Smith - Plato and Aristotle on the Nature of Women

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Journal of the History of Philosophy, Volume 21, Number 4, October

1983, pp. 467-478 (Article)

DOI: 10.1353/hph.1983.0090

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P l a to a n d r i s t o t l e

o n t h e N a t u r e o f W o m e n

N ICH O L A S D . SMIT H

hN ThE Republic Plato ar gues that wom en (at leas t those in the up per classes ~)

must be ass igned social ro les in the ideal s tate equal (or approximat&) to those

of men . Only o ne gene ra t ion l a t e r Ar i s to tl e , in h is

Politics

r e t u rn s w o men t o

the i r t rad i t iona l ro les in the home, subser v ing men . P lato 's pos i t ion in the

Republic is based up on h is v iew tha t women an d men have the same na tu r e in

respec t to the gu ard i ansh i p o f the s t a te , save insofar as the one is weaker an d

the o the r is s t r ong er '~ (456A). Nat ur e provide s no such equal i ty in Aris tot le;

in the Politics he f latly declares , as regard s the sexes , the male is by nat ure

super io r and the female in fer io r , the male ru le r and the female sub jec t '4

(1 2 5 4 b 1 3 -1 4 ) .

Othe r d ia logues o f h i s midd l e per iod supp or t the v iew tha t P la to was a

sexual egal i t ar ian: 5 the

Meno

for example, ass igns the same vi r tues to

i am indebted to David Keyt, Charles M. Reed, Carol White, Julie Murphy, George Lucas,

and the editors of this journa l for their criticisms of various drafts of this paper, and to Gregory

Vlasms for first arousing my interest in this topic and for making numerous suggestions that

have helped clarify my thinking about it. I am also indebted to the National Endowment for the

Humanities and the Center for Programs in the Humanities at Virginia Polytechnic Insti tute

and State University for their help in funding this research.

' Plato says nothing about the women of the artisan class in this regard, though he may

view his prescriptions as having full generality.

On the specifics of this qualification, more below.

:~ This and all other translations of the Republicare by P. Shorey.

4 This and all other translations of the

Politics

are by H. Rackham.

5 I use the term sexual egalitarian with some trepidation, given the various ways in

which Plato qualifies his relevant prescriptions. Similarly, terms like feminist and male chau-

vinist, so frequently employed by scholars in this discussion, are arguably anachronistic over-

simplifications, at best, given the cultural and temporal gaps between our culture and that of

classical Athens. Finally, I shall not refer to Plato's emancipation of women at all, since that

appears to be inaccurate as well as anachronistic: there's little freedom given to anyone in Plato's

state, and his making women roughly equal to men merely allows them to share the same quite

high degree of non-freedom in their civic roles.

[467]


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468

J OURNA L OF THE HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY

~: 4 oc t ~983

women as to men (73 A ff.), and Aristophanes' speech in the Symposium

provides women with a genetic and biological status equal to that of men

(lo9A ft.), a status never disputed as such elsewhere in the dialogue. Aristo-

tle, on the other hand, plainly distinguishes manly from womanly virtues

Pol . 126oa2o ft.), and sees biology as demon strat ing that the g eneration of

the female is no better than t hat of a mutila ted male D.G.A. 737a28), a

reproductive failure the same in kind, though of a lesser degree, as those

that result in (other) monstrosities D. G. A . 767b6-9 ff.). Because of such

differences in their views, Plato has lately been celebrated by some as, for

example, one of the few notable exceptions in our long history of sexism, ~

whereas Aristotle has been angrily dismissed as a dan gerous chauvinist. '7

Too little attention, however, has been paid to what is common to Plato's

and Aristotle's views. Both apply the same principle as their warrant for

what t urn out to be wholly incompa tible policies: both proclaim that justice

will only be served where social roles are assigned in strict accordance with

nature. Hence, the root of Plato's and Aristotle's divergent social prescrip-

tions concerning women is to be found in their conceptions of female na-

ture; for if nature were to provide a difference between male and female

that is relevant to the assignment of social roles, both would be committed to

discriminating on the basis of sex. Plato does not find such a difference;

Aristotle does.

In the following discussion, I shall clarify this disagreeme nt by reviewing

the relevant differences between Plato's and Aristotle's views of human na-

ture. First, I shall consider the war ran t Plato finds in nature for his prescrip-

tions on women in the Republic; then I shall show how attempts by other

scholars, to explain the motive source of Plato's view as lying elsewhere, fail.

Turning next to Aristotle, I shall argue that though biology has an impor-

tant effect on his conception of female nature, the connection between biol-

ogy a nd the specific grou nd he claims as justification for his view of wo men

in the Politics has never sufficiently been explored . I shall concl ude in each

case that the biological views of Plato and Aristotle are not the essential ones

in this debate. Rather, I shall show that the crucial difference between the

two, u po n which all of the ot her differences are f ou nd ed, lies in their differ-

ent theories of the soul.

Plato thinks that social roles ought to be assigned according to each individ-

ual's nature. The explicit method of determining social roles in the Republic,

~i William Jacobs, Plato on Emanci pati on and the Tradit ional Family, A p e i r o n 2 0978),

p. 29.

7 Peter Tum uhy, Aristotle, Feminism and Natural Law Theory,

T h e N e w S c h o l a s t i c i s m

55

(,981), p. 45 I.


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T H E N A T U R E O F W O M E N 4 6 9

o f w h i c h w e a r e f r e q u e n t l y r e m i n d e d , c o n c e r n s i n s u r i n g t h a t e a c h p e r s o n i n

t h e s ta t e b e g i v e n t h a t o n e a n d o n l y o n e j o b t o w h i c h h is o r h e r n a t u r e is b e s t

s u i t e d ( e. g . a t 4 3 3 D , w h e r e w o m e n a r e i n c l u d e d u n d e r t h i s g e n e r a l f o r m u l a ,

a s w e ll a s a t 4 4 9 C - 4 5 7 C , w h e r e s o m e o f t h e d e t a i l s o f th e i r e q u a l r o l e s w i t h

m e n a r e g i v e n ) . I n d e e d , i t is t h is p r i n c i p l e t h a t P l a t o id e n t i f ie s a s th e s o u r c e

o f j u s t i c e i n t h e s t a te ( 4 3 9 B - 4 3 4 C , e s p e c i a l l y 4 3 3 A ) .

B u t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f th i s p r i n c i p l e t o w o m e n i n s u c h a w a y a s t o g a i n

t h e o u t c o m e t h a t t h e y m u s t a c q u i re a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u a l s t a t u s t o m e n is

h a r d l y w h a t w e w o u l d e x p e c t f r o m a n a n c i e n t A t h e n i a n . T h o u g h i n t h e

h i g h l y e m o t i o n a l r h e t o r i c o f m u c h o f t h e r e c e n t l i t e r a t u r e , t h e i n f e r i o r

s t a tu s o f w o m e n t o th a t o f m e n i n A t h e n s h a s s o m e t i m e s b e e n o v e r s t a t e d , 8

s ti l l n o s u c h s e x u a l e g a l i t a r i a n i s m a s w e f i n d i n P l a to is t o b e f o u n d i n

e i t h e r t h e p r a c t i c e s o r t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f h i s d a y , e x c e p t i n t h e t o p s y - t u r v y

w o r l d o f A r i s t o p h a n i c c o m e d y , 9 w h e r e i ts a p p e a r a n c e is m o r e l ik e ly to

r e f le c t a c u l t u r a l b i as a g a i n s t i t t h a n i n i ts fa v o r . P l a t o h i m s e l f r e c o g n i z e s

t h e e x t r e m e n o v e l t y o f hi s v i e w b y l a b e l l i n g it o n e o f h is t h r e e w a v e s o f

p a r a d o x ( 4 5 7 C ) .

M o r e o v e r , i t is a l so t r u e t h a t P l a t o is g i v e n t o f r e q u e n t s l u r s a g a i n s t

w o m e n a n d w h a t h e d i s p a r a g i n g l y ca ll s w o m a n i s h b e h a v i o r ( e .g . a t 4 6 9 D ) .

T h i s , t o g e t h e r w i th t h e c u l t u r a l i m p r o b a b i l i t y o f h is e g a l i ta r i a n a r g u m e n t s ,

h a s b e e n t a k e n a s d e c i s iv e e v i d e n c e t h a t P l a t o 's p o s i t i o n is n o t t o b e t a k e n

s e r io u s l y o r ha s a p u r e l y r h e t o r i c a l c h a r a c t e r . ' A l l an B l o o m , f o r e x a m p l e ,

d i s m i s s e s a l l o f B o o k V a s a k i n d o f c o m e d y , a n d c o n c l u d e s t h a t i t is h i g h l y

i m p r o b a b l e t h a t a n y w o m a n w o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d f o r m e m b e r s h i p i n t h e

h i g h e r c la ss es . ' ' ' ' S im i l a r ly , A r l e n e S a x o n h o u s e s ay s t h a t sh e c a n n o t a c c e p t

t h e v i e w t h a t S o c r a t e s w i sh e s to e m a n c i p a t e t h e A t h e n i a n w o m a n . ' ' '~ I n s t e a d ,

s h e u r g e s t h a t B o o k V s h o w s n o t a n a t t e m p t t o p r e s c r i b e a c c o r d i n g t o n a -

t u r e , b u t r a t h e r t h e r e v e r s e : . . . i t s h o w s a n a t t e m p t t o d e s t r o y t h e n a t u r a l

Cf . Jo hn Go uld, Law, Custom a nd My th: Aspects of the Socia l Posit ion o f W om en,

Journal of Hellenic Studies

loo (x98o), pp. 38 ff. , for a balanced assessment and replies to many

of the more excessive claims,

Cf. Aris tophanes ' Lysistrata, and especially his Ecclesiazousae, for examples. It is som etimes

c l ai med t ha t Eur i p i des and even Sophoc le s show an un t rad i t iona l d egree o f symp a t hy for

women's unequal posi t ion in Athens, but I see l i t t le support in this for Zeller 's surprising claim

t ha t the re was a mo vem ent fo r t he emanc i pa t i on of women i n t he la st t h i rd o f t he 5 th

ce n t ur y . . . (C f. Edu a rd Ze lle r, Outlines o f the H istory of Greek Philosophy, t rans. L. R. Palmer

(New Y ork, 1957), p. lo7. )

~o Cf. Allan Bloo m , The Republic of Plato (New York , 1968 ) ; Ar l ene W. Saxonho use , Th e

Phi losopher and the Female in the Pol i t i ca l Thought of Pla to,

Political Theo ry

4 (1976), pp- 195

ft . ; Sarah Po me roy, Fem inism in Book V of Plato 's Republic, Apeiron 8 0974) , PP. 33 f t . , for

examples . Th e sam e view i s a t least suggested by Do rothea W ende r , Plato: Mysogynis t, Paedo-

phile, and Feminist, Arethusa 6 (1973), p p. 75 ft .

B l oom,

Repub lic of Plato,

p. 383 .

'~ Saxo nhou se , Phi loso pher and the Female , p . 196.


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4 7 ~ JOURN L OF THE HISTOR Y OF PHILOSOPH Y ~ : 4 O C T ~ 9 8 3

o r p h u s i s . . . . T h a t S o c r a t e s m u s t so p e r v e r t t h e n a t u r a l i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e

t h e b e s t p o l i t ic a l s y s t e m m u s t r a i s e d o u b t s a b o u t i ts v a l u e . ' ' '3

O f c o u r s e , a s f o l lo w e r s o f th e i n t e r p r e t i v e m e t h o d s o f L e o S t ra u s s , B l o o m

a n d S a x o n h o u s e h a v e s p e ci al m o t iv e s f o r s o a b a n d o n i n g P la to 's a r g u m e n t s ,

a n d s o i t w o u l d b e p o i n t l e s s to a t t e m p t t o r e f u t e t h e i r v i ew s b y a n a p p e a l t o

t h e t e x t t h e y a re m e t h o d o l o g i c a l l y c o m m i t t e d t o d i sb e l i e ve . B u t f o r t h o s e o f

u s w i t h o u t s u c h p r e c o n c e p t i o n s , i t m u s t b e n o t e d t h a t P l a t o d o e s i n d e e d

o f f e r a r g u m e n t s f o r h is p r e s c r i p t io n s , a n d t h a t t h e s e a r e b y a n d l a r g e g o o d

o n e s . I n d e e d , t h e y a r e r o u g h l y t h e s a m e a s w e n o w o f f e r in f a v o r o f f e m i n -

i sm : P l a t o sa ys t h a t t h e o n l y n a t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n m a l e a n d f e m a l e

a r e p h y si c al s t r e n g t h ( 4 5 6 A ) a n d t h a t th e w o m a n b e a r s c h i l d r e n , w h e r e a s t h e

m a n o n l y b e g e ts t h e m ( 4 5 4 D - E ) . L i k e P la to , w e a r e d i s in c l in e d t o b e l ie v e

t h a t t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e r e l e v a n t t o t h e c a p a c i t y f o r p o l i ti c al o f f i c e o r c i vi c

r e s p on s i b il i t y . S i n c e P l at o 's a r g u m e n t s a r e g e n e r a l l y s o u n d o n e s o n t h i s

p o i n t , a n d s i nc e , a s I sh a ll s u b s e q u e n t l y s h o w , t h e y d o i n f a c t a c c o r d w i t h h i s

v i ew o f n a t u r e a s it a p p l i e s t o t h e a s s i g n m e n t o f s o ci al ro l e s , i t s e e m s a p p r o -

p r i a t e n o t t o s u p p o s e t h a t h e is s o m e h o w l es s t h a n e n t i r e l y s in c e r e .

B u t d o n ' t th e s ex is t s lu r s u n d e r m i n e t h e a r g u m e n t s ? N o ; a t m o s t t h e y

s h o w t h a t P l a t o is n o t t h e p e r f e c t m a s t e r o f h is o w n m e s s a g e , b u t t hi s s h o u l d

n o t s u r p r i s e u s. W h e r e s u c h s lu r s a r e a p a r t o f o n e ' s e v e r y d a y e n v i r o n m e n t

a n d in t h e c o m m o n p a r l a n c e o f t he d a y , e v e n th e m o s t p r i n c ip l e d f e m i n i s t

m i g h t w e l l l a p se i n t o t h e m t h o u g h t l es s l y . T h i s is c o m m o n e n o u g h i n o u r

o w n d a y , a n d P l a t o ' s c u l t u r e w a s a g r e a t d e a l le s s s e n s i t i z e d t o s u c h i s su e s

t h a n o u r o w n . F o r t h a t m a t t e r , e v e n i f w e s u p p o s e d t h a t su c h s lu r s a r e

s e l f - c o n s c i o u s o n P l a to ' s p a r t , t h e y w o u l d n o t s h o w t h a t h e w as in s i n c e r e in

h i s a d v o c a c y o f s e x u a l e g a l i t a r i a n i s m . F o r o n e t h i n g , h e m i g h t w e l l t h i n k i ll

o f th e c o n t e m p o r a r y A t h e n i a n w o m a n , b r e d a n d r a is e d as s h e w as in w ay s

t h a t c o n d e m n e d h e r t o t h e tr a i ts P la to d e p lo r e s . A n y n u m b e r o f c o n t e m p o -

r a r y f e m i n is t s f i n d t r a d i ti o n a l ly f e m i n i n e h a b it s a n d c h a r a c te r i st i cs d e g r a d -

i n g . I t w o u l d b e a l l t o o e a s y t o r e f e r t o t h e s e i n w a y s t h a t l o o k e d t o a n

e n l i g h t e n e d a u d i e n c e l i ke b r o a d s l a n d e r s t o a ll w o m a n k i n d . B u t e v e n i f P l a to

w e r e a c o m m i t t e d m i s o g y n i s t i n g e n e r a l , h e c o u l d s ti l l c o n s i st e n tl y a d v o c a t e

e q u a l i ty a t le a st i n s o f a r as t h a t i n vo l v e s t h e e n d o r s e m e n t o f e q u a l o p p o r t u -

n i t y a n d s t a t u s i n p o l it i c a l a n d s o c ia l p r o c e s s e s . I d o n o t h a v e t o l i k e o r

r e s p e c t s o m e o n e t o t h i n k t h a t s h e d e s e r v e s r i g h t s e q u a l t o m i n e . ,4 I n d e e d , i t

is p r o f o u n d l y t o b e h o p e d t h a t a ll o f u s a r e p r e p a r e d t o s e t a s id e o u r p r i v a t e

t a st e s f o r t h e m o r a l , s o ci al , a n d p o l it ic a l v a l u e s th a t m u s t t r a n s c e n d t h e m . O f

P l a t o l ea s t o f a ll s h o u l d w e e x p e c t o t h e r w i s e .

'~ Ibid., p. 211 .

,4 Th is point is exp lore d in som e detail in Wender's essay.


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T H E N T U RE O F W O ME N 47

M o r e m o d e r a t e v ie w s h a v e a l so b e e n o f f e r e d f o r t h e a p p a r e n t t e n s i o n i n

P l a t o 's p o s i t i o n . S u s a n M o i l e r O k i n , f o r e x a m p l e , b e l i e v e s t h a t P l a t o w a s

f o r c e d ( s o m e w h a t t o hi s c h a g r i n ) t o r e g a r d w o m e n a s e q u a l s b y h is a b o l i t i o n

o f t h e p r i v a t e h o u s e h o l d , w h i c h t h u s s w e p t aw a y t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l so c ia l

r o le s . '5 B u t t h e a b o l i t io n o f t h e p r i v a t e f a m i l y n o m o r e e n t a il s e q u a l r i g h t s

f o r w o m e n t h a n d o e s t h e a b o l i t i o n o f p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y e n ta i l e q u a l r ig h t s f o r

w h a t h a d b e e n m a t e r i a l p o s s e s si o n s . P l a to c o u l d as e a s il y ( a n d p e r h a p s m o r e

p l au s ib l y , b y c o n t e m p o r a r y A t h e n i a n s t a n d a r d s ) h a v e as s i g n e d w o m e n t o

m a l e g u a r d i a n s in m u c h t h e s a m e w a y in w h ic h t h e l a tt e r w e r e a s s ig n e d

m a t e r i a l g o o d s , p r o v i d i n g t h e w o m e n r o le s o n l y a s b r e e d i n g p a r t n e r s a n d

n u r s e - m a i d s , w i t h o u t g r a n t i n g t h e m p o li t i c al p o w e r s . '6

O t h e r s a r g u e t h a t P l a to ' s p o s i t i o n i s r e a l l y a n i n h e r i t a n c e f r o m S o c r a t e s , Iv

w h o r e s i s t ed t h e t r a d i t i o n a l i 'e l a ti v iz i n g o f v i r t u e s a c c o r d i n g t o s e x, a g e , o r

c l a s s

M e n o

7 3 A f t. ). B u t t h o u g h S o c r a t e s m a y w e ll d e s e r v e s o m e c r e d i t a s a n

i n f l u e n c e , t h e e v i d e n c e c it e d s h o w s n o m o r e t h a n a fi rs t s t e p t o w a r d s t h e

P l a t o n ic v i e w ; n o t h i n g S o c r a t ic e v e n a p p r o a c h e s t h e s pe c if ic i ty a n d s u b s t a n c e

o f B o o k V o f th e

R e p u b l i c .

I n f ac t , t h e a r g u m e n t in t he

M e n o

c i t e d a s e v i -

d e n c e f o r t h e S o c r a t ic a n t i c i p a t i o n o f P l a to ' s v ie w is d e s i g n e d t o a t t a c k t h e

r e l a t i o n o f a v i r t u e t o so c i al f u n c t i o n o r s t a tu s , a r e l a t i o n t h a t a t l e a s t a p p e a r s

t o b e a f e a t u r e o f t h e a s s o c i a t i o n s o f c l as s e s a n d v i r t u e s i n t h e R e p u b l i c .

P l a t o 's v ie w o f w o m e n i n th e

R e p u b l i c

t h u s c a n n o t b e d e r i v e d f r o m t h e

g e n e r a l i t y o f h u m a n v i r t u e t h a t is e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e

M e n o ;

r a t h e r i t is t h a t

w o m e n c a n s h a r e t h e v i r t u e s p a r t ic u l a r l y ( a n d a t l e as t s o m e w h a t e x c lu s i v el y )

e m b o d i e d i n t h e u p p e r c la s se s o f t h e i d ea l st a te . I n a n y c as e , t h e n o n - r e l a t i v -

i ty o f v i r tu e is n o t a s u f f i c i en t r e a s o n f o r m a k i n g t h e s oc ia l r o l es o f m e n a n d

w o m e n i d e n t i ca l ; i n t h e s a m e

M e n o

p a s s a g e , w e l e a r n t h a t v i r t u e is i n d i f f e r -

e n t t o s la v e a n d f r e e , a n d y o u n g a n d o l d , y e t t h is p la i n ly p r o v i d e s n o m o t i v e

f o r m a k i n g s l av e s th e s o c ia l e q u a l s o f f r e e m e n , o r y o u t h s t h e s oc ia l e q u a l s o f

m a t u r e a d u lt s . P l a t o 's f e m i n i s m r e q u i r e s a n o t h e r s o u r ce . '~

W h a t m i g h t t h i s s o u r c e b e ? I f P l a to is t o b e c o n s i s t en t , h e m u s t s u p p o s e

t h a t w o m e n m e r i t e q u a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r e n t r a n c e i n to th e g u a r d i a n c la ss es

,5 Susan Moiler Okin, Philosopher Qu eens and Private Wives: Plato on Wom en and the

Family,

Philosophy and Public Affairs

6 0 977 ), PP. 345 ff.; see also Marcel Pierart,

Platon et la Cite

Grecque (Brussels, 197,t).

,6 Th is point is m ade against Okin a nd Pierart by a num ber of scholars. Cf., for examples,

Nicholas D. Smith, T he L ogic of Plato 's Feminism, Journal of Social Philosophy 11 (198o), pp. 5

ft.; G rego ry Vlastos, Th e Status of Persons in Platonic Justice: W omen,

Interpretations of Plato:

A Swarthmore Symposium

(Supplement

Mnemosyne

5o), 1977; and Jacobs Plato.

,7 Cf. A. E. Ta ylo r, Plato: The Ma n and His W ork (Cleveland and New York: 1956), p. 278;

Vlastos, Status of Persons ; and W ende r, Plato, for examples.

'8 Cf. Smith, Plato 's Feminism, (pp. 8- 9) fo r a fuller dispute of the importa nce of the

Socratic precedents.


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4 7 2 J O U R N A L O F T H E H I S T O R Y O F P t t I L O S O P H Y 2 : 4 O C T 1 9 8 3

b e c a u s e h e t h i n k s s o m e s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e m t o b e s u i te d b y n a t u r e t o

t h e r e l e v a n t ta s k s . ',~ W h a t n a t u r e is t h is ?

I t m u s t b e p l a i n f r o m t h e o u t s e t t h a t w h a t e v e r q u a li t i e s a r e i n v o l v e d t h e y

a r e n o t e s s e n ti a ll y p h y s i c a l in c h a r a c t e r , h l d e e d , p h y s i c al c h a r a c t e r i s t ic s

f o r c e P l a t o to m a k e t h e f e w c l e a r e x c e p t i o n s h e m a k e s t o h is e g a l i t a r i a n

p r i n c i p le s . F o r e x a m p l e , o n e r o l e o f t h e a u x i l ia r i e s is t o d e f e n d t h e s t a te in

w a r , a n d P l a to r e c o g n i z e s t h e n e e d f o r m a s c u l i n e s t r e n g t h i n a n c i e n t w a r -

f a r e , e m p l o y i n g t h e w o m e n i n l i g h t e r d u t ie s ( 4 5 7 A ) o r a s r e s e r v e s ( 4 7 1 D ) .

S i m i l a rl y , t h o u g h w e t - n u r s e s w i ll b e u s e d a s m u c h a s p o s s ib l e , g u a r d i a n

m o t h e r s w il l n u r s e c h i l d r e n w h e n t h e y a r e la c t a ti n g ( 4 6 o C - D ) . P la in ly m e n

c a n n o t p e r f o r m s u c h t a sk s t h o u g h t h e y w il l h a v e a n e q u a l s h a r e i n t a k i n g

c a r e o f t h e c h i l d r e n o t h e r w i s e ( 4 6 o B ) .

O f t h e ta s k s a s s i g n e d t o th e g u a r d i a n s , h o w e v e r , t h e s e a r e th e e x c e p t i o n s

t h a t r e q u i r e a d e g r e e o f s e x u a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . I n h is o v e r a l l v i ew o f m a l e

a n d f e m a l e n a t u r e i n B o o k V , P l at o f i n d s n o d i f f e r e n c e s i g n if i c a n t t o t h e i r

p l a y i n g e q u a l r o l e s in g u a r d i n g t h e s t a te . P l a t o 's r e a s o n f o r th i s is e x p l i c it ,

a n d h a s b e e n o v e r l o o k e d b y t h o s e w h o a s s i gn t o o g r e a t a w e i g h t t o ti le

p u r e l y p h y s i c al ( a n d e s p e c i a ll y p r o c r e a t i v e ) f \ m c t i o n s o f t h e g u a r d i a n s : '~''

W e d i d n o t t h e n p o s i t l i k en e s s a n d d i f f e r e n c e i n n a t u r e i n a n y a n d e v e r y s e n se , b u t

w e r e p a y i n g h e e d s o le l y t o t h e k i n d o f d i v e r s it y a n d h o m o g e n e i t y t h a t w a s p e r t i n e n t

t o t h e p u r s u i ts t h e m s e l v e s. W e m e a n t , f o r e x a m p l e , th a t a m a n a n d a w o m a n w h o

h a v e a p h y s i c i a n ' s m i n d

psuche)

h a v e t h e s a m e n a t u r e . ( 4 5 4 C - D )

H o w m i g h t i t b e t h a t b o t h m a l e s a n d f e m a l e s c a n h a v e t h e s a m e s o r ts o f

psuche? A n u m b e r o f d i a l o g u e s s h o w P l at o 's c o m m i t m e n t to a t h e o r y o f

m e t e m p s y c h o s i s , p r e s u m a b l y i n h e r i t e d t u t h e P y t h a g o r e a n s w i th w h o m

h e h a d c o n ta c t . T h i s t h e o r y p e r m i t s p e r s o n s t o h a ve n u m e r o u s l iv es ( o r

e m b o d i m e n t s ) i n m a n y f o r m s . I n t h i s l if e, I a m a m a n ; i n t h e n e x t , I m i g h t

b e e i t h e r a n a n i m a l , a d i f f e r e n t s o r t o f m a n , o r m o s t s ig n i f i c a nt l y , a w o m a n

(c f .

Rep.

6 2 o A - D ; a ls o P /u /. 8 I E - 8 2 B ) . E p e i o s , fi )r e x a m p l e , s e l ec t s t h e li fe

o f a c r a f t s w o m a n f o r h is n e x t e m b o d i m e n t

Rep.

6 2 o B ) . T h e r e v e r s e c an b e

t r u e a s w e ll : A t a l a n t a c h o o s e s t h e l i f e o f a n a t h l e t e Rep . 6 2 o B ) . S o u l s , o n

s u c h a t h e o r y o f r e i n c a r n a t io n , a r e t h u s f u n d a m e n t a l l y s e x l es s . H e n c e , t h e

n a t u r e o f a w o m a n , i n t h e s e n s e r e q u i r e d b y P l a t o c i te d a b o v e , is n o d i f f e r -

e n t f r o m t h a t of a m a n : b o t h a r e s e x l es s s o u ls e m b o d i e d . T h i s , I c l a im , is

w h y P l a to f i n d s n o d i f f i c u l t y i n s a y i n g t h a t j u s t a s a m a n c a n h a v e t h e n a t u r e

of a p h y s i c i a n , s o c a n a w o m a n ; j u s t a s a m a n c a n b e n m s i c a l , s o c a n a

'~ ' Not necessarily a smaller percenta ge of them than o f men, how ever: only a small

perce ntage o f either sex will qualify.

~ It is disturbing to see the natu re of wom en in Saxonhouse and Bloom so completely tied

to childbearing.


8/13

T H E N T U RE O F W O ME N 473

woman Rep . 455E). Most imp ort antl y, just as a ma n can be warlike, so can a

woman ; just as a man can be a lover of wisdom, so can a wom an Rep . 456A;

cf. Diotima in the S y m p o s i u m 2olD ft., a woman who gives Socrates instruc-

tion in the philosophy of love). Hence, making some women warriors or

rulers accords with nature , and failing to do so is against nature

Rep.

456C).

And the r eason it is unnatu ral to discriminate on the basis of sex in such

cases is tha t t he na tu re invol ved (the soul) is sexless. ~'

One objection to the above analysis may be anticipated: in the T i m a e u s

Plato plainly states that women are reincarnations of men who lived evil lives

(42B, 9oE), and that the male state is not only the first human state, but the

best, and the one to which the best natures return (42D). One might argue

on these g ro und s that wome n are no t the natural equals of men, even in the

psychic sense required by the

Repub l i c ,

and hence the theory of metempsy-

chosis cannot be a source of Plato's egalitarianism in the Republ ic .

Th er e is ample reason to resist this application of the T i m a e u s to an

interpretat ion of the Repub l i c , however, despite the fact that in the T i m a e u s

(x 8C - D) Plato explicitly recalls the releva nt presc ripti ons of the

Republ ic .

As

others have ar gue d quite compellingly, ~ Plato seems to have chan ged his

mind about a num ber of things concerning hu man genesis and metempsy-

chosis by the time he wrote the T i m a e u s (and the L a w s , which appears to

share the commi tment s of the T i m a e u s account; cf. L a w s 9o3D-9o4C). For

one thing, one' s ne xt life in the Myth of Er is a matter of choice, tho ug h it is

usually made according to the habits acquired in one's former life (62oA).

An d th ou gh the ef fect of this is that a kind o f poetic justice is achieved, it

seems unlikel y that th e sort of justice Plato has in mind here co uld be

construed in even approximately similar ways as that implied in the Tim aeus .

It is most implausible, for example, to see Agam em no n' s chan ge into an

eagle in the R e p u b l i c as an instance of a man's b ecom ing a bird in the sense

required by the T i m a e u s ; Agamemnon is surely not rightly characterized as

harmless, but empty-headed Tim . 91D). I nde ed, the one case of a man

becoming a woman is Epeios, the awe-inspiring boxer whose description in

the

l l i a d

(23.664-669; cf. also

Odysse~

8.493) hardly distinguishes him as

unjust and cowardly, as the

T i m a e u s

would requ ire for such a chan ge o f sex

~' I am indebted to David Keyt for suggesting the relevance of Plato's theory of metempsy-

chosis in this regard. It should be noted that on this view the soul is not necessarily a member of

any particular species, either. Another example of this lack of specification can be found in the

account in the Phaedrus (esp. 249B). The Phaedrusneither supports nor conflicts with the view

that souls are not sexed, however, as the issue is never addressed either explicitly or implicitly

there.

~ Cf. Anne Dickason, Anatomy and Destiny: The Role of Biology in Plato's View of

Women,

The Ph ilosophicalForum

5 (x973-4), PP. 45 ft., for example.


9/13

7 J O U R N L O F T H E H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y 21:4 OCT 1983

(9oE). ~3 The same can be said for the ot her mid dle peri od dialogue s: sure ly

the approval Plato shows in the P h a e d o for becoming a bee, wasp, or ant in

the nex t l ife, fo r exampl e , c anno t be squar ed wi th the very nega t ive appra i -

sal of insects in the

T i m a e u s

(92A).

T h i s ev i d en ce a l o n e s h o u l d r e s t r a i n u s f ro m emp l o y i n g t h e

T i m a e u s

in

in te rp re t ing the v iew Pla to expresses in the

R e p u b l i c .

Bu t p e rh ap s ev en mo re

impo r tan t is the fac t tha t the in fer io r s t a tus o f wome n in the h ie ra rchy o r

re in carn a t io ns we f ind in the T i m a e u s acco u n t can n o t b e fo u n d i n t h e R e p u b -

l ic

or fo r tha t mat t e r , in any d ia logue f rom the midd le per iod . I t seems ,

therefo r e , mos t un l ike ly tha t P la to saw metempsych os i s in re l evan t ly s imi la r

ways in the mi dd le and l a te per iods . H ence , these l a t e r accoun t s do no t

unde rcu t the v iew I have p res en te d o f P lato 's motives for the femi n i sm we

find in B ook V of the

R e p u b l i c 2 4 - - - o n e

i s ass igned one 's ro le in the s tate

according to nature, one 's nature in th is case is one 's soul , and one 's soul i s

sexless ? 5

II

I have a rgue d tha t P la to 's conc ep t i on o f huma n na tu re i s what mot iva tes the

equal i ty of Book V of the R e p u b l i c and tha t th i s concep t ion i s p r imar i ly

psycholog ica l in charac te r . Ar i s to tl e shares two fea tu re s o f P lato 's appr oach :

l ike Plato , Aris tot le bel ieves that social ro les must be ass igned according to

each ind iv id ua l ' s na tu r e , and l ike Pla to , Ar i s to tl e f inds the re levan t na tu ra l

features of humans to be psychological . Thus , when Aris tot le seeks , in the

Po l i t i c s to es tabl ish f i t t ing responsibi l i t ies in the po l i s to men, women, s laves ,

~-~ Gregory Vlastos suggested to me that the example of Epeios does show a degree of

misogyny on Plato's part, as a fitting reincarnation for the sort of devious mind that could

invent the Trojan Horse (cf.

Odyssey

8.493). Whether or not this is what Plato had in mind, it is

still not the cowardice and injustice required by the Timaeus.

'~4 Indeed, if anything the Timaeus and Laws can be seen as further evidence in favor of the

view I have proposed; for along with the downgrading of female nature in the metempsychosis

accounts of these later dialogues, one finds a considerable backsliding on the issue of sexual

egalitarianism in the

Laws

as well. Women in the

Laws

do not enjoy the same high degree of

equality with men as they did in the Republic though they are still arguably closer to that goal

than anything they would achieve in Aristotle's state.

'~5 The above account should not be taken as presuming the view that the accounts of

metempsychosis Plato offers in the middle period are consistent in every other detail. Such is

hardly the case, and the fact that it is not constitutes an interesting puzzle concerning Plato's

real view of the natu re of the afterlife during this period. The effect of this lack of coherence

on the interpreter should thus be that extreme caution must be used whenever one seeks to use

evidence from this material from any other dialogue than the one under interpretation. None-

theless, in all the varieties o f these accounts, no suggestion of sexual inegalitarianism of the

relevant sort appears until the Timaeus though this is perhaps only because the issue does not

arise one way or another in the accounts of the Phaedo and Phaedrus. The principle of caution

just introduced, however, supports the argument of this paper without qualification.


10/13

T H E N A T U R E O F W O M E N 75

a n d c h i l d r e n , h e a p p e a l s i n e a c h c a se t o t h e f e a t u r e s o f t h e s o u l o f e a c h t h a t

h e f i n d s b o t h r e l e v a n t a n d d i s t i n g u i s h i n g ( e .g . a t Pol . 1 2 6 o a 1 2 - - 1 4 ) .

G i v e n s u c h i n it ia l p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s , o n e m i g h t e x p e c t P l a to a n d A r i s t o tl e

t o r e a c h s i m i l a r c o n c l u s i o n s , a n d i n m o s t c a s es t h e y d o . B o t h h a v e s i m i l a r

v ie w s c o n c e r n i n g s la v es , b a r b a r i a n s , c h i l d r e n a n d a r t is a n s , a m o n g o t h e r s .

B u t w i t h r e g a r d t o w o m e n t h e i r v a l ue s a r e w h o l ly i n c o m p a t i b l e . U n l i k e

P l a to , A r i s t o t le f i n d s w o m e n f it o n l y t o b e s u b je c t s o f m a l e r u l e (Pol .

1 2 5 4 b 1 3 - 1 4 ) .

A s w e m i g h t e x p e c t , A r i s t o t le ' s o n l y e x p l i c i t r a t i o n a l e f o r t h i s is p s y -

c h o lo g ic a l . W o m e n , a c c o r d i n g t o A r i s to t le , h a v e th e d e l i b e r a ti v e p a r t o f th e

s o u l ( to boulet ikon) , b u t i n c o n t r a s t t o m e n i t is n o t s o v e r e i g n ( akur on Po l .

1 2 6 o a1 3 ). B u t w o m e n a r e n o t l ik e n a t u r a l s la v es e i t h e r , w h o w h o l l y l a c k t h e

d e l i b e r a t e p a r t

(Pol .

1 2 6o a 1 2) , o r c h i l d r e n w h o h a v e i t o n l y i n a n i m m a t u r e

w a y (Pol . 1 2 6 o a 13 - -1 4 ) . S i n c e w o m e n h a v e t h e d e l i b e r a t i v e p a r t , t h e y a r e

r u l e d b y m e n i n a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l f a s h i o n , t h a t is , a s c i ti z e n s r u l e o t h e r

c i t i z e n s , o r e q u a l s r u l e e q u a l s (Pol . 1 2 5 9 a 4 o - b l ). B u t s i n ce w o m e n ' s d e l ib -

e r a t iv e p a r t is n o t s o v e r e ig n , t h is r u l e i s p e r m a n e n t , u n l i k e o t h e r e x a m p l e s

o f c o n s t i t u ti o n a l r u l e ( P o l . 1 2 5 9 b 4 - 1o) .

W . W . F o r t e n b a u g h ~6 c o n j e c t u r e s t h a t t h e l ac k o f s o v e r e i g n t y i n w o m e n ' s

d e l i b e r a t i v e p a r t is t h e p r o d u c t o f i ts s u s c e p t ib i l it y to b e i n g o v e r r u l e d b y th e

e m o t i o n a l p a r t o f t h e s o ul ( to orekt ikon) . S i n c e n a t u r e m a k e s d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s

f o r d i f f e r e n t p u r p o s e s ( P o l . 1 9 5 4 b l - 3 ) , a n d w o m e n a r e p s y c h o lo g i c al ly d if -

f e r e n t f r o m m e n , t h e y h a v e f u n c t io n s d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h o s e o f m e n , c o n t r a r y

t o P l a t o ' s v i e w i n t h e Republ ic. A n d s i n c e v i r t u e i s r e l a t i v e t o f u n c t i o n f o r

A r i s t o t l e

(Pol .

1 2 6 o a 1 4 - 1 7 ) , a w o m a n ' s v i rt u e is d i f f e r e n t f r o m a m a n ' s ,

c o n t r a r y t o P l a t o ' s v i e w i n t h e M e n o .

W h e n A r i s t o tl e s a ys t h a t in w o m e n t h e d e l i b e r a ti v e p a r t is w i t h o u t s o ve r -

e i g n t y , t h e a d j e c t i v e e x p r e s s i n g t h i s i s a k u r o n , w h i c h h a s d e c i d e d l y p o l it ic a l

c o n n o t a t i o n s . F o r a la w o r s e n t e n c e t o b e a k u r o n i s f o r i t t o b e c a n c e l l e d ,

a n n u l l e d , o r s e t a s i d e . O f p e r s o n s , t o b e a k u r o n i s t o l a c k r i g h t s o r p o w e r s .

A r i s t o t l e f r e q u e n t l y u s e s t h e a d j e c t i v e o p p o s i t e t o t h i s (kur ios) i n B o o k I I I o f

t h e

Polit ics

t o r e f e r t o t h e s u p r e m e p o w e r o f t h e s ta te . F o r e x a m p l e , i n

d e m o c r a t i c s t a t e s t h e p e o p l e a r e kurios , w h i l e i n o l i g a r c h i c o n e s o n l y a f e w

a r e (Pol . 1 2 7 8b 1 ~ -- 1 3) . S o to e m p l o y A r i s t o tl e ' s m e t a p h o r , a w o m a n ' s d e li b -

e r a t i v e p a r t is e i t h e r a n n u l l e d , c a n c e l l e d , o r s e t a s i d e , o r i t is l a c k i n g i n r i g h t s

o r p o w e r s . F o r t e n b a u g h v ie w s t h e r e l e v a n t i s su e to b e i n t r a - p e r s o n a l i n

n a t u r e , r a t h e r t h a n i n t e r - p e r s o n a l . ~7 T h a t is , i t is n o t j u s t t h a t w o m e n ' s

~6 W . W . F o r t e n b a u g h , A r i st o tl e o n S l av e s a n d W o m e n , rticles on ristotle 2 , J . B a r n e s e t

a l ., e d s . ( L o n d o n : 1 9 7 8 ) , p . a 3 8 f f .

~7 I b id . , p . ] 3 8 .


11/13

476 J O U R N A L O F T H E H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y 2 1 : 4 O C T 1 9 8 3

deliberations are set aside by society or by men but that they are set aside or

cancelled by the emotional or alogical part of their souls. In short, women

are too susceptible to being overcome by their emotions and thus require the

steadier rule of men. Fortenbaugh offers a number of cases from other

Greek works as pa rad igms for this, especially Medea in Eur ipides play. ~s

Fortenba ugh s conjecture is plausible enough , I think, but there may be

more to be said for the inter-personal effects of nature, so construed, than

Fortenbaugh allows. For Aristotle, human beings are the union of body

and soul, where the soul is the form of the body

De An .

412a16--21). That

a given human has a female body, therefore, is of vital import, especially

with regard to the procreative function: women not only carry the fetus

and give birth, they also suckle the young child. All of these roles are

reserved for women by nature. And since nature makes nothing for more

than one special function, the extra-household functions of politics would

presumably be reserved for men, whose role in procreation is of relatively

brief duration. On this view, women require the deliberative part for their

roles in the rearing of children and the maintenance of the household; but

that part of the soul is

akuron

for the practice of politics, for to make

women participate in such activities goes against nature, which reserves one

funct ion for each thing. As a woman s fun ction in the household is clearly

given by nature, for Aristotle, to add to this function others outside the

household is to make her like a Delphic knife, that is, one thing with many

functions, which is contrary to nature Pol. 1252bt-3). Hence, that a

woman s deliberative part is akuron undo ubte dly has impor tant civic ramifi-

cations quite ap art from those psychological ones Forte nbaug h proposes,

thou gh the two are entirely consistent.

For tenbau gh and other s ~9 suggest that the reason Aristotle believes this is

that he views women as in some sense biologically deficient. According to

Fortenb augh, the proper und ers tan din g of Aristotle s view is to be fo und in

the common link between female and deficient offspring both in

Politics

1335at 2-t 5, as well as a number of biological works, especially Generation of

Animals ,

where the lack of heat affects semen (766a18-~2) in such a way as

to produ ce female or deficient offspring (767b23; cf. also 737a27-28). Th us

women are deficient not only in bodily strength, but in the powers of delib-

eration, both (as Fortenbaugh would have it) as those powers apply to the

mastery of their own emotions, and (the addition I have suggested) as they

apply to political activities.

' ~ I b i d .

'~'~ C f . f o r e x a m p l e , W e n d e r P l a t o . I t i s o d d t h a t F o r t e n b a u g h s o v i g o r o u s l y a t t a c k s

W e n d e r ' s a r t ic l e, t h o u g h t h e i r c o n j e c t u r e s a r e q u i t e s im i l a r o n t h is p o i n t. O f c o u r s e , W e n d e r i s

c r it ic a l o f A r i st o tl e , w h e r e a s F o r t e n b a u g h is in c l i n e d t o d e f e n d h i m , a t le a s t o n l o g ic a l g r o u n d s .


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T H E N T U R E O F W O M E N 4 7 7

F o r t e n b a u g h is l es s t h a n e x p l i c i t as t o h o w p r e c i s e l y t h e b i o lo g i c a l d e f i -

c i e n cy e x p l a i n s t h e p s y c h o l o g ic a l d e f i c ie n c y A r is t o t l e s ee s in w o m e n , t h o u g h

p l a in l y t h e r e is a c o n n e c t i o n t o b e m a d e . T h i s i s e a s y e n o u g h t o i m a g i n e ,

h o w e v e r , i f w e s e e w h a t is c o m m o n t o t h e b i o l o g y a n d t h e p s y c h o l o g y . In

r e p r o d u c t i o n , o n A r i s t o t l e 's a c c o u n t , t h e f o r m o f th e c h il d c o m e s f r o m t h e

f a th e r ' s s e m e n , a n d t h e m a t t e r f r o m t h e m o t h e r ' s

catamenia

I n t h e b i o l o g i c a l

c o n c e p t i o n o f a f e m a l e , t h e f o r m t ak e s a n i m p e r f e c t h o l d o n t h e m a t t e r , a n d

t h u s f ai ls to a c h i e v e c o n v e r s i o n i n s e x as t h e f e m a l e m a t t e r i s g i v e n h u m a n

f o r m . B u t s i n c e t h e s o u l is t h e f o r m o f t h e b o d y , a n d t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f a

f e m a l e is o n e o f f o r m i n c o m p l e t e l y m a s t e r i n g m a t e r i a l , t h e p s y c h o l o g ic a l

d e f i c i e n c y A r i s t o t l e f i n d s in f e m a l e s c o u l d b e e x p l a i n e d i n t e r m s o f th e s o u l' s

i m p e r f e c t m a s t e r y o f t h e b o d y . T h i s , t h e n , w e m i g h t w el l a s s u m e ? is w h y

t h e h i g h e s t , o r d e l i b e r a t i v e , p a r t o f t h e s o u l l ac k s s o v e r e i g n t y in w o m e n .

T h e h u m a n is, f o r A r i s t o tl e , a c o m b i n a t i o n o f s o u l a n d b o d y . B o t h t h e

s o ul s a n d b o d i e s o f w o m e n d i f f e r in n a t u r e f r o m t h o s e o f m e n , t h e s o u l

l a c k in g s o v e r e i g n t y i n its d e l ib e r a t i v e p a r t , a n d t h e b o d y h a v i n g a d i f f e r e n t

r o l e in t h e a c ti v it ie s a n d r e l a t io n s h i p s i n th e h o u s e h o l d , s u c h a s r e p r o d u c t i o n

a n d c h i l d - r e a r in g . H a v i n g d i f f e r e n t n a t u r e s , w o m e n s h o u l d s e rv e i n d i f f e r -

e n t s o ci al c a p a c it ie s t h a n m e n , a s n a t u r e m a k e s d i f f e r e n t th i n g s f o r d i f f e r e n t

f u n c t i o n s . U n l i k e P l a t o , A r i s to t l e d o e s n o t b e l i e v e t h e s o u l t o b e e s s e n t ia l l y

s ex le ss ; t h e so u ls o f w o m e n a n d m e n a r e a s d i f f e r e n t b y n a t u r e a s t h e i r

b o d i e s a r e . A l s o u n l i k e P l a to , t h e r e f o r e , A r i s t o t l e d o e s n o t r e s t r i c t t h e n a t -

u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s a n d i n f e r io r i t i e s o f w o m e n t o m e r e l y p h y s ic a l c a p ac i t ie s ,

s u c h a s s t r e n g t h . A s t h e i r b o d ie s a r e t o o w e a k f o r s o m e p u r p o s e s , s o t h e i r

s o u ls a r e t o o w e a k f o r o t h e r s , e a c h w e a k n e s s a n e f f e c t o f t h e s a m e b a s ic

c a u se s , w h i c h o c c u r in t h e r e p r o d u c t i v e p r o c es s . H e n c e , w h a t is a n u n n a t u r a l

d o m i n a t i o n i n P l a t o - - t h a t o f m e n o v e r w o m e n - - b e c o m e s a n a t u ra l o n e in

A r i s t o t l e .

I I l

I h a v e a r g u e d t h a t t h e p r i n c i p a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n P l a t o 's a n d A r i s t o t l e 's

v ie w s c o n c e r n i n g w o m e n is t o b e f o u n d i n t h e i r d i f f e r e n t t h e o r i e s o f t h e

s o ul . B o t h a g r e e t h a t s oc ia l r o l es s h o u l d b e a s s i g n e d a c c o r d i n g t o n a t u r e . B u t

P l at o s ee s n o i m p o r t a n t n a t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s in th e n a t u r e s o f m a l e s a n d

f e m a l e s b e c a u s e t h e i r n a t u r e s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y s e x l e s s s o u l s i n c a r n a t e d t e m p o -

r a r i ly in s e x e d b o d i e s . I n s h a r p c o n t r a s t , A r i s t o t l e m a k e s t h e s o u l t h e f o r m

o f th e b o d y , a n d o f f e r s a b io lo g ic a l a c c o u n t o f h u m a n r e p r o d u c t i o n t h a t

:~ Th is is, like Fortenbaugh's interpretation, largely speculative. Aristotle nev er mak es the

explicit l ink for which I have a rgued here, b ut i t is plain that a l ink of this sort is presumed by

his view.


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478 J O U R N A L O F T H E H I ST O R Y O F PH I L O SO P H Y I : 4 O C T i983

renders female psychology naturally and importantly different from that of

males. These differences, I claim, provide the naturalistic warrants for

Plato's celebrated feminism and Aristotle's notor ious male chauvini sm.

And though conceptions of nature and the natural are not value-neutral for

the Greeks, unless our purposes are more polemical than philosophical, we

should recognize that the main controversy between Plato and Aristotle on

this issue is not primarily a moral one; for their different prescriptions are

derived wholly from more fun dam ent al differences in metaphysical and

natural philosophies.

Virg inia Polytechnic nsti tute and State University

Documents

Smith - Plato and Aristotle on the Nature of Women