and activist in the social studies movement for morethan half a centuryvisited James Barth and me at PurdueUniversity. Edgar was willing to commit his memories totape and in two days we were able to record enough to createa 150-page typescript, which proved to be an extremely valu-able documentespecially because Wesley commented atlength on his durable definition of the social studies.

The definitionthat the social studies was the socialsciences simplified for pedagogical purposeshad appearedin his famous textbook Teaching Social Studies in the HighSchool. Within a short period, it was regarded by many inthe profession as definitive. It was also to become the baneof his later existence. As Wesley expressed to us, his defini-tionwhich he admitted was a simplification and only partof the truthwas most unfortunately taken literally. Socialstudies, he told us, was erroneously interpreted to be nothingmore than the concepts of the social sciences, watered downfor use in public school classrooms.

Expanding on this, Wesley's memories went back to 1921when he, Earle and Harold Rugg, Edgar Dawson, Howard

Wilson, Mary Kelty and others created NCSS. In 1934, whenhe was selected president-elect, "we really clarified andaimost agreed on the function of the NCSS." The NCSS, Presi-dent Howard Wilson argued at that time, "is not to promotethe teaching of economics. It's not the promotion of theteaching [of] sociology. And it's certainly not the promotionof teaching [of] history."

What then, according to Wesley speaking in 1974, was thesocial studies? The social studies arises out of the need tohelp young people integrate human experience and humanknowledge. The social studiesfar from being ;. nromiscu-ous and unintegrated collection of information and datawas created to help humans cope with the historically newand bewildering social problems ushered in by the industrialrevolution. In Wesley's own words, taken from the thirdedition of his text,

The teacher who can skillfully and judiciously assist thestudents to reach intelligent attitudes and decisions on con-troversial issues is performing not only an educative but asocial function of the greatest significance.

S. Samuel Shermis is a Professor in the Department of Educa-tion at Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana.

capture the broad meaning of events andto emphasize the moral issues that areembodied in them. Historians are oftentoo engrossed in establishing the facts ob-jectively, and little time is left for them tospeculate about the broad meaning of thefacts. The authors of great humanisticworks are concerned about the facts, tobe sure, but they are more concernedwith passing moral judgments on historyand on grasping the meaning they mighthold for the future. Through subjectivereasoning they are able to discover truthsthat are obscure to the more scientific ap-proach of the historian. By engaging increative imagination they are able tobring fresh points of view to the meaningof events. Great breakthroughs in thoughtoccur in this way as, for instance, thewritings of Thomas Paine and James Otison democracy. Democracy was born asan idea, one that was imagined before itbecame a faltering reality. Many of our

social problems today require such imag-ination for their solution.

Great humanistic works are likely tohave a moral focus. The humanist is aptto take sides, to cast a judgment on whatin history is most valuable, on what isgood or on needs to be changed inhuman society. Great humanistic worksafford models for the citizen in the mak-ing of such moral judgments that are real-ly at the heart of every social problem.These models are indeed an importantresource for citizenship education. In asocial studies curriculum dedicated tolearning the intellectual skills of problemsolving, the great humanistic worksshould be taken as an integral part of thecontent.

For instance, how more succinctlycould one begin the study of the institu-tion surrounding human slavery in theUnited States than to read HarrietBeecher Stowe's Uncle Torn's Cabin or

Stephen Crane's The Red Badge ofCourage? Or, if a somewhat morescholarly version of history is preferred,Bruce Catton's A Stillness at Appomatox?How better could one be introduced tothe crises in U.S. economic and politicalinstitutions and to the issues that aroseduring the Depression than by readingJohn Steinbeck's Grapes of Wrath?

American literature, art, music andjournalism are rich sources of moral com-mentary on the progress of our social in-stitutions. From the likes of WashingtonIrving, James Fenimore Cooper andThomas Paine in colonial times tomodern writers such as Gore Vidal,William L. Shirer, Saul Bellows andJames Michener, people of letters havehad much to say about the moral qualityof our institutions. It is obvious that a well-stocked school library is an inestimablyvaluable resource for in-depth study ofour social institutions.

104%,i;rcifer/December 1986 SOCIAL EDUCATION


Cultural StudiesCultural studies involve the study of

differing cultures; of why people of dif-ferent regions, historical backgrounds,nationalities and ethnic groups grow updifferently, of how we can live usefully ina world of differing cultures; of how,despite cultural differences, peoples ofvarying cultures share profound humansimilarities; or of how we turn cultural dif-ferences into assets for bettering the liv-ing conditions of people within our owncountry and the world.

Questions upon which cultural studiesmay focus include: Why do peoples of dif-ferent nations, regions, historicalbackgrounds, etc., grow up differently,behave in different ways, believe dif-ferently? Can you accept the reasonable-ness of these differences? Do you knowof any people whose beliefs and ways ofbehaving are so different from your ownthat you cannot accept the reasonable-ness of their difference? In what respects?Can you identify similarities betweenthese people and yourself?

Of the major cultural groups in theworld, for which ones do you have mostdifficulty accepting differences? Forwhich do you have least difficulty accept-ing differences? Suppose a cultural groupexhibits behavior that flies in the face ofyour most cherished bel;gs. How shouldyou behave toward them? Suppose theyare fellow citizens of the United States.How should you behave toward them?

With what cultural groups in the worldcould the people of the United States mosteasily identify, possibly thinking of themas allies or friends? What should thepolicy of the United States be toward suchcultures? What should our policy betoward groups with which we find it dif-ficult or impossible to identify?

What do you think are the most press-ing problems facing the world's people to-day? How would you rank the following.problems in importance: fear of nuclearwar; religious differences; pollution of theworld's environment; insufficient food forthe world's starving peoples; restrictionson the free exchange of goods throughoutthe world? Taking cultural differences in-to account, where is the point that theresolutions of these problems might bestbegin?

It is fairly obvious that world historywill be a major source of information foranswering such questions, but it shouldbe equally obvious that the study of worldhistory from a textbook for the sole pur-pose of remembering the chronology ofevents in the history of nations will notbe adequate. The history utilized mustpresent a much more sweeping view ofthe worldthe way it has been treated bysuch historians as Arnold Toynbee, Willand Ariel Durant, H.G. Wells and WilliamMcNeill. Students will need to be helped

Social ProblemsSocial problems include the study in-

depth of one major social problem in eachyear of the social studies program, grades3 through 10.5 The purpose of this strandin the curriculum is threefold.1. To give young citizens a foot up in

knowledge about the major problemsconfronting society, such as theworldwide environmental crises, thethreat of nuclear war, the underem-ployment of human resources andthe resultant widespread poverty, andto help students more clearly under-stand the issues at stake in the prob-lems studied, provide them withbodies of information that relate to theproblem, and provide them with theopportunity to do some systematicthinking about possible solutionswith respect to the problem.

2. To give students experience in deal-ing with major social problems muchas intelligent adults are expected todeal with them. When they graduateinto adulthood, they will not only beinformed about them but will havealready been enlisted in the effort towork out solutions.

3. To emphasize the relevance oi otherwork under progress in the socialstudies by studying a major socialproblem each year, rather than at theend of the social studies program.Thus students will be able to see moreclearly why they are studying en-vironmental, institutional andcultural problems and should ap-proach these strands in the cur-riculum with greater purpose. It willprovide the glue that connects allparts of the social studies program. Itwill no longer be quite so necessaryto lamely claim that we are studyingthese subjects because we will needthem someday when we are adults.

BecP,ise we believe so strongly that theability to make intelligent decisions in theresolution of social problems is theultimate goal of the social studiesandbecause we believe with Bruner, whosaid, "I have never seen anybody im-prove in the art and technique of inquiryby any means other than engaging in in-quiry" (Bruner 1965, 94), and accept thecorollary that problem-solving ability is

and encouraged to read history, not tomemorize it, but rather to use it to throwa light on important questions or even toenjoy it. History should be read in themanner suggested by the noted Englishhistorian Christopher Hill, who said,"Any serious history deals with ques-tions .. . . The narrative can be rear-ranged but the true originality of thehistorian lies in identifying questions thatseem new to us .. ..This would help toexplain why history has to be rewrittenin every generation (Hill 1983, 947-48).

Obvious, too, is the usefulness ofmaterials from anthropology andsociology to promote an understandingof cultural differences. Optimally ahistorical study of cultural differencescould pause at some point to study in-depth, as the anthropologist would studythem, a few selected cultures for a cleareridea of how cultural differences develop.The same argument that was presentedearlier for the study of institutions can beadvanced here for including materialsfrom the humanities in any serious studyof cultures.

SOCIAL EDUCATION November/December 1986 106 1 f--.5


best learned by engaging in problemsolving, e are led to the conclusion thatproblem solving, in all of its varieties,should be omnipresent in the socialstudies curriculum. We are also led toconclude that the major social concernsof the society should be likewise omni-present in the curriculum, for these arethe concerns around which all of the cur-riculum will continually coalesce. Theseconcerns feed into and are constantly fedby everything else we do in the cur-riculum. They are not matters to be leftto some distant future.

To meet, in so far as possible, all ofthese purposes, we propose that one ma-jor social problem be studied for an ex-tended period in a school, in all of thedepth ,nat we can muster, on one occa-sion each year in each social studiesclassroom at every grade level.

Great strength would accrue to such aneffnrt if all classes could be engaged in thestudy in the same time frame with theprincipal of the school serving as theleader. Tremendous strength would beadded to the study if other departmentsin the schoolespecially science,language arts and fine artscould beenlisted in the study, as well as parentsand the community at large. Full advan-tage should be taken of the adultresources in the community such asadults with special expertise in the areaof concern being studied, adult periodicalcollections in public libraries andelsewhere, community groups withspecial interest in the area of concern, andpublic interest groups and citizens andparents willing to talk with youngstersabout their concerns.

The study in-depth each year of onemajor social problem should provideyoung citizens with the sobering ex-perience of studying something in schoolabout which the whole community, aswell as their teachers, are genuinely con-cerned. We would risk the possibility thatsuch an experience would set a serioustone for more thoughtful engagement byyoung citizens in all of the work, bothwithin and outside the social studies, thatthey are pursuing in school.

A one-year, one-day-a-week internshipin some useful social or ivic enterpriseis a natural progression from thinking

about to actually working on resolvingsocial problems as outlined above. Theinternship would be looked upon as atransition experience from neophyte toadult citizenship. Through the internship,young citizens upon graduation wouldalready be involved in what might wellbecome their life specialty as a citizen.Useful volunteer work, without pay orcredit but required for graduation, can besought with a service, political, civic orother interest group. internees would besupervised by a teacher in the school withwhom they would also meet regularly toponder and appraise their experiences.

Special Studies in CitizenshipThe explosion of knowledge, the

parallel explosion of the means of com-munication together with the unsettlingof values due to an extraordinary ac-celeration of change, have heaped ex-traordinary responsibilities on citizens toknow w` ...n they are well informed andto know what values are at stake.Paradoxica' As it may seem, it is more dif-ficuli today to know and to know thatwhat one is being told is really true thanit was 50 years ago when the quantity ofknowledge available for absorption into

the mind was much less, and when thevalue choices to be made were fewer andfar simpler.

Likewise the mushrooming of themeans of communication has opened uptremendous opportunities to become bet-ter informed but just as tremendouspossibiiities of having our thoughts con-trolled by charlatans of all kindspoliticians, religious lenders, spokesper-sons of special interests and the like whotry to control what we think bymanipulating our opinions through themedia. Thus Marcos in the Philippines,despite 20 years of the most unimagin-able corrupt and brutal leadership, almostwon reelection because he controlledPhilippine radio and television stationswhile his reform-minded oppositioncould only shout to the crowds withintheir hearing on street corners. While thesuccesses of U.S. institutions have beenmade possible in part by a free press,today the news media is, to a con-siderable extent, controlled by the rich.The viewpoint of the poor is difficult tohear.

Likewise in the face of an unprece-dented rate of change, traditional valuesare being called into question. The wholecivil rights movement, which began inthe 1960s, is a case in point. What wasseen as equitable treatment of blacks andother minorities became a very con-troversial matter. In some cases, tradi-tional values, held innocently in the past,now seem to be in conflictfor instance,freedom of the press and secrecy in theconduct of governmental business in thename of national security. The numberof such conflicts between values havemultiplied many times in recent years.

These conditions impress upon us theneed to help young citizens of a

democracywhose opinions are sup-posed to be informed, well reasoned, andresponsive to time-honored valuestowade through the maze of informationand conflicting value claims that arethrust upon them from every side, tolearn to sort out the wheat from the chaff.Our purpose would not be to tell themwhat to think but rather to help themdevelop the understanding and skill todecide for themselves what is and whatis not credible.

BEST COPY AVAILABLENovember/December 1986 SOCIAL EDUCATION

106

Scope and Sequence'Alternatives for Social Studies

Three groups of questions would guidethis study. The first group, epistemologi-cal in nature, would ask such questionsas: What is knowledge? What does itmean to say that one knows? \Vhat isevidence? What is proof? Are there dif-ferent ways of knowing? How does proofdiffer under different ways of knowing?

As Henry Steele Commangerhas brilliantly argued in his

essay "Should HistoriansMake Moral Judgments?"

history is not so muchto be remembered as to

be judged.

Which way of knowing is most depend-able? How can one determine the depen-dability of claims to knowledge of ascholar in some field of study, a witnessto an event, an expert in some line ofendeavor, a textbook account, a propo-nent of some religious doctrine, a politicalspeaker, a news report, an editorial? Whatis dependable evidence as proof in eachcase?

The second group, having to do withcommunications, would ask such ques-tions as: What are the various purposesof the mediafor example to inform, toweigh alternatives, to persuade, to ex-hort? How can we judge the dependabili-ty of what we read, or hear, or are told inthe newspaper, over the radio, overtelevision, in a textbook, in a politicalspeech and the like? How can one detectthe use of media to distort or misrepresentthe truth? In a political campaign howdoes one decide who and what tobelieve?

The third group, values, would raisesuch questions as: What do I value most?Are there good reasons for valuing highlyeach of the values dear to me? How canI know that what I value are good values?Can I arrange my values from the mostimportant to those of less importance?What do I do when two or more of myvalues seem to be in conflict?

Questions like these need to be raised

from time to time in many subjects thatstudents study in school, in science,mathematics and language arts as well asin the social studies. Good teachingdirected toward asking these kinds ofmeaningful questions could hardly beconducted without some awareness onthe part of teachers and students of thenature of dependable knowledge and ofthe nature of evidence of proof.Memoritor teaching, which we reject,tends to sweep such questions under therug. Students are supposed to rememberthe correct, but not necessarily the true,answer and they are never to questionwhy. 1 They are simply supposed tobelieve what they are told.

But even with teaching throughout thecurriculum that emphasizes a question-ing and thoughtful response by studentsto the information presented to them, aspecial need still exists to study th,Jprob-lem of knowing and valuing, indepen-dently and in-depth, if students are tolearn to cope with today's world of instantcommunication and a rapidly changingknowledge base.

Studies have indicated that childrenspend as much time each day watchingtelevision as they spend in school. Manyeducators recognize that television is atremendous force in the child's learning,a force that may have either positive ornegative consequences.? The studentmay become a critical viewer or a patsyto be exploited by anyone who has a good"Madison Avenue" line. Students needhelp with this problem just as they needhelp in becoming more critical textbookreaders and more discerning citizens.

The best of all worlds in this connec-tion would be for the social studiesdepartmentin coordination with otherdepartments in the school equally in-terested in developing more critical think-ing, listening, reading, viewing and valu-ing skillsto provide a jointly sponsoredcourse in knowing, communication andvaluing to he offered approximately mid-way through the middle school.

ElectivesThe purpose of the electives strand

would be to afford the opportunity forstudents to study in sonic depth themethods by which social scientists, in-

eluding historians, arrive at dependableknowledge about human affairs. Elec-tives would include one-year courses ineconomics, political science, sociology,anthropology and journalism. The em-phasis would be placed on the nature ofthe discipline rather than on its findings,although the nature of a discipline mightbe illustrated by allusion to some of itsmore important findings or key assump-tions. There would be the opportunity toengage in some laboratory practice ineach discipline as, for instance, thewriting of a short historical account, theconduct of a simple sociological survey,the study of a group as an anthropologistwould study it, or the reporting of asignificant event. All students would beexpected and encouraged but not re-quired to complete one such elective.

The Hidden CurriculumIf commitment to democratic prin-

ciples is to be an outcome of the educa-tion of citizens, it is of paramount impor-tance that the school offer a good exampleof respect for democracy. There are twoaspects of setting such a good example in

The school should neverunderestimate the

willingness of studentsto participate in their

own governance.

the school. The most obvious is that theschool itself must be governed democra-tically. We lose our case for democracywhen students can easily perceive thatthe school is run autocratically. Schoolrules, like laws, should be fair andreasonable and students should behelped to understand the reasons forthem. They should have a vnice in theenactment of school rules. Governanceshould never be arbitrary or blatantlycoercive. The school should neverunderestimate the willingness of studentsto participate in their own governance. Asin adult society, the rights of the minori-ty in the school setting should be faithful-ly respected.

SOCIAL EDUCATION November/December 1986107 1 "


Democracy is also exemplified in theschool by the respect shown by teachersfor intellectual honesty. Democraticteaching should be carried on in the fulllight of day with full respect for the can-nons of objectivity suggested above. Andfull respect must be given to the in-telligence of students to think for them-selves. Pressure tactics, being less thancandid, talking down to students, or us-ing the classroom to propagandize are allcompletely out of character withdemocracy and must never be employedif students are expected to develop a deepcommitment to democracy. Teachersmust exhibit in their own behavior notonly respect for the intelligence of thestudents but also faith in the method ofintelligence and reason.

Notes' The argument for the use of the hypothetical mode

over the expository in the study of social content was mostsuccinctly presented by Jerome Bruner in Knowing.Essays for the Left Hand (New York: Atheneum, 1965).81-96. This idea was largely responsible for spawning thewhole New Social Studies movement.

Support for the in-depth study of a few topics over thenecessarily superficial coverage of many topics is lent bythe following authors. Alfred North Whitehead, who, inAims of Education (New York: Macmillan, 1929), 1-2,warned of the uselessness and, above all, the harmful ef-fects. of receiving into the mind," inert ideas, that is, ideasthat are received into the mind without being utilized ortested or thrown into fresh combinations: Gunnar Myrdalin the appendix of his book, The American Dilemma (NewYork: Harper and Bro.. 1944), 1052-1053. observed thatto narrate history straight without stopping to consider theassumptions, implied or explicit, and the qualifiers chosenby the historians without considering other scholarly ver-sions of the events being described is tantamount to in-doctrination: Richard H. Brown, historian at the NewberryLibrary. Director of the Amherst Project, published anumber of units in which he demonstrated the feasibili-ty of studying a few significant episodes by what he called,"postholing," and studying them in depth as an alternativeto the survey course in United States history: many of theprojects in the New Social Studies movement of the 1960sand 1970s were based on the principle of in-depth studyof a relatively small number of topics; recently, Fred M.Newmann in "Priorities for the Future: Toward a Com-mon Agenda," Social Education 50 (April/May 1986),240-250. recognized the replacement of coverage with in-depth study as a primary need in the field.

' The authors were greatly influenced in their choiceof strands by the ideas of Harry S. Broudy, B. OthantelSmith and Joe R. Burnett who, in Democracy and Ex-cellence in American Secondary Education (Chicago:Rand McNally, 1964). 159-274, suggested a classificationof knowledge fur purposes of instruction similar in somerespects to the one being proposed in this work

' According to Peter Drucker, in an article written fora recent issue of Foreign Affairs (reported in TimeMagazine. April 7, 1986,48), there is no longer a problemof the number of people to be fed outstripping the foodsupply. The problem lies rather in the economy of finan-cial flow. This illustrates how quickly the nature of socialproblems may change.

5 The authors were somewhat influenced in proposingthis strand by the Broudy, Smith and Burnett work citedin Note 3 A similar proposal was made in this work (Ibid .231-2431 The seminal work on thinking about a socialproblem is by R. Bruce Raup, George E Axtelle, KennethD Benne and B Othaniel Smith, entitled The knprobemenu of Practical Intelligence. The Central Task of Educa-tion (New York: Harper and Bro 1943)

An entire issue of the Center Magazine has beendevoted to the problem of intelligence and secrecy in anopen society; see Vol. XIX, No. 2. March /April 1986.

In two recent books. Teaching .4s a Conserving Activity(1979) and The Disappearance of Childhood (1982) (bothNew York. Delcorte Press). Neil Postman has pointed outthe deleterious effects of mass media in the education ofchildren.

ReferencesBarnes, N.M. Social Institutions. New York: Pren-

tice-Hall, 1942.Becker, C.L. Every-man His Own Historian. New

York: F.S. Crofts, 1936.Bruner, Jerome S. The Process of Education. Cam-

bridge. MA: Harvard University Press, 1962.Bruner, Jerome S. On Knowing: Essays from the

Left Hand. New York: Atheneum, 1965.Commanger, Henry S. "Should the Historian Make

Moral Judgments?" American Heritage, 17,(February 1966): 26-27,87-93.

Dewey, John. Democracy and Education, NewYork: Macmillan, 1929.

Engle, Shirley. "Alan Griffin (1907-1964)." Jour-nal of Thought, 17 (Fall 1982): 45-54.

Engle, Shirley S. "Late Night Thoughts About theNew Social Studies." Social Education, 50(January 1986): 20-23.

Engle, Shirley. and Longstreet, Wilma. A Designfor Social Education in the Open Curriculum.New York: Harper and Row, 1972.

Fenton, E.F. The New Social Studies. New York:Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967.

Griffin, A. "A Philosophical Approach to the SubjectMatter Preparation of Teachers." Ph.D. Diss.,Ohio State University, 1942.

Hill, C. "History and Culture," in The RandomHouse Encyclopedia. New York: RandomHouse, 1983,946-949.

Hunt, M.P., and Metcalf, L. Teaching High SchoolSocial Studies. New York: Harper and Bro., 1955.

Longstreet, Wilma S. "Decision Making: The NewSocial Studies." Bloomington, IN: OccasionalPaper, No. 1. Social Studies DevelopmentCenter, 1979.

Oliver, D.W., and Shaver, James P. Teaching PublicIssues in the High School. Boston: Houghton, Mif-flin, 1965.

Oliver, D.W. and Newmann, Fred M. The AmericanRevolution, The Public Issues Series/HarvardSocial Studies Project. Middletown, CT:American Education Publications, 1967. Li

Shirley H. Engle is a Professor Emeritusof Education at Indiana University, wherehe was the Associate Dean for AdvancedStudies. Anna Ochoa is an Associate Pro-fessor of Social Studies Education atIndiana.

771 COPY titrl''P F-,LL,.10.,:.

108November/December 1986 SOCIAL EDUCATION

Reprinted by permission.

Scope and Sequence.


Social Education forSocial Transformation

William B. Stanley and Jack L. Nelson

Ademocratic civic culture, and theactive participation of individu-als in the continuing improve-

ment of the society, is the basic rationalefor this proposed social education curric-ulum. This rationale assumes that peopleare capable of self-governance, that ademocratic society must be open tocriticism and divergent viewpoints, thatschooling has a responsibility to be con-sistent with social ideals, and that certainvalues will be of central focus in social im-provement. These values include justiceand equality, which become groundingpoints for a social education whose ra-tionale incorporates a concern for socialtransformation. There are some furtherassumptions that underlie this rationaleand deserve articulation.

First, schools have not been and neverwill be neutral in regard to social, politi-cal, economic and cultural values. Thesevalues are the basis for schooling itself,and are often expressed in broad state-ments of educational goals. In a societylike the United States, the developmentof a democratic civic culture is amongthese broad educational aims; this re-quires a populace with the knowledgeand wisdom to participate actively in thecontinuing improvement of the societyand presumes that schools can providethe essential conditions for this learning.

For schools, and thus for social educa-tion, those essential conditions includethe consideration of social problems andpotential solutions, the development ofcritical thinking and ethical decisionmaking, the freedom to explore contro-versial topics, and full access to the meansby which students can actively practicesocial participation.

Second, societies are constantly in aprocess of transformation. The singleprinciple on which all social sciences,humanities and sciences seem to agree

is that things always change; transforma-tion is fundamental (Besag and Nelson1984; Wexler 1985). The disagreementsoccur in assessing the nature of trans-formationwhich changes lead to prog-ress, which to regression, and which tothe fragile stability that many peopleseek.

Schools have not andnever will be neutral in

regard to social,political, economicand cultural values.

The underlying values of justice andequality provide, for our society, the basiccriteria against which change can beassessed. Social education that provideslearning for social transformation is con-sistent with the assumption of socialchange. Most "mainstream" or traditionalsocial education rationales agree thatdemocratic principles are basic, but therationales tend to be backward-looking,static in orientation and highly supportiveof the status quo. This severely limits con-sideration of change or transformation,and holds suspect potential social im-provements that seem to deviate fromstandard ideas. If the current society orany society were perfect, the status quowould be an ideal; instead, social prob-lems deserve wide exploration to find im-provements that lead toward increasedjustice and equality. Social criticism, then,should be seen as one means to fulfill theneed for social transformation and shouldbe an important element in socialeducation.

Third, social transformation throughsocial education does not require the

abolition of all traditional "transmission"functions of social studies. The primaryframework of values that identify the"good society," and the basic values ofjustice and equality need to be transmit-ted to the young. It would be a purposeof this social education scope and se-quence to develop a firm and thoughtfulattachment to these core values asnecessary to improving the democraticcivic culture. The attachment would notbe blind devotion, since disputes oversocial issues raise different views of whatjustice and equality mean in practice, butthe framing of those debates would re-quire agreement on the core values asv,,orthy criteria. It is this attachment tobasic civic values that motivates peopleto actively participate in the society.

Fourth, schools can and should beused to promote progressive socialchange (Stanley 1985). The schools havelong been used to instill national loyalty,to prepare for war, to develop skills forbusiness, to prepare "good citizens," toseparate individuals into differential rolesin the society and to serve the interestsof select groups in the society.

Pursuing social transformation predi-cated on values of justice and equalitywould represent a shift in emphases, butnot in the basic nature of education. Thesocial transformation proposed wouldaim to serve the interests of the widestnumber of people within the democraticculture, addressing issues of individual,local, national and global importance.Redressing the needs of the disadvan-taged, increasing human rights condi-tions and stimulating environmental im-provements are examples of possible foci.Although it is clear that the schools couldnot have unilateral power to ti ansformsociety, they are a significant element inthe consideration of which changes con-stitute progress, and they play a key role


Scope and Sequence. _


in the development of ideas among thenew generations.

A final assumption is concerned withsocial education itself. It is probably im-possible to reach consensus on a singlerationale for social education becausethere are a number of widely divergentviews available; and because it is logicallyinconsistent to presume that one ra-tionale and its scope and sequence are socomprehensive or compelling that it

should be imposed. Imposition of a par-ticular static scope and sequence on afield that assumes change and that ad-vocates debate on social issues would bean enormous anomaly (Engle 1977). Thevitality of social education would bethreatened, and one would wonder at itsstated purposes of critical thinking. Thus,this rationale and scope and sequence isoffered as a possible approach. We thinkit has merit, but requires analysis, com-parison, skepticism and criticaljudgmentas should any of thoseproposed.

This assumption about the nature ofsocial education implies that significantchanges in the traditional curriculumwould require significant changes inteaching materials, teacher education, in-service education, and other aspects (Ap-ple and Teitelbaum 1985; Giroux 1985).That is healthy, we believe, as similarchanges in science and math educationhelped to revitalize those fields in schools.We also believe that the service that NC SSshould provide is to encourage the debateby pointing the field in new directionsrather than restating the already en-trenched views. To do otherwise wouldrepresent stagnation of the field. It is inthis context that this proposal issubmitted.

This rationale is an optimistic view ofthe potentials for humans, their societiesand their schools. The idea of socialtransformation by thoughtful, ethicallybased, responsible and critical examina-tion of social problems and active parti-cipation in developing a continually im-proving society is one that can inspiresocial educators and their students.

Definitions and GoalsWe prefer to use the term social educa-

tion rather than social studies, as it

recognizes the broad complex scope ofsocial learning. It has become a cliche buta true one, that most of our social learn-ing does not take place in schools, andeven in schools a great deal of sociallearning (perhaps most) occurs outside

Pursuing socialtransformation predicated

on values of justice andequality would represent a

shift in emphases,but not in the basicnature of education,

the formal curriculum studied in socialeducation classes. But whether one usesthe term social education or socialstudies, we need to expand the definitionbeyond the focus on citizenship educa-tion as the primary concern of the field.While citizenship education is a majorconcern, people function in a number ofother significant life roles aside from theirrelationship to the local, state and federalgovernment, e.g., as family members, as

consumers and producers and as indi-viduals, to name the most obvious andimportant ones.

Each of these might involve socialinteractions, ethics, aesthetics, creativity,decision making, and perseverance, thebulk of which can have little or nothingto do with what normally passes forcitizenship education. Finally, every in-dividual should develop an awareness ofglobal issues and the ability to make in-formed decisions regarding them. Muchof this activity is unrelated to a specificcitizenship role. For those reasons, eventhe formal curriculum of social educationmust he more broadly construed thancitizenship education.

Furthermore, the term citizenship isoften used in a rather narrow andtechnical way. This technical preoccupa-tion with learning specific skills toachieve specified instructional objectivesfails to address the need for a more com-prehensive reflective competence in ademocratic society. For example, onecannot prescribe in advance all the in-structional outcomes related to attemptsto resolve problems of social justice(Cherryholmes 1978). Indeed, much thatis involved in these kinds of compe-tencies (e.g., dispositions, reflection)

111


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probably cannot be taught directly, butstudents can learn it, given sufficient andappropriate opportunities. Social educa-tion must provide educational opportuni-ties to develop the critical practical com-petence to participate in a democraticsociety (Newmann 1975; Kennedy 1981;Whitson 1985).

Social transformation is defined as thecontinuing improvement of the societyby applying social criticism and ethicaldecision making to social issues, and

using the values of justice and equality asgrounds for assessing the direction ofsocial change that should be pursued.

Criticism refers to judging with knowl-edge and reason. It is both positive andnegative. Its goal is to illuminate issues,pose alternative views, consider diver-gent evidence, use large-scale ethicalcriteria, and arrive at refined ideas forsocial improvement. It must be clear thatcriticism is a process; it is dramatically dif-ferent from complaining, cynicism, pes-simism or nihilism in that it posits apositive view of what can be achieved inhuman societies.

Social education for social transforma-tion, therefore, has the goals of1. Developing a firm and thoughtful

attachment to the core values, primari-ly justice and equality, of a democraticcivic culture

2. Assisting students in understandingsocial and global issues and in theutilization of critical thinking basedupon ethical derivatives from thevalues of justice and equality

3. Developing motivation to actively par-ticipate in the improvement of society

4. Assuring that teachers and studentshave the freedom to examine as wide

a variety of topics and viewpoints aspossible in exploring social and globalimprovement

5. Encouraging students to consider anddevelop specific proposals for pro-gressive social change.

KnowledgeKnowledge is problematical, rather

than precise and predetermined. Al-though it might be easier to believe thatwe have precise and absolute knowledgethat we can simply transmit throughschooling, such is not the case. There aresignificant intellectual debates about thenature, value basis and operation ofknowledge in society, and studentsshould examine those debates. Knowl-edge is a social and ideologicalphenomenon and should be seen as asubject of study in social education (Ed-wards 1979; Foucault 1980; Freire 1970;Habermas 1971; Sharp 1980).

There is an unfortunate tendency incurrent social studies work to perceiveknowledge as something to be imposedin school and then tested to assure thatstudents have accepted the imposition.That is inconsistent with the concept ofcritical thinking, and inconsistent withthe ideas of social education for socialtransformation. One of the goals of thisproposal is that students undertake thestudy of knowledge and ideologies (thestudy of ideas, as well as the study ofdominar--) as social issues. Knowledgeshould z,,so be studied through the varie-ty of skills needed to create, identify, pro-cess, express and utilize it. Knowledge isalso different from data or information.Data represent bits and pieces, thematerial of insights and possibleknowledge, but not knowledge itself.Knowledge is socially constructed andinterpreted, not given and objective.

Transformative social education notonly utilizes traditional sources of datafrom the humanities and social sciences,the sciences, the arts and from socialissues themselves, but also subjects thosedata to criticism. Students and teachersneed to develop sufficient competence intraditional forms of data to be able to ex-amine them criticallyto become intel-lectually skeptical of the data and itssources. Knowledge needs to be under-

stood as an orientation, or worldview,subject to critical evaluation and recon-sideration. It is an integrated filter throughwhich bits of information about the socialworld come to be understood. Socialeducation for social transformation wouldhave a goal of assisting in the develop-ment and criticism of knowledge in socie-ty to provide students the opportunity toexamine different views of knowledgeand the ideologies that support them.This process would require a related goalof understanding forms of knowledge thathave gained social acceptability over timein order to examine those forms.

Democratic Values and BeliefsGoals related to core values of a

democratic civic culture are indicatedabove. A democratic civic culturedepends upon an informed andmotivated populace who share a commit-ment to a continually improving society.The criterial values we propose are justiceand equality, and our goal is to develop

a

.WII4"140:11P4/7r...weeteF;411N

a firm and thoughtful attachment tothem. A consistent goal related todemocratic values is the development ofcritical thinking among the populace.Democratic civic culture requires con-tinual revision and improvement; criticalthinking and ethical decision makingwhich leads to active social participationare processes through which social trans-formation can take place. These aredynamic rather than static processes.

SkillsThis proposal sees skills as integrated

parts of the process of knowledge devel-opment rather than as discrete and


Scope and SequenceAlternatives for Social Studies

specific categories. The development andcriticism of knowledge, as suggestedabove, requires the use of simple andsophisticated skills like reading, writing,speaking, listening, assessing evidence,observing, categorizing, analyzing, syn-thesizing, evaluating and applying. Thedevelopment of these skills occurs as theyare used and modified.

Skills may be taught apart from con-tent, but they may not be learned, or, iflearned, they may have very narrow ap-plicability (Cornbleth 1985). It is possible,even desirable, to identify and categorizekillsof value in social education in orderto understand the kinds of skills needed,but that does not mean that one mustteach them in isolation as if the skills werenot related to the issues under study. Thisproposal presents skills as integrated inthe development and criticism of knowl-edge and social issues. It is a more holisticapproach than that of behavioral or per-formance-based education.

The recent recognition in Chicago thatMastery Learning had producedmemorization of very specific skills andtasks related to reading, but that studentswho had mastered these specific skillsstill could not read and comprehend, sup-ports the idea that skills need develop-ment in the context of the content of thecurriculum, not as specific and narrowacts. It is our goal in skills developmentto have students utilize and refine themas avenues to accomplishing the largergoals identified in the initial goals state-ment above.

Defining a Scope and SequenceBecause this approach to social educa-

tion advocates that students engage incriticism and participation, it would be in-consistent to insist that all studentsreceive identical information structuredto suit grade levels. Rather, we believethat the processes of critical thinking,ethical decision making and social par-ticipation necessarily should be practicedin schools according to the levels ofmaturity of the students. Thus, the se-quence proposed is only illustrative. Thecategories indicate by broad grade levelsthe expected development.Primary Grades K-3THEME: Self-identity and concern for

others; leading to development of theconcept of interdependence.CONTENT:

information about each studentlikes, dislikesI, mine, your, friends, groups,familycommon experiencesuncommon, individualexperienceshow am I the same, how am Idifferent?

growing upin another societyin another time periodin a more disadvantaged situationin large and small familieswith responsibilities for others(people, animals, health, etc.)

today in class; yesterday; tomorrowindividual and groupwhat was good and not-so-goodwhat we would prefer

exploring ideas of fairnessin classin lifein stories

exploring myths, customs, symbols,common bonds, religions

of this societyof other contemporary societiesof one or more ancient societies

developing a sense of self andrespect for others in testing the ideas

of interdependencein familiesin schoolin the local environmentin other societiesin the global environment

understanding roles and purposesof local institutions and individuals(police, post office, etc.) and com-paring them to institutions in thepast and in other societies

LI considering other needs of localcommunity, e.g., work, play, food,shelter, services, personal develop-mentconsidering other ways of organiz-ing class, school, community.evaluating fairness and equaltreatment

Grades 4-6THEME: Observations and ideasCONTENT:

observingother people, other thingsother places and other times(vicarious)local government and otherinstitutions

keeping track of observationsassessing differences, similarities inobservationsrecognizing differing valuestesting experiences against observa-tions of others as expressed instories, books, films, etc.making judgments of fairness,equality, equityexamining social issuesin local communityin state, regionin nationin world

organizing ideas, especiallyimportant ideas in other times andplacesideas that did not gain favor insocietyhighly divergent ideas in scienceand society, examining whysocial changes resulting fromchanges in ideas

traditional categories of knowledge:philosophy, history, social sciences,science, humanitieswhat writers say, what speakerssay


I 5


developing a critical sense inevaluating evidence

developing and testing hypothesesidentifying and understanding dif-fering viewsjudging views in terms of dtiieringethicsjudging views in terms of justice,equality

0 taking responsibility for views andactions

LI examining specific social issues interms of ethics

Grades 7-9THEME: Testing ideas, refining ethicalideologyCONTENT:

examining criteria0 considering ideologies

ideas and their sourcespolitical e, onomy of ideaspolitical geography of ideasexamination of historic examplesof ideologieslogic, reasoning, alternative viewsideological Jominance andrepressioncultural and ideological differencesroots of ideologiesthe nature of our culture as com-pared to others

meanings and messagesmedia examinationtext analysishistoric document studyways of knowing, different concep-tions of truth

0 discourse developmentanalysis of language, languagetheoryconcern for ideas of othersjustice and equalityimproving reading, writing, speak-ing, listeningdiscourse, science, and socialscience

0 examination of selected socialproblems

defining significant social issuesdeveloping hypothesesreconsidering ethical criteriaidentifying and evaluatingevidencetesting hypothesesdrawing tentative conclusionsproposing potential social

improvementsexamining contrasting viewpointsselecti,ig avenues for socialparticipation

taking responsibilities for views andactions

0 social participation activitiesGrades 10-12THEME: Refining critical thinking; pro-posals for change; social participationCONTENT:

reviewing ideas from precioussocial education work

interdependenceresponsibilityethicsideologiesnature, sources and utilization ofknowledgetraditional forms of knowledgeand their criticscontributions of history and thesocial sciences

developing and reviewing processskills

ethical reasoningdiscourse/discussionresponsibilitiesconducting researchsocial criticismcritical thinking; decision makingsocial participation activities

0 examining identified significantsocial issues

localnationalglobal

0 considering alternative futures and"relevant utopias" based on ethicaljustification for social transforma-tionproposing ideas for social improve-ment rooted in justice and equalitydeveloping interdependent socialparticipationactive work, over a period of time,in social improvement activities

O evaluating social education

AfterwordAs we have tried to indicate in this pro-

posal, it is impractical and dysfunctionalto attempt to specify a single best scopeand sequence for the social educationcurriculum. We lack consensus on a ra-tionale for social education and the field,

given its nature, is in a state of constantchange. This is a difficult and challeng-ing experience. It can be frustrating attimes, but it should be viewed as an op-portunity for progressive change.

Nevertheless, are forced to act, tomake choices and commitments, eventhough they may be tentative and subjectto revision. To do otherwise is to promotesocial stagnation and risk the decline ofour democratic culture. The authors ofthis proposal have chosen to commit toa democratic society rooted in the corevalues of justice and equality. For us, thisimplies that our public schools shouldfunction to further the growth of such asociety. This includes educational ex-periences that help to emancipate andempower students so that they candevelop the critical, technical and prac-tical competence necessary to participatein a democratic society.

Our proposal is one possible way of ac-complishing this goal. There may beseveral others and some might work bet-ter. Yet we would question any proposalthat did not address this central concernof social education. We hope ours willstimulate discussion and action in thisdirection.

ReferencesApple, Michael W., and Kenneth Teitelbaum. "Are

Teachers Losing Control of Their Jobs ?' SocialEducation 49 (May 1985) 372-375

Besag, Frank P., and Jack L. Nelson Tire Fourula.(ions of Education: Stasis and Change NewYork: Random House, 1984.

Cherryholmes. Cleo H. "Curriculum Design as aPolitical Act: Problems and Choices in TeachingSocial Justice." Theory and Research in SocialEducation 6 (Spring 1978) 60-62

Combleth, Catherine. "Critical Thinking andCognitive Processes." In Review of Research inSocial Studies Education: 1976-1983, edited byWilliam B. Stanley. Washington. DC NationalCouncil for the Social Studies, 1985.

Edwards, Richard. Contested Terrain New York.Basic Books, 1979.

Engle, Shirley H., "Reactors Comments In Defin-ing the Social Studies, by Robert D. Barr, JamesL. Barth and S. Samuel Shermis. Arlington, VA:National Council for the Social Studies, 1977.

Foucault, Michel. Power/Know/edge. New York:Pantheon, 1980.

Freire, Paulo. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. NewYork: Continuum, 1970.

Giroux, Henry A. "Teachers as Transformative In-tellectuals." Social Education 49 (May 1985):376-379.

te:i 3 114November/December 1986 SOCIAL EDUCATION

Reprinted by permission.


Social Studies WithinA Global Education

Educating for citizenship has beenand remains a central mission ofthe entire curriculum in elementary

and secondary schools. A global educa-tion extends that mission by enlarging thevision and meaning of citizenship to in-clude not only the local community, thestate, and the nation, but also the globalcommunity.

This vision of citizenship is rooted intwo realities that have become more andmore apparent since the end of the Sec-ond World War. First, today as neverbefore, all human beings live in a multi-boundary world: not simply a world ofnation-states, but one with a diversity ofworldwide systems in which all people af-fect and are affected by others across theglobe) Second, humanity is increasing-ly threatened by problems that cannot besolved by actions taken only at the na-tional level. For a number of our mostpressing environmental and social prob-lemscontamination of the environ-ment, warming of the atmosphere, worldhunger, international terrorism, thenuclear threatthere will either be inter-national solutions or no solutions at all.'

Global education is anchored to a beliefthat there is a critical need in the UnitedStates for schools to better prepare youngpeople for life in a world increasinglycharacterized by pluralism, interde-pendence and change.' The most com-mon approach to bringing global educa-tion into schools has been throughinfusion into the existing curricula ratherthan by restructuring, replacing or creat-ing courses. That is changing as statelegislatures and hoards of education,recognizing the need for global/interna-tional dimensions in education, increas-ingly support curricular changes and ap-propriations for global education.' This inturn has created a need for better descrip-tions of the substance of global education

Willard M. Kniep

and for tools to assist in the process of cur-riculum development.

In the extended view of citizenship em-bodied in a global education, socialstudies continues with a specific mandateand special responsibility for providingcitizenship education: to equip every stu-dent in U.S. schools to live and participatefully and responsibly in all aspects of aglobal society.

In a global education, social studiesgoals will be derived from the re-

quirements of citizenship in a democraticsociety that is one of the most dominantand powerful actors in today's inter-dependent world. For better or worse ourculture influences the entire world. Ourdominance of the international economyand our high standard of living both de-pend on and affect peoples and nationsin all parts of the earth. This extraor-dinary position, and the privileges andresponsibilities that it implies for U.S.citizenship, must be reflected in ourdefinition of the social studies.

The content of social studies is drawnprimarily from history, the social sciencesand humanities. But we must also ac-knowledge the contributions of otherfields like the natural sciences, jour-nalism, future studies, policy studies,development studies, and environmen-tal studies. Furthermore, we should em-phasize the interdisciplinary nature ofsocial studies, since the future is likely torequire more integrative thinking, notless. In a global education, the content ofsocial studies would serve to illuminateimportant national and internationalrealities diversity, interdependence,conflict and change.

The way we teach must reflect the ex-perience and development of ourlearners. But even more important toachieving our citizenship goal, we mustplace our students actively in the center

of the learning process. If our students areto think globally as they act locally,5 ifthey are to be actively at the center oftheir world,8 and if they are to be engagedwith what we want them to learn,' thensocial studies must be taught in ways thatmake learning active, interactive, hands-on and engaging.

GoalsKnowledge

The NCSS 1979 Social Studies Cur-riculum Guidelines envisioned three par-ticular functions for the knowledge com-ponent of the curriculum: to provide ahistorical perspective, to help a personperceive patterns and systems, and toprovide the foundation for socialparticipation.8

That vision is as valid today as it wasin 1979. In a global education, thehistorical perspective will include a graspof the evolution of universal humanvalues and unique world views, thehistorical development of contemporaryglobal systems, and the antecedent con-ditions and causes of today's global issuesand problems. The systems perspectivewill enable students to see themselves,their communities, and their nation as ac-tors in and on economic, political,ecological and technological systems ex-tending throughout the globe. Knowl-edge as a basis for social participationmust include not only historical andsystems perspectives but an understand-ing of the causes, the effects and poten-tial solutions for the great problems andissues of our time.Abilities

Among the most important goals of aglobal education are the development ofabilities to identify perspectives, see pat-terns, trace linkages and cause and effectrelationships, and expand the repertoireof choice in solving problems.' Social

536 SOCIAL EDUCATION November/December 1986 116 1 4


studies obviously has a key role to playin the development of these abilities. AsRobert Hanvey has persuasively arguedhowever, we must state them in the con-text of our other goals and we must pur-sue them holistically in our curricula. Do-ing so creates a reason and need for ourstudents to use them as a natural part oftheir study. To do otherwise not onlyviolates the principle of "wholeness" thatis basic to global education but perpetu-ates the false dichotomy between contentand process that has plagued the socialstudies.I0

In forming our goals within this do-main we would do well to differentiatebetween our students' capacities to docertain things by virtue of being human,and their needs to acquire certain abili-ties and skills.

Our students come to us with thecapacity to thir k and reason. From infan-cy they have engaged in "critical think-ing" as they have seen and analyzed rela-tionships, applied information to newsituations, made predictions, synthesizedinformation from multiple sources, andformed judgments based on what theyknow. One of our goals in social studiesshould be to engage their intellectualcapacities by providing the opportunityand context to do so.

Students also come to us with the needto acquire certain abilities and skills andto extend and apply others. Social studieshas a special responsibility for helpingstudents develop skill in using the toolsof scientific inquiry as modeled by socialscientists and historians. Its very naturerequires students to gather data throughobservation, interviews, surveys andreading; to organize data using charts.maps, models, field notes and other tools;and to communicate what they havelearned in various ways.Valuing

Values are embedded in the content wechoose for study, in the teaching andlearning processes we employ, and in thestructure of social and physical environ-ments. Our choices in these areas shouldbe guided by our goals.

A primary goal of social studies shouldbe for our students to develc, perspec-tives, concerns, tendencies and standardsfor their role as citizens of a democratic

NNW

society in an interdependent world. If ourprograms are successful, students'perspectives will help them to see theirlinkages to others; their concerns will befor life, individual responsibility, humanrights, and ecological balance; theirtendencies will be toward participation,collaboration, acceptance of diversity,and peaceful resolution of conflict; andtheir standards will include justice, equi-ty, self-determination, individualfreedoms, human dignity, and honesty.

The content that we select shouldground students in a basic knowledge ofthe values of their own cultures and socie-ty, and should engage them in examin-ing the values of others in order to see thecommonality and diversity amonghumanity. Both the processes that weemploy and the social and physical struc-tures that we put in place must model inmicrocosm the values that we affirm.Social Participation

To claim citizenship education as thecentral focus and mandate of the socialstudies we must identify social participa-tion as one of our major goals. As the1979 Guidelines assert, the knowledge,abilities and values in social studies pro-grams come to fruition in socialparticipation."

The goal of social studies should be toequip students for responsible and effec-tive participation in all of the systems inwhich they live. In the best of all possi-ble worlds, as a result of their socialstudies programs, students would par-ticipate in democratic institutions know-ing how and why they work, with full

awareness of the rights and responsibi-lities that go with participation. Further.more, students would be led to economicdecisions that maximize individual andsocial benefitsknowing that these deci-sions are dependent on and have conse-quences for others around the worldand to life-style decisions that contributeto personal well-being and pleasure withconsideration for social and ecologicalbenefits and costs.

Ultimately, social studies programsmust be about empowerment. That is,students must see that they have a rolein making the world a safer, more justand equitable place for humanity. It is notenough to know about persistent prob-lems and issues, nor is it sufficient to beable to think and talk rationally andcreatively about alternative solutions andto identify the values dilemmas inherentin them. Education becomes completeonly when it moves us and provides uswith the means and opportunity to actto affect local, national and globalproblems. '=

Scope and SequenceThe scope of any curriculum should

not be limited by tradition or by familiartopics that have always been taught, evenif in a new way.'3 Rather, the determi-nants should be the purposes that wehave set out for social studies, our bestanalysis of the current realities in whichour students live, the requirements ofcitizenship in the 21st century, and anunderstanding of the basic nature andelements of those realities from the

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November/December 1986 SOCIAL EDUCATION 537


Conceptual Themes for the Social StudiesI. INTERDEPENDENCE The idea that we live in a world of systems in which

the actors and components interact to make up aunified, functioning whole.Related concepts: causation, community, ex-change, government, groups, interaction, systems.

2. CHANGE The idea that the process of movement from onestate of being to another is a universal aspect of theplanet and is an inevitable part of life and living.Related concepts: adaptation, cause and effect,development, evolution, growth, revolution, time.

3. CULTURE The idea that people create social environmentsand systems corn; .rised of unique beliefs, values,traditions, language, customs, technology, and in-stitutions as a way of meeting basic human needs,and shaped by their own physical environmentsand contacts with other cultures.Related concepts.- adaptation, aesthetics, diversi-ty, language, norms, roles, values, space/time.

4. SCARCITY The idea that an imbalance exists between relative-ly unlimited wants and limited available resourcesnecessitating the creation of systems for decidinghow resources are to be distributed.Related concepts: conflict, exploration, migration,opportunity cost, policy, resources, specialization.

5. CONFLICT The idea that people and nations often have differ-ing values and opposing goals resulting in disagree-ment, tensions, and sometimes violencenecessitating skill in co-existence, negotiation, liv-ing with ambiguity and conflict resolution.Related concepts: authority, collaboration, com-petition, interests/positions, justice, power, rights.

scholarship of history, social science andother disciplines.

The scope of the social studies cur-riculum, then, should reflect the presentand historical realities of a global socie-ty. As away to bring some order to think-ing about those realities, I propose fouressential elements of study in a globaleducation that set the boundaries for thescope of the social studies curriculum."I. The Study of Human Valuesboth

universal values defining what it

means to be human, and diversevalues derived from group member-ship and contributing to unique worldviews.

2. The Study of Global Systemsin-cluding the global economic, political,ecological and technological systemsin which we live.

3. The Study of Global Issues andProblemsincluding peace and

security issues, national and interna-tional development issues, local andglobal environmental issues, andhuman rights issues.

4. The Study of Global Historyfocus-ing on the evolution of universal anddiverse human values, the historicaldevelopment of contemporary globalsystem.-, and the antecedent condi-tions and causes of today's globalissues.

Every effort should be made to insurethat the plan or the sequence for organiz-ing a social studies curriculum with thisscope retains the holistic character ofglobal education. Doing so will make itmore possible for students to capture thesense of interdependence characterizingthe modern world. Furthermore, the se-quence of study should lead to broad con-ceptual understanding of patterns andrelationships while keeping students at

the center of their learning.As a way of achieving consistency with

these principles, I propose the use ofthemes as basic organizers for the socialstudies curriculum. The use of themes toorganize thinking and focus attentionabounds in daily life in literature, music,advertising and political campaigns. Inthe social studies curriculum, themeshave a similar functionas means forfocusing attention, for making connec-tions among disparate elements acrosscurricula, and for applying what islearned to the rest of life.

This thematic model uses three typesof themes for curriculum organizationderived from the structural elements ofthe disciplines underlying the socialstudies. Each discipline uses concepts fororganizing inquiry and for describing itsstructure and view of reality. Each studiescertain phenomena that delimit its fieldof inquiry. And each focuses on persistentproblems for which its knowledge mayprovide explanations or solutions.Conceptual Themes

Work within social studies should beorganized around concepts: the big ideasforming the mental structures andlanguage that human beings use forthinking about and describing the world.The particular concepts used as curricularthemes are characteristically abstract andrelational. They are not labels for real,concrete things but generally describehow people, things and events relate toone another. Such concepts, while sharedin people's language and thinking aboutthe world, are idiosyncratic to an extentsince they are individually formed andreflect the transaction between a person'sprior knowledge and experience and themeaning taken from new experience.

The five conceptual themes listed anddefined below have been selected asbasic curriculum organizers becauseaare essential to the development of aglobal perspective. They are metacon-cepts in the sense that they consistentlyappear in the language and thinking ofthe social and natural sciences and be-cause they serve as organizers aroundwhich other concepts tend to cluster.Phenomenological Themes

Topical organization of textbooks andcurricula focused on people, places and

538 SOCIAL EDUCATION November/December 1986 118

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Scope and Sequence.


events are common in social studies. Oneof the problems with this approach is that,by focusing on a single entity or eventsuch as a nation or a war, we oftenoveremphasize uniquenesses and dif-ferences while ignoring similarities andinterconnectednessan outcome thatruns directly counter to developing aglobal perspective. In a global education,phenomenological themes would beselected for their contribution to betterunderstanding the world's systems,cultures and historical evolution.

Phenomenological themes fall in twocategories. The first is the actors and com-ponents playing major roles in the world'ssystems or within the sphere of humancultures and values. Actors meeting thesecriteria include specific nations, organiza-tions, religious and cultural groups,significa:a individuals, and institutions.Components include geographic regions,significant documents, geologicalfeatures, landforms, and systems andsubsystems.

The second category of phenomeno-logical themes is comprised of majorevents. Such events, both historical andcontemporary, are selected because oftheir contribution to the development ofcontemporary world systems and/or theevolution of diversity and commonalityof human values and cultures.

Specific phenemona are chosen asthemes because we are convinced theyare essential to our students' understand-ing of the world. Individual choices de-pend, to a large extent, on the needs andlocation of our students. For students inthe U.S., knowing the history, roles andvalues of their own community, state andnation is critical to understanding theworld's systems and the interaction andevolution of cultures and values. So too,their historical perspective must includethe major events in the development oftheir own country. Students will com-prehend the limits and possibilities forchoice in the world they will inherit,however, only if our own pedagogicalchoices include the broad range of actors,components and events that continue toshape the systems, and values of ourdiverse planet.Persistent Problem Themes

These themes embrace the global

issues and problems characterizing themodern world. y studying persistentproblems, students can more clearly seetheir interdependent nature and how avariety of actors, themselves included,can affect such problems. The study ofpersistent problems would be incompleteunless it contributes to an understandingof their historical antecedents and theways in which problems, and their solu-tions, relate to cultural perspectives andhuman values.

It is possible to generate a lengthy listof specific persistent problems that plagueus globally and locally. However, the vastmajority of problems seem to fall into thefollowing four categories.15

Peace and Securitythe arms raceEast-West relationsterrorismcolonialismdemocracy vs. tyrannyNational/International Developmenthunger and povertyoverpopulationNorth-South relationsappropriate technologyinternational debt crisisEnvironmental Problemsacid rainpollution of streamsdepletion of rain forestsnuclear waste disposalmaintenance of fisheriesHuman Rightsapartheidindigenous homelandspolitical imprisonmentreligious persecutionrefugees

Persistent problems, by their verynature, permeate every level of exis-tencefrom global to national to localwith their symptoms and causes. More-over, the solutions to persistent problemswill come through both individual behav-iors taken collectively and policy deci-sions taken multilaterally. Because ofthis, themes in this category consistent-ly provide opportunities for students topractice their roles as citizens by par-ticipating in programs to alleviate localversions of global problems (e.g., pover-ty) or local efforts to address global prob-lems (e.g., famine in Ethiopia).

Placement of Themes byGrade Level

The curricular model I have presentedis intended to be a tool for generating ascope and sequence in social studies atthe local level. It places the social studiesprogram at the center of an overall schoolprogram comprising a global education.

As an aid to understanding how themodel leads to curricular decisions andimplementation at the local level, I offerthe following description of a K-12 socialstudies curriculum as one example ofhow a school district can translate thegoals and principles of the model into ascope and sequence. To achieve a degreeof brevity and simplicity of language inthe description, I am presenting it as theprogram of a specific school districttheIdeal Unified School Districtlocated inthe best of all possible odds. It is in-tended to be a generalizable example ofthe decisions that need to be made by anyschool districtinvolving school admin-istrators, curriculum specialists, teachersand the school boardin the process ofdet-rmining what is to be taught, how itis to be taught, and in what order.

The Ideal District, in addition to adopt-ing the goals and elements of the globaleducation model for social studies, hasbased its program on the following as-sumptions about human developmentand learning:

Human beings function as wholeorganisms: thought, speech, emotionand psychomotor activities occursimultaneously and in concert. There-fore learning is a holistic enterprise inwhich artificial separation of instructioninto content, skills, values, etc., is to beavoided whenever possible.Learning is basically an active andinteractive process. Methods that castthe learner in a passive role should beused sparingly and avoided whereverpossible.The younger the learner or the moreunfamiliar the subject, the greater theneed to provide opportunities for stu-dent interaction with concrete ex-amples in instructional sequences.Conceptual understanding is built onrepeated contact with a variety of realpeople, places and events that are ex-emplars of the concept to be developed.

November/December 1986 SOCIAL EDUCATION 539t'. I


Elementary ProgramThe Ideal elementary program will be

implemented primarily through teacher-made thematic units. These units, usingthe community as a laboratory', are aimedat developing skill in the use of scientificprocesses by taking advantage of oppor-tunities to make observations, conductinterview and surveys, and analyze andsolve issues and problems. They includea variety of primary source materials,trade books, media and other resources.' 6

The development of a conceptual foun-dation is the first priority of the elemen-tary program. Therefore, each of the con-ceptual themes has been adopted as theorganizing focus of study, with increas-ing levels of sophistication, at severalpoints in the elementary curriculum. Thesecond priority is the development ofsocial participation skills. reflect( d in thedesignation of persistent problem themesat each grade, so children will begin to seethemselves actively in the role of citizen.

In the early elementary years, the pro-gram assigns responsibility for direct in-struction related to each of the conceptualthemes at specific grade levels.17 TheDistrict has not specified the content ofunits in the early grades, but has giventeachers the opportunity and support todesign their own units of instruction.

Similarily, the District has assigned per-sistent problem themes to grade levelswith the expectation that teachers willdesign units to engage their students inlocal manifestations of global problemsand issues. The district has also estab-lished a norm that units are to be inter-disciplinary whenever possible andtht..mes are to be used to focus and pro-vide a context for work in areas such aswriting, literature study and arithmetic.

Beginning with grade 4, the District hasmade the social studies program morecontent-specific. However, the emphasiscontinues to be on thematic organizationof that content. As a result, the programin the upper elementary grades morenearly approximates a course structurewhile retaining the interdisciplinarypotential of the thematic unit.

Following is an abbreviated summaryof the program for the elementary grades:

Grade 1: The assigned conceptualthemes are Interdependence and Scar-

city. In the Interdependence Units, stu-dent inquiry will focus on the linkagesamong peot le and the roles theyassume in social situations such as theclassroom, recreational activities, orcommunity workplaces; on the mutualdependencies among living and be-tween living and nonliving things inthe natural environment; and on howsimple mechanical and biologicalsystems are made up of componentsthat work together. The Scarcity Unitswill be designed to help students dif-ferentiate between wants and needs,and to use the economic principle ofopportunity cost to analyze their owneconomic behaviors and the decisionsthat are made by households and localbusinesses.

Within the third assigned theme, En-vironmental Problems, students will beable to identify examples and causes ofpollution and waste within the schooland community, and to develop alter-native solutions for these examples.Grade 2: The assigned conceptualthemes are Change and Culture. Thehighlights of the Change Units will befor students to identify the persistenceof change in themselves and to beginto make a record of change in theircommunity and environment usingfamily members, friends, letters,diaries, newspaper articles, picturesand other documents as data sources.In the Culture Units students will ex-plore the universal aspects of culturesby examining their own cultures, theculture of the classroom and school,and by looking at the cultures ofchildren around the world through ar-tifacts, trade books, films and othersources.

Development is the assigned prob-lems theme. The focus of inquiry willbe on hunger and poverty in the com-munity and in other parts of the world.An essential part of the units will be forstudents to decide on and undertake aresponse to the problem.Grade 3: The assigned conceptualtheme is Conflict. An extended unit willenable students to recognize conflictsituations and their causes and todevelop skills in collaborative problemsolving and conflict resolution.'s

In the first phenomenological themein the program, students will studylocal actors in the economic system.Students will identify the collaborativeaspects of local workplaces, businessesand markets, and the interdependenceof supply and demand in a competitivemarket place.

The assigned problems theme isPeace and Security. Units will engagestudents in analyzing current local andglobal conflicts where the underlyingcause is threatened security. Emphasiswill be on examining and developingalternative means of conflict resolu-tion.Grade 4: Study of the state will beorganized around selected themes, andstudents will use the concept of Cultureto analyze the contributions of variousgroups, beginning with the indigenouspeoples, to the development of thestate. The study of contemporary life inthe state will use the theme of Interde-pendence to help students identify theeconomic, political, cultural and tech-nological linkages of the state to the restof the nation and world.

Environmental Problems serves asan organizing theme to engagestudents in inquiry about major en-vironmental concerns of the state.

The program focuses on a phenom-enological themecomponentsthrough which to assess the contribu-tion of the state's major landformsriver systems, forests and deserts, ancmajor cities to its quality of life.Grade 5: Students will study thehistory of the United States thematically. Rather than being organized chronologically, the program will emphasizeconceptual understanding of Unite(States development, by focusing on thecomponents and values that make iunique among the nations of the worldConceptually, the history will stresshistorical and contemporary forms oU.S. Interdependence with the rest othe world, the role of Conflict in the nalion's development, and the economlevolution of the U.S. in a world cScarcity.

Additionally, students will uncle]take in-depth study of selected cornponents that contribute to the uniqu(

540 SOCIAL EDUCATION November/December 1986 120

ness of the U.S. as a nation, such as itsConstitution, the Federal System, andthe Presidency. The persistent problemof Human Rights will also be examinedas students study the U.S. progress inimplementing basic values of justice,equity, and individual freedom for all

. of its citizens.Grade 6: The concepts of Change,Culture, Conflict, and Interdependenceare used to organize the study of LatinAmerica, Africa and Asia from histori-cal and contemporary perspectives.The persistent problem of Develop-ment, emphasizing the linkages of U.S.citizens to the developing world, willbe examined throughout the program.

The Secondary Schools ProgramThe programs in the junior and senior

high school will shift in focus from themore generalized study of the elementaryyears to an emphasis on more contentspecific study, and will increasinglyassume a course format. The program isdesigned to provide depth and breadth ofknowledge of content derived primarilyfrom the adopted scope of the program.That is, the program will aim at increas-ing knowledge of human values, includ-ing those that characterize life in the U.S.;global systems, including the role of theU.S. and other major actors; and contem-porary global problems and issues. In aGdition, a high priority is for students todevelop a historical perspective that en-compasses the growth of the U.S. and ofthe interdependence that characterizestoday's world.

Grade 7: This program emphasizesa functional knowledge of major globalsystems. In the first semester, studentswill examine the global economicsystem. Beginning with the U.S.

economy, the course will analyze ma-jor economic systems and the inter-dependence of the global economy. Inthe second semester, students willstudy political systems through asimilar approach.

Concurrently, the students will be in-volved in an interdisciplinary coursefocusing on ecological systems duringthe first semester and technologicalsystems the second. The course willdraw most heavily on the social andnatural sciences.


Grade 8: The students will explorethe domain of human values, begin-ning with an analysis of basic values inU.S. society such as individual free-doms and rights, the work ethic, ma-jority rule, and equity. The course willtrace the origins of those values fromthe writings and movements thatshaped Western civilization to thefounding documents of the UnitedStates.

The second part of the program willtake a similar approach to non-Westerntraditions. First priority in selectingthese traditions will be to include ma-jor actors in today's world such asIslamic nations, Eastern Europe, Asia,Africa and Latin America.Grade 9: The 9th grade program willrevolve around global history, em-phasizing how interdependence in thecontemporary world has evolvedthrough more or less continuous con-tact among civilizations during the past2,000 years. The course will examinethe results of informational, materialand artistic exchange among earlycivilizations, and the historical contextsand impact of major migrations, ex-plorations, exports of technology, col-onizations and wars. The aim of thecourse will be to provide a broadhistoric panorama for interpreting to-day's international relationships.Grade 10: Although organizedchronologically, this two-semestercourse in United States history will em-phasize the relationship of the historyof the U.S. to the history of the globeusing the conceptual themes as aframework for analysis. The course willalso give specific attention to uniqueU.S. approaches to problems of devel-opment, the environment, humanrights, and peace and securitybothdomestically and in the internationalarena.Grade 11: The objects of study will bemajor actors in the modern world. Thecourse will focus on nation-states asmajor actors in the global political/economic arena. Students will com-pare approaches selected nations havetaken to persistent problems andanalyze their basic social/politicalvalues. The role of other global

actorsthe United Nations, non-governmental organizations, multina-tional corporations, unions and grass-roots movementswill also beanalyzed.Grade 12: The senior year will pro-vide ample opportunity for students toapply the themes and substance of theprevious years to the study of contem-porary global problems and issues. Inthe first semester, using the conceptualthemes as a framework for systemsanalysis, students will pursue an in-quiry projectcollecting and analyzingdata, drawing conclusions, and devel-oping alternative solutionsleading toa senior thesis related to the problemof their choice.

In the second semester they will par-ticipate in a community project inwhich they will implement someaspects of their thesis. This seniorproject, undertaken in cooperationwith a community service organiza-tion, a political party, or a non-profitorganization, will provide students theculminating school-linked opportunityto experience the role of citizen in ademocratic society within a real-worldsetting.

Notes' A description provided. as part of their rationale, by

Alger and Had (1984).Fasheh (1985) argues that these problems should be

the driving force in international programs.See, for example. Reischauer (1973). an oft-quoted

rationale for changing education to reflect current global

realities.4 Different approaches have been taken by different

states. New York, for example, is making the internationaldimension part of the Regent's exam and has mandatedthe restructuring of a number of social studies courses.Arkansas has mandated infusion of a global perspectivethroughout the curriculum and a global studies course atthe tenth grade. California has appropriated funds toestablish international studies resource centers, under thedirection of Stanford University, throughout the state.Florida has just established a state office for internationaleducation,

The recent report by Irving Morrissett (1986) indicatedthat 23 states now have requirements for courses in worldor global studies. In 10 of those cases, the requirement orrecommendation was adopted within the past 4-5 years.

A phrase coined by Rene Dubois. quoted by CherylCharles (1985).

1 One of John Goodlad's (1986) thesesNewmann (1986) points out that the lack of student

engagement with the social studies is one of the majorproblems that the profession faces.

1 National Council for the Social Studies (1979).1 The skills are presented by Hanvey (1978) in the con-

text of knowledge of perspectives, state of the planet, andglobal dynamics.

11111111111

November/December 1986 SOCIAL EDUCATION 541

121


II The Task Force on St I q nIliltit'illICIIkt.(1951)aNs-rhthat -skills are develiqied through sequential systematicinstruction and practice" and can be grouped in aproblem-solving sequence' (p 252). No empirical or practical evidence is pro% idedlo support this c less Socha letshas its origins in behaviorist theor and runs counter tomost other theones of hurnnn (IC1elopmeni and teamingthat take a more hohsrc tmess Later the Task Forcerepeats this argument. but then sa s that "using and ap-plying skills as the best form of practice I sould arguethat they are the onh forms that we should be using

.1 National Council for the Sicial Studies (1979)0 Harlan Clet eland ;11186) argues that we are all si,dicy

makers" and that this should be the f«usof out programs." The Task Force (19S-H argued that it is ma fruitful

to try to define the scope of social studies in terms of is hot'Is new and 11111d111111dr 101,K s and or subiect matter Ip2521

The explication 01 these elements is «nal ned inKniep 119361.

1' Ibid.The prcx'ess of des eloping thematic units is described

in Kniep (1979).c Because the emphasis in the kindergarten program

is on socialization and structured play activities, formalinstruction is minimized Hits (-sec the coin (Twatthemes, especially interdependence and culture, can heused to organize and locus those auk Ines.

l" Johnson and Johnson (1984) present approaches forcooperation and collaborative conflict resolutions Theseskills are particularh eget rive cs hen undertaken In thecontext of inquiry about significant content

ReferencesAlger, Chadwick F'., and James E. Hart. Global

Education Why? for Whom? 4 bout What?Col-umbus, OH. Ohio State University, 1984.

Charles, Cheryl, "Using The Natural World to Teachand Learn Globally." Social Education 49 (March1985) 213-217.

Cleveland, Harlan "The World We're Preparing OurSchoolchildren For." Social Education 50 (Oc-tober 1986). 416-423.

Fasheh, Munir J. "Talking About 's'hat to Cook forDinner When Our House Is On Fire: The Povertyof Existing Forms of International Education."Hart and Educational Review, 55 (1985):121-126.

Goodlad. John I. "The Learner at the World'sCenter." Social Education 50 (October 1986):424-436.

Harvey. Robert G. An Attainable Global Perspec-tive. New York, NY: Center for Global Perspec-tives, 1978.

Johnson, David, Roger Johnson, et at Circles ofLearning. Cooperation in the Classroom.Washington, DC: A.S.0 D., 1984.

Kniep, Willard M. "Thematic Units: Revitalizing aTrusted Tool." The Clearing House. April 1979:388-394.

Kniep, Willard M. A Critical Review of the Short

'gigot). of Global Education Piepuong lot NeuOpportunities New York, NY Global Perspec-tives in Education, 1985.

Kniep, Willard M. "Defining A Global EducationBy Its Content." Social Education 50 (October1986): 437-445.

Morrissett, Irving. "Status of Social Studies- TheMid-1980s." Social Education 50 (April/ May1986): 303-310.

National Council for the Social Studies. "Revisionof the NCSS Social Studies CurriculumGuidelines "Social Education 43 (April 19791-261 -278.

National Council for the Social St Ud IPS Task Forceon Scope and Sequence. "In Search of a Scopeand sequence for Social Studies.- Social Educa-tion 48 (April 1984): 249-262.

Newmann, Fred M. "Priorities for the Future:Toward a Common Agenda." Social Education50 (April/May 1986). 240-250.

Reischauer, Edwin. Toward the ?1st Centro':Education for a Changing Ithr/d. New York:Knopf, 1973.

Willard M. Kniep is on leave fromArizona State Univeisit) in order to directa national teacher education project forGlobal Perspectives in Education.

Paul R. Hanna's Scope and SequenceJane Bernard Powers

I aul R. Hanna's contribution to our continuing conversa-lion about scope and sequence is significant by any stan-

dard of evaluation. Hanna mapped out a design for socialeducation that is reflected in elementary social studies to-day. Inspired by his reading of H. G. Wells and his own beliefthat "we are emerging out of nationhood into a global com-munity," Hanna formulated his ideas about scope and se-quence in the late 1920s and early 1930s as a faculty memberat Teacher's College, Columbia, and by doing consultingwork for Virginia elementary schools.'

Hanna conceptualized the scope of social studies as "ninecategories of basic human activities, . . . expressing, pro-ducing, transporting, communicating, educating, recreating,protecting, governing and creating."

He thought of the sequence of social studies as a seriesof expanding communities from the family to the global com-munity. "Everyone of us live simultaneously in all of thesecommunities: the family, the school, the neighborhood, thelocal, state, the regional, [and] the national," Hanna wrotein a 1965 article outlining his scope and sequence.2

Beyond the national, Harma believes, we all are membersof regional communities such as the Inter-American, theAtlantic, and the Pacific, and we are all citizens in a globalcommunity. Thus, schools generally and social studies pro-grams specifically must prepare students to function effec-tively and provide leadership in all these domains.

Hanna stated in a recent interview that a primary goal ofsocial studies is to educate future citizens "to improve thequality of life in each community." Learning to participateresponsibly in all our communities, but especially in theglobal community is, for Hanna, a critical need in today'sworld. We ought to prepare students who can "createorganizations to make it possible to live peaceably" on planetEarth.

According to Hanna, the creators of these organizationsand structures must be taught by teachers who have a goodliberal arts education that includes a strong emphasis onhistory. Preservice education for teachers must incorporatea solid foundation in the humanities and social sciences.They must know history, literature and philosophy. Educa-.tion in "pure pedagogy is not sufficient," for the teachers whowill provide intellectual leadership for future generations ofcitizens,

Notes' klartin Gill, "Paul R. Hanna: The Evolution of an Elementary S,k1,11S111,11t,T( ).1.

book Series'' (Ph D. dissertation. Nor dus ester n ersity, 1971). 38-ti32 Paul R Hanna, -Design for a Social Studies Program." in Pitt WI on the Su, rut

Studies, A Report from the Department of Elementary School Punt q,als. N Ilona.Education Association. 1965.

Other comments were recorded by Jane Bernard Powers in al! uners !eV. svthHanna on April 22, 1986. at his office in the Hums cr Institute, Stanford.

Jane Bernard Powers is a Supercisor of Student Teachers atSan Francisco State University.

542 SOCIAL EDUCATION November/December 19861.22

UReprinted by permission.

PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS AND RESOURCES

SOCIAL STUDIES ORGANIZATIONS

Our rapidly changing world and the knowledge explosion requires social studiesteachers to expand their perspectives with new information and additional skills.Accelerated political and economic change and growing global interdependence alsoincrease the concern ofindividuals and groups to heighten recognition of cultural diver-sity and economic wellbeing. All of this suggests agrowing need to develop additionalteaching skills and sources of knowledge. This part of the document will help educatorsto become aware of several resources for professional growth. Many of these organizationsalso provide information and materials for classroom use.

National Council for the Social Studies3501 Newark Street NorthwestWashington, D.C. 20016

The social studies educator would do well to first contact the National Council for theSocial Studies (NCSS), the major national organization for social studies educators.The NCSS is an umbrella organization for elementary and secondary classroomteachers, social studies curriculum leaders and supervisors,and college and universityfaculty in social studies education and the social science disciplines. Each year (usuallyin November) the NCSS sponsors an annual conference that attracts thousands ofsocial studies educators from around the world. In addition, NCSS helps to sponsorseveral regional conferences each year at various sites inthe United States. The NCSShas a strong publications program, which includes a journal, Social Education, and anewsletter, The Social Studies Professional, botA. with articles related to social studiescurriculum and instruction as well as other concerns of social studies educators. TheCollege and University Faculty Association of the NCSS publishes a quarterly, Theoryand Research in Social Education. Several bulletins on important issues in socialstudies and other timely publications are available to i members on a regular basis.

National Commission on Social StudiesIn the Schools

3440 Ordway Street NorthwestWashington, D.C. 20016

This commission is a joint project of the American Historical Association, the CarnegieFoundation for the Advancement of Teaching, National Council for Social Studies, andthe Organization of American Historians. The commission's report is "Charting aCourse: Social Studies for the 21st Century."

This report contains characteristics of a social studies curriculum for the 21st century,preamble and goals, a recommended curricular scope and sequence, and eight essayslinking the social sciences and history of social studies education.

124 141

ERIC Clearinghouse for the Social Studies/SocialScience Education (ERIC/CheSS)

2805 East Tenth StreetBloomington, IN 47405

Social Science Education Consortium3300 Mitchell Lane, Suite 240Boulder, CO 80301

Two other sources for general social studies information are the Social ScienceEducation Consortium and the Educational Resources Information Center Clearinghousefor Social Studies/Social Science Education (ERIC/CheSS). The consortium is ancnprofit educational organization of social scientists and social studies eemators andprovides both services and publications: The SECC Newsletter and the Social StudiesCurriculum Data Book. The latter provides a somewhat detailed analysis of currentsocial studies materials and products.

ERIC/CheSS is invaluable as a clearinghouse for the most current published andunpublished materials (documents, guides, units, project reports, and research) insocial studies. The clearinghouse publishes two indexes,Resources in Education (RIE),and Current Index to Journals in Education (CIJE), as guides to available socialstudies and other educational materials. The indexes are located at many colleges anduniversity libraries. Many of the resources listed in RIE are available on microfiche orcan be obtained through interlibrary loan arrangements. Educators working oncurriculum or developing new instructional units may want to initiate their efforts byconsulting these sources to learn about current trends and practices in the field.

ECONOMICS

Joint Council on Economic Education432 Park Avenue SouthNew York, NY 10016

American Economic Association1313 TwentyFirst Avenue SouthNashville, TN 37212

Foundation for Teaching Economics550 Kearny Street, Suite 1000San Francisco, CA 94108

Minnesota Council on Economic EducationUniversity of Minnesota1169 Management and Economics BuildingMinneapolis, MN 55455

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Social studies teachers with a special interest in economics should contact the JointCouncil on Economic Education (JCEE), an independent, nonprofit, nonpartisanorganization. The JCEE was organized in 1949 to improve economic education and toserve as a clearinghouse for economic education information. The JCEE lias an exten-sive publication program that provides numerous resource materials for Leachers. Forexample, Part I of the Master Curriculum Guide in Economics is intended to help teach-ers integrate important economic concents into the curriculum. Part II of the guideconsists of teaching strategies design ad for uoe at the primary level (grades 1-3); inter-mediate level (grades 4-6); junior high level (grades 7-9); and at the secondary levelin world studies, United States history, basic business and consumer education, anda capstone course in economics. The guides were developed by economic educators andeconomists for the JCEE. All of the teaching strategies have been field tested and willenhance the economic content of the curriculum. At present there are 50 state councilsand 275 teacher training centers for economic education affiliated with the JCEE.

Educators wanting to have access to the latest information on economic educationpublications should contact the JCEE and request to have their names placed on themailing list for Checklist, an annotated listing of currently available JCEE publications.Checklist is published twice yearly. Each quarter the JCEE publishes the Journal ofEconomic Education. In addition, the JCEE is in the process of developing a varietyof computer software programs to assist students to learn more about economicconcepts and enhance their decision-making skills. These efforts will help to meet thedemand for quality computer programs and will introduce students and teachers tomicrocomputers and selected economic concepts and skills.

GEOGRAPHY

American Geographical SocietyBroadway at 156th StreetNew York, NY 10032

Association of American Geographers1710 Sixteenth Street NorthwestWashington, D.C. 20009

The.National Council for Geographic Education1-B Leonard HallIndiana, PA 15705

Educators who wish to focus on geographic education have three influential nationalgeographic associations: The American Geographical Society (AGS), the Associationof American Geographers (AAG), and the National Council for Geographic Education(NCGE). Each organization has a fairly extensive publication program. For example,the latter two associations recently published Guideli. ?s for Geographic EducationElementary and Secondary Schools, which identifies several grade-level geographicconcepts and suggests geographic learnir g outcomes for students. Copies of these

Guidelines for Geographic Education are available for either the AAG or NCGE for anominal cost.

The NCGE published the Journal of Geography and has teaching and curriculummonographs of interest to educators at several grade levels; it also conducts an annualmeeting in various locations in the United States, Canada, and the Caribbean. Foreducators, the AGS publishes Focus several times each year, with an emphasis on aparticular country or topic from a geographical perspective. The AGS also publishesten times each year Current Geographical Publications, an annotated bibliography ofnew information or resources of interest to geographic educators.

Minnesota Geography AllianceMacalester College1600 Grand AvenueSt. Paul, MN 55105

This alliance publishes a quarterly school year newsletter and classroom teacher andstudent materials. The Alliance also conducts a summer institute for elementary andsecondary teachers as well as regional geographic workshops and sitebased inservice.

HISTORY

The American Historical Association400 A Street SoutheastWashington, D.C. 20003

Organization of American Historians112 North Bryan StreetBloomington, IN 47408

Society for History EducationDepartment of HistoryCalifornia State University1250 Bellflower BoulevardLong Beach, CA 90840

National Council for History Education, Inc.26915 Westwood Road, Suite A-2Westlake, OH 44145

History teachers have the opportunity to join one or more professional associations forhistorians: the American Historical Association (AHA), the Organization of AmericanHistorians (OAH), and the Society for History Education (SHA). All three associationshave a publications program, with some materials written especially for precollegiatehistory teachers. At their annual meetings, both the AHA and OAH frequently havesectional meetings of special interest to high school history teachers.

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Among the publications of the AHA are the The American Historical Review, AHAPerspectives (a newsletter), pamphlets on historical subjects, and two bibliographicseries, Writings on American History and Recently Published Articles. The AHAmaintains contact with several historical societies and offers several prizes and awardseach year.

The OAH publishes the Journal of American History and a variety of special topicsstudies. The Association provides scholarships to help defray expenses for secondaryteachers to attend the annual meeting and soon will initiate the OAK Magazine ofHistory, especially written for secondary teachers. Both associations have publishedguidelines concerning the preparation of history teachers.

Bradley Commission on History in Schools24898 Fawn DriveNorth Olmsted, OH 44070

The commission developed a report, "Building a History Curriculum: Guidelines forTeaching History in Schools."

The report identifies themes and narratives, habits ofthe mind and topics forAmericanand world history and western civilization. It also suggests an elementary andsecondary scope and sequence.

BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

American Anthropological Association1703 New Hampshire Avenue NorthwestWashington, D.C. 20009

American Psychological Association1200 Seventeenth Street NorthwestWashington, D.C. 20036

American Sociological AssociationExecutive Office1722 North Street NorthwestWashington, D.C. 2e036

Educators interested in the behavioral sciences may want to join either the AmericanAnthropological Association (AAA), the American Psychological Association (APA), orthe American Sociological Association (ASA). Like other professional associations,each sponsors an annual program, with some sectionals of particular interest tosecondary educators. The publications program for each of these organizations varies.For example, the APA publishes a newsletter for precollegiate educators. The journalTeaching Sociology may be of interest to sociology teachers.

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POLITICAL SCIENCE

American Political Science Association1527 New Hampshire Avenue NorthwestWashington, D.C. 20036

Political science and government teachers mai have a particular interest in theAmerican Political Science Association, which publishes The American PoliticalScience Review. Teachers focusing on lawrelated education may want to contact thefollowing organizations which publish lawrelated curriculum materials: Law in aFree Society Project, the Constitutional Rights Foundation, the National Center forLawfocused Education, the American Bar Association, and the Minnesota BarAssociation. These organizations may be willing to provide consultant assistance forcurriculum development.

SPECIALIZED SOURCES

Numerous specialized sources for information exist that may be of particular interestto social studies teachers. (This listing is not intended to be all inclusive.) Teachersare encouraged to contact these sources for information and materials related to thesetopics. In some cases, there may a charge for materials.

ASSESSMENT INFORMATION

National Assessment for Educational ProgressRosedale RoadPrinceton, NJ 08541

CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION

American Bar Association1155 East 60th StreetChicago, IL 60637

This association can provide materials and human resources on lawrelated education.

American Civil Liberties Union22 East 40th StreetNew York, NY 10016

The ACLU provides teachers with various materials related to the defense of civilliberties.

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C-Span400 North Capitol Street SouthwestWashington, D.C. 20001

Develops teacher and student print and video materials for use with cable TV and videoprograms.

Center for Civic Education5146 Douglas Fir RoadCalabasas, CA 91302

CCE produces elementary and secondary teacher and student materials to improvecitizen education.

Close Up Foundation1236 Jefferson Davis HighwayArlington, VA 22202

The Close Up Foundation publishes annual editions of Perspectives and Current Issuesas well as CSpan video programs Close Up is one sponsor of the Wisconsin StudentCaucus and conducts annual teacherstudent seminars in Washington, D.C.

Constitutional Rights Foundation609 South Grand Avenue, Suite 1012Los Angeles, CA 90017

The materials from this organization can involve students in community affairsthrough an actual participation in the legal system.

Constitutional Rights Foundation has produced a variety of social studies materialsand publishes The Bill of Rights Newsletter semiannually. Classroom sets areavailable at nominal costs.

Mershon CenterCitizenship Development and Global Education ProgramOhio State University199 West 19th AvenueColumbus, OH 43201

The Mershon Center can help in the location and development of materials oncitizenship education.

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ECONOMICS

American Federation of Labor and Congress ofIndustrial Organizations

815 Sixteenth Street NorthwestWashington, D.C. 20036

The AFL-CIO has a variety of materials available to teachers related to the role of laborin American history and in the economic development of our country.

National Center of Economic Education for ChildrenLesley College35 Mellen StreetCambridge, MA 02138

The National Center encourages the study of eccnomics by elementary studentsthrough providing methods of using economic information in decision making. TheCenter publishes The Elementary Economists which allows teachers a forum regardingeconomic education activities at the pre-K-6 grade levels. Other materials have beenpublished and several others are in preparation.

ETHNIC STUDIES

Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith823 United Nations PlazaNew York, NY 10017

This group has extensive publications and media programs of interest to teachers andstudents, and provides conferences and programs related to prejudice, racism, anddiscrimination. The ADL is concerned with combating discrimination against minoritiesand in promoting intercultural understanding and cooperation among religious faiths.

Japanese American Curriculum Project, Inc.414 East Third AvenueSan Mateo, CA 94401

The JACP has a variety of educational materials for elementary and secondarystudents which include folktales, dolls, and media, on several Asian ethnic groups.JACP develops and disseminates Asian American curriculum materials.

National Association of Interdisciplinary Ethnic StudiesGretchen Bataille1861 RosemontClaremont, CA 91711

The NAIES sponsors an annual conference and publishes Exploration with articles onethnic groups, Explorations in Sight and Sound, which reviews media related to ethnicstudies, and a newsletter several times each year.

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FUTURE STUDIES

World Future Society4916 St. ElmoBethesda, MD 20814

For teachers interested in teaching about the future, the World Future Society shouldbe of particular interest. The nonprofit scientific and educational association isindependent, nonpolitical, and nonideological. Basically, the society serves as aclearinghouse for forecasts, investigations, and exploration of the future. It publishesa bimonthly journal, The Futurist, and books related to the future. In addition,members can purchase futureoriented print materials and tape recordings coveringa variety of topics. The society also conducts an annual meeting.

GENDER. ISSUES

National Organization for Women5 South Wabash, Suite 1615Chicago, IL 60603

NOW publishes materials, including annotated bibliographies, and ideas for incorporatingwomen into the social studies curriculum and for dealing with gender issues whereverthey exist in the school.

Social Studies Development Center2805 East Tenth StreetBloomington, IN 47405

The Social Studies Development Center provides programs on the research, developmentof instructional materials, diffusion of innovative practices and ideas, and promotionof cooperation among groups with resources and skills to improve social studieseducation. Sample materials are available for a small price to cover the cost of handlingthe materials.

Women in World Area Studies6300 Walker StreetSt. Louis Park, MN 55416

This center produces teacher and student materials for integration into all socialstudies topics and also produces inservice training.

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GOVERNMENT AGENCIES

United Nations Sales SectionRoom LX 2300United NationsNew York, NY 10017

This agency has a list of permanent missions to the United Nations and catalogues ofU.N. publications and reports.

Superintendent of DocumentsU.S. Government Printing OfficeWashington, D.C. 20402

Publishes and distributes materials published by the United States government.

POLITICAL PROCESSES

League of Women Voters1730 M Street NorthwestWashington, D.C. 20036

Local chapters sponsore programs related to major issues involving the politicalprocess and seek to increase informed citizen participation at all levels of government.A variety of educational materials are also available for use by social studies teachersand students.

Taft Institute for TwoParty Government420 Lexington AvenueNew York, NY 10170

The Taft Institute has 30 prizewinning lesson plans for sale on American governmentfor K-12 teachers designed by teachers active in politics. The Institute also offersseveral summer seminars at several locations throughout the United States forinterested teachers.

POPULATION EDUCATION

Population Reference Bureau1755 Massachusetts Avenue NorthwestWashington, D.C. 20036

The Bureau has population data available concerning population growth and providesvarious instructional materials on this topic.

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Population Council245 Park AvenueNew York, NY 10019

This council has a variety of resource materials and population data available foreducators for classroom use.

WORLD AFFAIRS /GLOBAL CONNECTION

African-American Institnte866 United Nations PlazaNew York, NY 10017

The AAI seeks to facilitate and improve teaching about Africa in both elementary andsecondary schools through its publications, materials collection, and provisions forconferences, professional development, and assistance to local districts.

The Arms Control Association11 Dupont Circle NorthwestWashington, D.C. 20036

The Arms Control Association can provide curriculum guides and materials on thewhole range of issues dealing with arms control.

Asia Society, Inc.Education Department725 Park AvenueNew York, NY 10021

The Society publishes materials, offers support programs and workshops, and evaluatespre-college materials on Asia. It also publishes the periodical Focus on Asia to deepenAmerican understanding of Asia.

Atlantic Information Center for Teachers1616 H Street NorthwestWashington, D.C. 20036

This non-profit international educational project seeks to encourage the study of worldaffairs. It facilitates contact between social studies teachers in the United States andEurope through workshops, seminars, conferences, and publications.

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Center for Asian StudiesUniversity of Illinois1208 West California AvenueUrbana, IL 61801

This Center sponsors lectures, conferences, and materials on East Asia. It alsomaintains a collection of K-12 instructional materials plus lists of films available forrent from the University of Illinois. In addition, the Center coproduces Update, anewsletter of services provided by the African, Asian, Latin American, and RussianStudies Centers' outreach programs at the University of Illinois.

Center for Latin American StudiesP.O. Box 413University of WisconsinMilwaukeeMilwaukee, WI 53201

This Center has a variety of free loan films, filmstrips, and videotapes for use in theclassroom. It also serves as a clearinghouse for materials and resources on LatinAmerica. Members of the Center are willing to make presentations at professionalmeetings and to provide consultant services to teachers. They publish a newsletter andhave a modest collection of resources on Latin America.

Center for Teaching International RelationsUniversity of DenverGraduate School of International StudiesDenver, CO 80210

The CTIR develops precollege global awareness educational materials on varioustopics such as world culture, ethnic heritage, and Latin America related to the socialstudies. For a list of current materials and resources, teachers should contact theCenter directly.

Educators for Social Responsibility23 Garden StreetCambridge, MA 02138

The ESR provides programs and publications (curricula, bibliographies, and activities)on the topic of war and peace.

Foreign Policy Association205 Lexington AvenueNew York, NY 10016

The FPA provides programs and materials on all areas of American foreign policy,including the Great Decisions booklet. The private nonpartisan organization seeks tocreate informed, thoughtful, and articulate public opinion on major foreign policytopics and issues.

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Global Education CenterUniversity of Minnesota110 Pattee Hall150 Pillsbury Drive, SoutheastMinneapolis, MN 55455

Tie American Forum(Global Perspectives in Education, Inc.)45 John Street, Suite 1200New York, NY 10038

This organization provides student and teacher materials and sponsors programs onthe several topics and issues in global studies. It also publishes Access which includesuseful lessons and activities for classroom teachers at all grade levels.

Global Studies Resource Center6300 Walker StreetSt. Louis Park, MN 55416

This center provides on and off site staff and curriculum development and containsclassroom material for review on site.

Middle East Institute1761 North Street NorthwestWashington, D.C. 20036

The Institute strives to promote a better understanding between peoples of the UnitedStates and the Middle Eastern countries through conferences, seminars, study groups,exhibits, and publications. Its film library has films available on the contemporaryMiddle East for modest rental prices.

Organization of American States19th and Constitution AvenuesWashington, D.C. 20006

The OAS publishes extensive materials covering various activities about the Americanstates, their background, and their achievements. A catalogue of publications isavailable upon request.

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PUBLICATIONS

Phi Delta KappanEighth & UnionP.O. Box 789Bloomington, IN 47402

Social EducationNational Council for the Social Studies3501 Newark Street NorthwestWashington, D.C. 20016

The Social StudiesHeldref Publications400 Albermarle Street, NorthwestWashington, D.C. 20016

Teaching Political ScienceSAGE PublicationsP.O. Box 776Beverly Hills, CA 90210

Teaching SociologySAGE PublicationsP.O. Box 776Beverly Hills, CA 90210

Educational LeadershipAssociation of Supervisors and Curriculum Developers125 Northwest StreetAlexandria, VA 22314-2798

Teaching MaterialsSocial Studies School Service10200 Jefferson BoulevardP.O. Box 802Culver City, CA 90232

This organization will send a comprehensive catalog of materials for classroom use.

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This publication is available from: The Minnesota Curriculum ServicesCenter which is supported by the State of Minnesota Department ofEducation. The MCSC does not discriminate on the basis of race, color,creed, religion, sex, national origin, marital status, status with regard to publicassistance or disability.

Minnesota Curriculum Services CenterCapitol View 70 Co. Rd. B-2 W Little Canada MN 55117

(612) 483-4442 1-800-652-9024

E727 $5.50 / $8.00

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