Slide 8.1 Cooper et al: Tourism: Principles and Practice, 3e Pearson Education Limited 2005, © retained by authors Chapter 8 Sustainable Tourism

Slide 8.1

Cooper et al: Tourism: Principles and Practice, 3e Pearson Education Limited 2005, © retained by authors

Chapter 8Sustainable Tourism

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Learning Objectives• To gain an understanding of the concept of

sustainability and the difficulties associated with trying to derive a definition

• To provide an appreciation of how the sustainability issue pervades(pass through) all aspects of the tourism process and applies to all stakeholders

• To recognise the different ways that tourism can pursue sustainability objectives and the limitations likely to be experienced.

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Learning Objectives (cont’d)

• To understand the concept of carrying capacity and the difficulties involved in applying that concept in the real world.

• To gain an insight(comprehend) into alternative forms of tourism, including eco-tourism products and how they attempt to improve the sustainability of tourism and what their limitations may be.

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Basic Principles of Sustainability• Take an holistic (functional relationship)

approach to planning and strategy• Protect the environment (biodiversity) and man

made heritage• Preserve the essential ecological processes• Facilitate and engage public participation• Ensure that productivity can be sustained into

the long term future• Provide for a better level of fairness(openness)

and opportunity between different countries

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Definition of Sustainability

• Meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising (agreeing) the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

• There are hundreds of definitions about sustainability – but none fully acceptable, all have some ambiguities and/or conflicts

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Sustainability of capital stockcapital stock?

• Human – the population, welfare, health, work force, educational and skill base

• Physical – productive capital such as machinery, equipment, buildings

• Environmental – man made and natural resources, bio-diversity

• Socio-cultural – well being, social cohesion (harmony), empowerment, equity, cultural heritage

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Sustainability – a stocka stock approach

Figure 8.1 Sustainability and capital stocks

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Sustainability of Tourism

• Economic aspects working against sustainable tourism e.g. inflation, resource allocation etc.

• Environmental aspects working against sustainable tourism e.g. environmental impacts of tourism on biodiversity, ecology etc.

• Socio-cultural aspects working against sustainable tourism impacts of guests on hosts and hosts on other hosts

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Sustainability of Carrying capacity• The fact that tourism activity has an impact

on the social, cultural, environmental and economic aspects of a destination brings with it certain implications.

• If it assumed that these impacts are positively correlated with the volume of tourist arrivals, it may be realistic to assume that there are certain thresholds beyond which additional tourists will not be tolerated or accepted.

• Exceeding these thresholds is likely to affect every facet of tourism development.

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Thresholds and carrying capacity• physical thresholds(steps) limit the volume of tourist

flows• environmental thresholds also limit the tourist flows by

creating secondary problems, such as health hazards, or detract(lessen) from the attractiveness of a destination

• social and cultural thresholds generate resentment(angry) and antagonism towards tourists from the host population

• tourist flow thresholds affect satisfaction levels and cause tourists to search elsewhere for a better product

• economic thresholds result in misallocation of resources and factors of production.

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Definition

• Carrying capacity is defined as “the maximum number of visitors who can use a site without an unacceptable alteration in the physical environment and without an unacceptable decline in the quality of experience gained by visitors.

• There are number of factors to take into account when attemping to identify the level of carry capacity.

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Factors identify carrying capacity

• Average length of stay

• Characteristics of tourists and hosts

• Geographical concentration of tourists

• Degree of seasonality

• Accessibility of specific sites

• Level of infrastructure and its spare capacity

• The extent of spare capacity among various productive sectors of the economy

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The dynamics of carrying capacity

• Guest–Host differences – Socio culturalal tolerance levels change over time with gradual exposure to tourists.

• Speed of change of tourism – people become accustomed to changes.it does not make the change any less but it does make it more acceptible.

• Limits of acceptable change (LAC) – Unplanned rapid development could easily result in low tolerance level s and carryin capacities of much lower values.

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Local factors

• There are many local factors that will influence the magnitude and direction of impacts but what is important ,besides the nature of the local factors, is the relative difference between the local factors and the tourist counterparts and the speed of change.

• Looking at individual factors we can see how complex the issues are.

The factors of determining carrying capacity

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Social structure

• The social structure of the destination is vital in determining the scale and nature of any impacts. For example, taking two extreme views, the social structure of London, New York and Sydney are more able to absorb and tolerate the presence of tourists than cities such as Apia in Western Samoa or Port Louis in Mauritius.

• The former can tolerate the presence of tourists without incurring any significant changes to their social structures because those changes have already occurred.

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Cultural heritage

• The cultural heritage of a destination is very important when attempting to determine the impact and carrying capacity.

• The more unusual the cultural background, the more attractive a destination may become to potential tourists.

• Ironically, the more unusual the cultural background, the more likely it is to be adversely affected by the presence of tourists.

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Environment• The environment will be changed by the

presence of tourists no matter how sympathetic they may be or how careful the tourism activity is planned.

• The environment can be either artificial or natural. In general the former is more resilient to tourism impacts than the latter.

• Environmental change is inevitable and will be more obvious and pronounced in those areas that are sparsely populated and not subject to frequent high-volume tourist visits.

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Economic structure

• The economic structure will determine the benefits and costs associated with tourism activity.

• In general , the more developed and industrialized the economy, the more robust and adaptable it will be.

• As economies grow and diversify, so too do the skills of the workforce.

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Tourism development, particularly rapid development, tends to be resort-based and this may bring with it the economic problems associated with:

• Migration from rural to urban areas; and

• The transfer of labour from traditional industries to tourism and its related industries.

Economies have to be mature to be able to adjust to these pressures.

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Political structure

• The political structure can affect the impacts of tourism and its carrying capacity in a number of ways. To begin with, political instability will deter tourists and therefore hinder tourism development. Some group of tourists are more sensitive to political instability than others but few tourists are unaffected by the prospect of political instability.

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Resources• The availability of local resources (labour,

capital, land etc.)is likely to have a major influence on the acceptability and desirability of tourism development and, even on the form that development takes.

• Where resources are scarce, competition for them will be high and the opportunity cost of using these resources for tourism will also be high.

• The local infrastructure is also part of the resource base.

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Alien factorsTourist characteristics• Clearly, the characteristics of the tourists who

visit any given destination are an important factor in determining the social and cultural impact of tourism on the host community. For instance, tourists who belong to the mass or charter groups are more likely to have a greater social and cultural impact than those who belong to the explorer, adventurers and ethnic tourist categories.

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• Carrying capacity is centered around tolerance levels;

• How tolerant the ecological system is to tourist intrusion and activity, as well as those activities created as a result of tourism activity.

• How tolerant the social-cultural structure is to the introduction of foreign cultures, ideal and beliefs.

• How much tolerance there is within the economic structure.

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Types of tourist activity

• The types of tourist activity pursued will be closely linked to the characteristics of the tourists who take part in them.

• However, the presence of certain activities, such as gambling, can bring specific social problems and stresses that are far greater in magnitude than those associated with the same number of tourists undertaking different activities.

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Planning management and technology

• Planning is concerned with the organization of

factors in order to manipulate future events.

• The management of tourism is the process by

which plans are put into practice.

• Changes in the technology will have direct and

indirect effects on the difficulties associated

with the planning and management tasks.

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Impacts

• The local and alien factors, manipulated by planning and the management of tourism development, will result in impacts on the social structure, culture, environment and economy, and upon other tourists. Impacts are the yardsticks of carrying capacity, but they are derived variables. The task to the planner and tourism management specialists is to ensure that the appropriate impacts occur.

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Parameters

• The impacts that occur reflect the nature and magnitude of change brought about by the interaction between tourists and hosts, given the management and planning that has been implemented.

• The parameters can be identified as the changes that take place to the local and alien factors as a result of different levels and types of interaction.

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Standards

• The standards may be seen as acceptable limits applied to the parameters. They refer to the value judgments imposed b the host and tourist populations with respect to how much a variable may change without incurring irreversible or undesirable damage to the nature of tourism and the environment in which it takes place.

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Carrying capacity

• Carrying capacity is the dependent variable. It is not possible to over-emphasis the word variable because it is not a fixed value based on tourist presence.

• The dynamic nature of carrying capacity is based upon the chancing tolerance levels of each of the determining factors as a result of both exposure and management.

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Factors that need tobe included when estimating carrying capacity

• Average length of stay.• Characteristics of the tourists and hosts.• Geographical concentration of tourists.• Degree of seasonality.• Types of tourism activity.• Accessibility of specific sites.• Levels of infrastructure use and its

spare(empty/vacant) capacity.• The extent of spare capacity amongst the various

productive sectors of the economy.

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Figure 8.2 The determinants and influences of carrying capacity

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Relationships betweentourists, destinations and tolerance

levels

Figure 8.3 The relationship between tourists, destinations and tolerance levels

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Measurement criteria(Economic)

Table 8.1 Variables and thresholds

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Measurement criteria (Environmental)

Table 8.1 Variables and thresholds (cont’d)

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Measurement criteria(Physical)


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Measurement criteria(Political)


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Measurement criteria(Socio-cultural)


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Sustainable Tourism Products• Ecotourism and Alternative Tourism– are

linked to natural tourism attractions rather than man-made attractions and environmental sustainability is often found to to be a core component of a product definition.

• But there are some questions and discussions whether they are really a solution to the quest for sustainability and their dangers?

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The 10 R’s of Sustainability

• Recognize

• Refuse

• Replace

• Reduce

• Re-use

• Recycle

• Re-engineer

• Re-train

• Reward

• Re-educate

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Sustainability as a strategy • Sustainability more than anything else

involves a process of recognition and responsibility

• Recognition that the resources which are used to produce the tourism products are expendable and vulnerable(sensitive)

• Responsibility for the wise use of these resources rests across all stakeholders

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Conclusion• Sustainability is a difficult concept which is

hard to define

• In pursuit(follow) of sustainability, there will come a time where there is need to limit development to some pre-determined threshold

• Carrying capacity can only be examined in a case-by-case situation because it is sensitive to local circumstances

• Carrying capacity is a dynamic rather than static concept

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Conclusion (cont’d)• There is a need to modify the behaviour

of the stakeholders in tourism

• Ecotourism is not a solution to sustainability

• There is a need for corporate responsibility by the private sector combined with a fully engaged public participation in the planning of tourism

Documents

Slide 8.1 Cooper et al: Tourism: Principles and Practice, 3e Pearson Education Limited 2005, © retained by authors Chapter 8 Sustainable Tourism