SKILLS & ETHICS - Leave No TraceDEVELOP THE SKILLS. Know the skills and gear that are needed for your chosen activity. Learn from an expe-rienced friend, take a course, or hire a competent

Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor EthicsPO Box 997

Boulder, Colorado 80306http://www.LNT.org

©Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics/National Outdoor Leadership SchoolLeave No Trace Skills & Ethics Series

Published 4/01

For more Leave No Trace information or to order materials,call1-800-332-4100 or visit www.LNT.org.

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Volumes available in the Leave No Trace Skills and Ethics Series Alaska Wildlands

CavingDeserts and Canyons

FishingHorse Use

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N O R T H A M E R I C A

This booklet was funded with generous support from

S K I L L S & E T H I C S

The Leave No Trace educational program promotes skillsand ethics to support the sustainable use of wildlands and natural areas. The concept originated in the U.S. as a way tohelp recreationists minimize their impacts while enjoying theoutdoors. In 1991, the U.S. Forest Service teamed with theNational Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS) and theBureau of Land Management as partners in the Leave NoTrace educational program. NOLS, a recognized leader inminimum-impact camping practices, became involved as theprovider of Leave No Trace materials and training.

Today, the non-profit organization The Leave No TraceCenter for Outdoor Ethics, established in 1994, manages thenational program. The Center unites four federal landmanagement agencies—the U.S. Forest Service, NationalPark Service, Bureau of Land Management, and U.S. Fish andWildlife Service—with manufacturers, outdoor retailers, user groups, educators, and individuals who share acommitment to maintain and protect our wildlands andnatural areas for future enjoyment.

Humans need to know about wildplaces, to experience them andunderstand the rhythms they follow.We need to contemplate our placewithin these wildlands, to discernwhat it is that draws us there. Weneed to carry with us an ethic thatrecognizes the value of wild places,and acknowledges our responsibilityto treat them with respect, and applygood judgement as we visit and travelwithin them. We need to care for wildplaces as if they were our homesbecause, in many ways, they are. To dothis is good for us, it’s good for thosewho will surely follow, and it’s goodfor the wild places, wherever theymay be found.

Contact land management agenciesand groups in your area and see howyou can help. Be active in the planningand management of areas that areimportant to you. Volunteer for trailclean ups and maintenance, habitatrestoration efforts, and public educa-tion programs, or organize them foryour local area. Get involved and letyour opinions on land use be known.Support wildlands and sustainablerecreation.

Information on obtaining LeaveNo Trace curriculum materials,courses and trainings is availableby calling 800-332-4100 or visitingthe extensive Leave No Tracewebsite: www.LNT.org.

A FINAL Challenge

NOTES

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“A thing is right when it tends to preserve the

integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic

community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise.”

—Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac

L E AV E N O T R AC E

O u t d o o r S k i l l s & E t h i c s

N O RT H A M E R I C A E D I T I O N

LNT O u t d o o r S k i l l s a n d E t h i c s

NORTH AMERICA - 2 -

People enjoy the outdoors in myri-ad ways. We explore on foot, kayak,horseback, mountain bicycles, skis,snowshoes, and crampons, to name afew, and there are more of us push-ing our sports to greater extremesand into remoter parts of the naturalworld everyday. Our experiences arepersonally satisfying, but they can becostly to the places we visit and theanimals we observe.

America’s wildlands are diverseand beautiful. They can also be frag-ile. Polluted waters, displacedwildlife, eroded soils, and trampledvegetation are just some of theimpacts linked directly to recreation-al activities. Even our mere presencehas an influence. Considerable dam-age could be prevented if recreation-ists were better informed, especiallyabout Leave No Trace techniques.

This booklet is part of a nationaleducational program called Leave No

Trace which aims to be part of thesolution. At the heart of LNT areseven principles for reducing thedamage caused by outdoor activities,particularly non-motorized recre-ation. Leave No Trace concepts canbe applied anywhere—in remotewilderness, city parks, even in ourown back-yards—andin anyrecreationalendeavor.

Leave NoTrace prin-ciples andpracticesextend com-mon cour-tesy andhospitality to other wildland visitorsand to the natural world of which weare all a part. They are based on anabiding respect for nature. Thisrespect, coupled with good judgmentand awareness, will allow you toapply the principles to your ownunique circumstances.

We can act on behalf of the placesand wildlife that inspire us—inNorth America and beyond. First,let’s educate ourselves and adopt theskills and ethics that enable us toLeave No Trace.

“The notion that [outdoor] recreation has no

environmental impacts is no longer tenable.”

—Curtis H. Flather and H. Ken Cordell, Wildlife and Recreationists

At the heart of LNT

are seven principles

for reducing the

damage caused by

outdoor activities,

particularly non-

motorized recreation.

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LNT O u t d o o r S k i l l s a n d E t h i c s

PRINCIPLES OF Leave No Trace

• Plan Ahead and Prepare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

• Travel and Camp on Durable Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

• Dispose of Waste Properly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

• Leave What You Find . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

• Minimize Campfire Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

• Respect Wildlife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

• Be Considerate of Other Visitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

Wildland Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

A Final Challenge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

A Few Terms Defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

Visitors interested in stock use,mountain biking, kayaking and climb-ing, or other regions and recreationalactivities, are referred to the otherbooklets in the Leave No Trace Skillsand Ethics series.

Information on obtaining Leave NoTrace curriculum materials, coursesand trainings is available by callingLeave No Trace, Inc.

1-800-332-4100 or visiting the extensive LNT website: www.LNT.org.

LNT O u t d o o r S k i l l s a n d E t h i c s LIBRARY

PLAN AHEAD and Prepare

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Plan ahead by consider-ing your goals and those ofyour group. Prepare bygathering information,communicating expecta-tions, and acquiring thetechnical skills, first aidknowledge, and equipmentto do the trip right.

Build Leave No Trace intoyour plans by picking anappropriate destination foryour group and allowingplenty of time to travel andcamp in good style. Be pre-pared to sit tight or turnback if you sense danger orsustain an injury. That way,you won’t have to abandonLeave No Trace techniquesfor the sake of safety. Forinstance, poor planning ordisregard for approachingbad weather can transforman easy hike into a riskyencounter with hypother-mia. Cold and wet, it’stempting to think that theimpacts of poorly sitedcampfires and makeshiftshelters are warranted.

EDUCATE YOURSELF.Know the regulations andspecial concerns for any areayou visit. Because every wild-land is unique, regulationsand permit stipulations vary.Learn how to Leave No Tracewherever you go. Start byasking about local ecologyand local minimum impactpractices and guidelines.

Land management agencywebsites, offices, and visitorinformation centers offerinformation on special regu-lations, environmental con-cerns, and trip planning, aswell as education and volun-teer opportunities. Otherinformation sources includesporting goods suppliers,bookstores, clubs and non-profit groups, local conser-vation organizations,libraries and nature centers.These sources can often becontacted online.

PLAN FOR YOUR GROUP.Recreation managers can sug-gest places suited to yourgroup. Your group, its skills,and behavior should fit wellwith your wildland destina-tion. For example, peopleexpect some noise and com-motion around picnic areas,large campgrounds, anddeveloped recreation sites. Inthe backcountry, visitorswant to experience naturewithout these distractions.


Small versus large groups.Regardless of the size of yourgroup and the purpose ofyour outing, the practice ofLeave No Trace techniquesrequires care and fore-thought. Whenever possible,visit wildlands in smallgroups. Large groups can beboisterous and disruptiveunless they are well super-vised. If you are planning fora large group, try to includeenough experienced leadersso the group can be dividedto hike and, if possible, campseparately. Avoid problems byteaching everyone aboutLeave No Trace before leav-ing home. Always, inquireabout group size limitationsin advance. Large and lessknowledgeable groups arebest accommodated in popu-lar places, where there arealready developed trails and campsites.

SCHEDULE YOUR TRIP TOAVOID TIMES OF HIGHUSE. Visits to popular wild-lands during peak use peri-ods, such as holidays andweekends, are often fraughtwith traffic, crowding, delays,

and conflicts with othergroups. Instead, visit at othertimes, such as midweek, for aless crowded—and moreenjoyable—experience. Or,explore out-of-the-wayplaces. Make reservations andobtain permits well ahead oftime to avoid unpleasant sur-prises. Avoid travel whenenvironmental conditions,such as muddy trails, makerecreation impacts more like-ly or severe.

USE PROPER GEAR. Preparefor extreme weather, hazards,and emergencies. Pack acamp stove and fuel, a pot,matches, a signal mirror, andwhistle or fluorescent vest.Always carry a good map,plenty of food, water, a waterfilter or purification tablets,warm clothing, and protec-tion from the sun and insects.

Equipment that keeps ussafe can also reduce impactsto our surroundings. A campstove, which provides aquick meal without charringa single stone, is a primeexample. On muddy trails—where we might want to stepon trailside vegetation to

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keep our feet dry—gaitors orweatherproof boots let usforge through the muckwithout getting wet.

PLAN YOUR MEALS. Ade-quate gear can be essential tothe success of a trip, but it’s amistake to bring too muchstuff. Get a jump on wastemanagement by planningmeals to avoid leftovers.

Package food inreusable con-

tainers orplasticbags.Get ridof wrap-pers andheavypackag-ing inadvance,

so you won’t be tempted toleave them behind.

DEVELOP THE SKILLS.Know the skills and gear thatare needed for your chosenactivity. Learn from an expe-rienced friend, take a course,or hire a competent guide.Make sure that first aid, navi-gation, and self-rescue arepart of your training, and besure you’re in adequate phys-ical shape for the trip. LeaveNo Trace practices vary geo-graphically. In the BLM’sMoab Field Office Area, UT,for example, it’s important toknow what cryptobiotic soilslook like. In Everglades


National Park, FL, you’ll bemore concerned with poten-tial impacts to marl prairies.Learn as much as you canabout your destination andhow to have fun there whilestaying safe and protectingthe land.

TAKE RESPONSIBILITY.Getting lost has importantimplications for you, thepeople who attempt to findyou, and the terrain. Signifi-cant impacts to the land-scape can result from rescueoperations that involve vehi-cles or large numbers of peo-ple. Take responsibility foryour own safety by practic-ing self-awareness, cautionand good judgment. Mini-mize risk by planning a tripthat matches your skills andexpectations. Be prepared torescue yourself from toughsituations.

Register at the trailhead orwith the ranger. Be a compe-tent navigator. Always carry amap and know where youare at all times. Stay withyour group. Just in case, givea friend your itinerary andinstructions explaining whatto do if you don’t return onschedule. Don’t build cairnsor deface rocks or trees tomark your way. Flaggingshould also be avoided. Ifflagging is absolutely neces-sary, be sure to remove itbefore leaving the area.

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TRAVEL AND CAMP on Durable Surfaces

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RECOGNIZE DURABLESURFACES. What effect does a footstep have? Theanswer is, it depends. Afootstep means differentthings to a tree sapling andmeadow grass, to leaf litterand cryptobiotic soil, to a gravely river bank and rain forest moss.

Unfortunately, tramplingcauses vegetation damage andsoil erosion in virtually everyenvironment. Recovery thattakes a year in the southernAppalachians might require25 years or more in GlacierNational Park, MT. Otherimpacts are also possible.Most pristine soils contain ani-mals that live or feed ondecaying plants. Tramplingdestroys habitat for theseinsects, earthworms, mollusksand snails, as well as the fungithat fertilize the soil and helpmake regrowth possible. Vege-tation protects underlyingsoils. Once plant growth isdestroyed, erosion can contin-ue with or without furtheruse.

Wherever you travel andcamp, use surfaces that areresistant to impact such asrock outcrops, sand, gravel,dry grasses, snow or water.

CONCENTRATE USE INPOPULAR AREAS. In popu-lar areas, concentrate use ontrails, established campsites,and other developed sitessuch as trailheads and picnic

areas. Concentrating use inthese areas and, if necessary,on the surfaces mentionedearlier, will minimize distur-bances to soils and vegeta-tion. Because animals learn toexpect people on trails,they’re less disturbed byencounters with people on-trail than off.

Stay on designated trails.On trails, walk single file inthe center of the tread—evenwhere it’s wet, rocky ormuddy. Trails become pro-gressively wider and form par-allel paths where people walkon trail margins or detouraround obstacles. Likewise,“social trails” mar camp-grounds and other popularareas. Always use establishedroads and trails to visit camp-sites and other places of inter-est. Short-cutting a trail, espe-cially on switchbacks, hassevere consequences. Short-cuts become trails or gulliesthat require costly restoration.Keep out of areas whereefforts to restore vegetationand soils are in progress.

Boating, fishing and otherwater-based activities candamage shorelines, wetlands,and reefs. Inquire locallyabout how to minimize yourimpact on these resources.Always choose durable sitesto launch, anchor and dockyour boat, and avoid tidepools, coral reefs or sites richin wildlife.

Use established campsites.Choose a well-establishedcampsite that’s big enoughfor your group. Some popu-lar areas have officially desig-nated campsites, shelters orplatforms. Use of theseamenities can reduce damageto vegetation and other nat-ural features. Where camp-sites are not formally desig-nated, look for and use siteswhere the ground cover isalready worn away. Wearsoft-soled shoes and concen-trate your activities in thecenter of the site to avoidenlarging it.

In grizzly bear country, it isadvisable to separate thesleeping and cooking areas.Otherwise, tents, packs, gear,and the kitchen area shouldbe concentrated in one areaon previously compacted, nat-urally resistant, or reinforcedsurfaces. This approach pro-tects surrounding vegetationand prevents development of“satellite” sites.

Also consider your visualimpact on other users or


wildlife. Take advantage ofopportunities to tuck yourtent out of view behind nat-ural screening such as treesor rocks.

GOOD CAMPSITES AREFOUND, NOT MADE. Whatmakes the perfect campsite?Safety, privacy, and comfortnever go out of style, andsecuring such amenities doesnot entail a major remodelingeffort. We can bring our ownlightweight furniture andconveniences along to elimi-nate the need to create themon-site. Camp stoves, mat-tresses, tables, chairs,lanterns—even solar show-ers—are readily available atreasonable prices, and theypack in and out with ease.

Leave your campsite cleanand natural looking—natural-ize it. In wildlands, we arevisitors, but we are also hoststo those who follow. Theywill notice our hospitality, orlack of it. Litter, graffiti, treedamage, visible human andpet waste, unsightly fire ringsand the like are senselessacts. By taking the time topick up after ourselves andothers, if necessary, we’ll allbenefit.

Trees are often damagednear campsites. Take care notto break off branches whilesecuring tent or clothes lines,and when suspending foodor game carcasses. Don’t usewire or nails. Place a stuff

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sack or other material underropes or where padding isnecessary to protect bark.Likewise, place lanternswhere they won’t singe bark.When traveling with stock,use high lines, portable fenc-ing or hobbles to restrain theanimals without tying themdirectly to trees. Treesshouldn’t be targets or stor-age sites for hatchets andknives.

Even in campsites, leavethe area as natural as possi-ble. Breaking off a tree branchfor firewood creates an uglyscar and opens the tree todisease. Proper firewood col-lection is discussed underMinimize Campfire Impacts.

DISPERSE USE IN PRIS-TINE AREAS. Proliferationof trails and campsites hasalarmed both resource man-agers and travelers acrossNorth America. Even wherevisitor use has remained rela-tively stable, such as theSpanish Peaks Wilderness,MT, campsites are sproutingup in traditionally low useareas. Visit remote or pristineareas only if you are commit-ted to Leave No Trace in thatenvironment. Using estab-lished routes, trails andcampsites is always prefer-able to pioneering new ones.

If you must travel off-trail,use the most durable surfacessuch as rock, snow and ice,gravel, sand, and navigable


water. Dry grasses and sedges(which resemble grasses) arealso naturally durable due to

their hardy root structuresand flexible stems.

Stick to existing trailswhere soils are prone to ero-sion, rare species are pre-sent, or vegetation growsslowly. Surprisingly, some ofthe most sensitive plants andanimals grow in the toughestplaces—like the sandy soilsof southern Utah and therocky ledges of upstate New York.

Avoid creating trails andcampsites. Consult local landmanagers about off-trail trav-el and the appropriate use ofgame trails. In general,spread out when hikingacross vegetation. If each per-son takes a slightly differentroute, a distinct trail is lesslikely to form because nosingle plant receives multiplefootfalls. Walking single fileis acceptable where there islittle chance of tramplingplants.

Off-trail travel may not beappropriate in some areas.For example, golden moun-tain heather grows on a fewrocky ledges in the PisgahNational Forest, NC, andnowhere else on earth. Off-trail hikers and climbers arethe only serious threats to itssurvival. If you absolutelymust travel through fragileterrain, try to place yourfootsteps in the least destruc-tive locations and encourageyour companions to step inexactly the same spots.

Campsites. Select themost durable camping loca-tion possible. In pristineareas, pre-existing campingspots, even those that arelightly used, should be leftalone to recover. Beforeunpacking your tent, lookfor obvious bird nesting

activity and othersigns of animals.Choose an areathat seems safe,free of wildlife,and well suitedto low-impact

camping. Look for a largerock slab, a graveled area, orother equally durable spaceto locate your kitchen. Con-centrate your activities on


this surface whenever possi-ble to protect more fragileareas. If necessary, reserveless durable ground for yoursleeping area.

In pristine areas, impactscan often be avoided bystaying only one night. Inthese areas, vary your routeto water, to the “bathroom”and to sleeping areas to pre-vent trails from forming. Ingeneral, manage your activityto avoid harming the naturalfeatures of the site, especiallythose that do not regenerateor do so very slowly—suchas lichens and trees.

BREAKING CAMP. Beforedeparting, naturalize and dis-guise the site by replacingany rocks or sticks you mayhave moved. Re-coverscuffed-up areas with leaf lit-ter or pine needles. Fluff upmatted grass and make theplace less obvious as a camp-site. As long as overall visitoruse is very low, the site willretain its best qualities. Ideal-ly, no trails or campsites willbe created if visitors dispersetheir activities.

PROTECT WATERRESOURCES. Sand andgravel bars along large riversor the ocean are durable sur-faces that may be suitable forlow-impact camping.However, vegetatedlakeshores and the banks of

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small streams are fragile andeasily eroded. Plants and ani-mals also congregate at thesewater sources, so camp atleast 200 feet (70 adult steps)away unless local guidelinesindicate otherwise. In aridregions, this practice giveswildlife vital access to pot-holes and springs. By dis-tancing camps from water,we are less likely to inadver-

tently pollute them. Even designated sites or

shelters can be too close totrails or water because of ter-rain limitations or a long his-tory of use. Continued use ofsuch sites is preferable to thecreation of new ones.



DISPOSE of Waste Proper ly

PACK IT IN, PACK IT OUT.“Pack it in, pack it out” is afamiliar mantra to seasonedwildland visitors. Any userof recreation lands has aresponsibility to clean upbefore he or she leaves.Inspect your campsite andrest areas for trash orspilled foods. Pack out alltrash and garbage (kitchenwaste), including leftoverfood.

Plan meals to avoid gener-ating messy, smelly garbage.It is critical to wildlife thatwe pack out kitchen waste,such as bacon grease and left-overs. Don’t count on a fireto dispose of it. Garbage thatis half-burned or buried willstill attract animals and makea site unattractive to othervisitors.

Overlooked trash is litter,and litter is not only ugly—it

can also be deadly. Plasticsix-pack holders and plasticbags kill shorebirds, sea tur-tles and marine mammals.

Fishing lines, lures and netsensnare and injure everythingfrom dogs to herons, so don’tleave any behind.

Carry plastic bags to haulyour trash (and maybe some-

one else’s). Before moving onfrom a camp or resting place,search the area for “micro-garbage” such as bits of foodand trash, including cigarettefilters and organic litter likeorange peels, or egg and pis-tachio shells. Invite the kidsin your group to make agame out of scavenging forhuman “sign.”

PRACTICE GOOD SANITATION.Human waste

“¿Donde está el baño?”“Ninahitaji kujisaidie?” Nomatter how it’s said, “Where’sthe bathroom?” is an impor-tant question, even in wild-lands. Where there is nobathroom per se, answeringthe call involves a little pre-planning, some initiative,and a bit of creativity. Thefour objectives of properhuman waste disposal are:

• Avoid polluting watersources.• Eliminate contact withinsects and animals.• Maximize decomposition.• Minimize the chances ofsocial impacts.

Improper disposal ofhuman waste can lead towater pollution, the spreadof illnesses such as Giardia,and unpleasant experiencesfor those who follow. Wher-ever soils are thin or sparse,such as the arctic tundra orabove treeline, rainstormscan flush food wastes andother pollutants from camp-sites directly into watersources. Contaminated wateris common near shelters andhuts in the White Mountainsof the northeastern U.S. dur-ing the summer. Both live-stock and wildlife can alsobe responsible for the pres-ence of bacteria in wildlandareas.

Facilities / outhouses.Whenever possible, take timeto locate and use bathrooms,outhouses, and other devel-oped sites for human wastedisposal.

Cat holes. If no facilitiesare available, deposit solidhuman waste in “cat holes”dug 6 to 8 inches deep atleast 200 feet from water,camp, trails, and drainages.Bring a trowel to dig the hole,and disguise it well after use.The microbes found in soilwill break down feces and thepathogens they contain. Don’tleave human waste underrocks because it will decom-pose slowly there and maywash into water sources. If



the cat hole method is ill suit-ed to your group, try to campwhere an outhouse or pit toi-let is available.

Good cat hole sites isolatewaste from water sourcessuch as lakes, streams, drycreek beds, ravines, bogs, potholes, and other visitors.Whenever possible, use aremote location during theday’s travel to help preventhigh concentrations of catholes near campsites.

Plan ahead to pack out thetoilet paper with you in aplastic bag. This practiceleaves the least impact on thearea. Otherwise, use as littleas possible and bury itdeeply in the cat hole. Burn-ing toilet paper at the site hascaused wildfires, rarely burnscompletely, and is not recom-mended. “Natural” toiletpaper like grass, sticks, andsnow can be surprisinglyeffective. Always pack outfeminine hygiene productsbecause they decomposeslowly and attract animals.

Latrines. When travelingwith children—and in othersituations where cat holesmay not be used properly—itmight be best to dig a latrine.Site the latrine as you woulda cat hole and make sure thatthe route to the latrine isover durable surfaces. Dig atrench 6-8 inches deep, andlong enough to accommodatethe needs of your party. Use

soil from the trench to coverthe feces after each use. Dis-pose of toilet paper by pack-ing it out in a plastic bag orburying it at the bottom ofthe trench. Naturalize the sitebefore leaving.

Carrying waste out. Visi-tor use is often high and soilssparse in alpine and desertareas. Recreation managerstrying to protect humanhealth and water sourcesemploy a spectrum of toiletdesigns and approaches tomanaging human waste—even airlifting waste withhelicopters. One option is tocarry and use a home-madecontainter such as a “pooptube” or a commercial devicedesigned for transportinghuman waste. Dispose of thecontents in pit toilets, porta-johns, or according to pack-age instructions. Local landmanagers may recommendother appropriate disposaltechniques.

Urine. While the odor ofurine can be a problem inarid areas, especially alongriver corridors, it is typicallynot a health concern. Urinatewell away from camps andtrails. In rainy environments,urine attracts wildlife withsalt-deficient diets. Animalssometimes defoliate plants toconsume the salt in urine, sourinate on rocks or bareground rather than on the



vegetation. Where water isplentiful, consider dilutingthe urine by rinsing the site.

Special Environments.Winter. Winter conditions

present special challenges.Water is everywhere—it justhappens to be frozen—andthe soil may be several feetout of reach and as hard as arock. Poop tubes or other“packing out” products maybe the best disposal optionsunless you can locate a patch

of bare ground, usuallyunder a tree where a

trowel might penetratethe duff.

Waterways.Carrying a

portabletoilet hasbecome astandardpractice onmany water-ways and maybe required.At the conclu-sion of a trip,the toilet’sholding tank is

flushed out at an RV or boatdump station. The stationdelivers the waste and toiletpaper to a municipal sewagetreatment plant. The dump-ing of solid human waste inlandfills is usually illegal.While on a river, be sure tosite the toilet on a durablespot where no new trails willbe created to reach it.

WASTEWATER. To washyourself or your dishes, carrywater 200 feet away fromstreams or lakes. Scatterstrained dishwater. Handsanitizers that don’t requirerinsing allow you to washyour hands without worryingabout wastewater disposal.

For dish washing, use aclean pot or expanding jug tocollect water, and take it to awash site at least 200 feetaway from water sources.This lessens trampling oflakeshores, riverbanks andsprings, and helps keep soapand other pollutants out ofthe water. Use hot water,elbow grease, and little or nosoap. Strain dirty dishwaterwith a fine mesh strainerbefore scattering it broadly.Do this well away fromcamp, especially if bears are aconcern. Pack out the con-tents of the strainer in a plas-tic bag along with any uneat-en leftovers. Animals shouldnot be allowed access to anyhuman food and food wastefor reasons discussed in the“Respect Wildlife” section onpage 21.

In developed camp-grounds, food scraps, mudand odors can accumulatewhere wastewater is discard-ed. Contact your camp-ground host for the best dis-posal practices and otherways to Leave No Trace atyour campsite.



SOAPS AND LOTIONS.Soap, even when it’sbiodegradable, can affect thewater quality of lakes andstreams, so minimize its use.Always wash yourself wellaway from shorelines (200feet), and rinse with watercarried in a pot or jug. Thisallows the soil to act as a fil-ter. Where fresh water isscarce, think twice beforeswimming in creeks or pot-holes. Lotion, sunscreen,insect repellent and body oilscan contaminate these vitalwater sources.

DISPOSE OF GAMEENTRAILS. The remains offish and other game shouldbe left well away from trails,water sources, and campsites.In some situations, it may beappropriate to bury, com-pletely burn, or pack out theviscera with the garbage.Official guidelines and rec-ommendations vary consid-erably from place to place, socall ahead for specifics.


LEAVE What You Find

People visit wildlands formany reasons, among themto explore nature’s myster-ies and surprises. When weleave rocks, shells, plants,antlers, feathers, fossils andother objects of interest aswe find them, we pass thegift of discovery on tothose who follow.

It’s the missing elements ofour favorite places thatshould disturb us the most.Leave What You Find meansretaining the special qualitiesof every wildland area—forthe long term.

PRESERVE THE PAST. Dis-covering evidence of earliercultures such as clay pots,rock art, and antique glass isexhilarating, and it’s temptingto take such things home assouvenirs.


Archeological and histori-cal artifacts are reminders ofthe rich human history ofthe landscape and belong toall people for all time. Struc-tures, dwellings and artifactson public lands are protectedby the ArchaeologicalResources Protection Act andthe National Historic Preser-vation Act and should not bedisturbed. These includeseemingly insignificant pot-sherds, arrowheads and log-ging or railroad equipmentfrom 50 or more years ago.It is illegal to excavate, dis-turb or remove theseresources from any publiclands. Observe but do nottouch them.

LEAVE NATURAL FEATURES UNDISTURBED.Load your camera, not yourpacks. Let photos, drawingsand memories comprise yoursouvenirs. Although naturalobjects may be collected onsome public lands, a permit

is often required. Collect-ing is pro-

hibited in

national parks and wildliferefuges. Federal law appliesto wildlands. For example,the federal Migratory BirdTreaty Act protects the nestsand feathers of certain wildbirds. Practice and encouragerestraint.

Help children investigatethe role of sea shells andother natural objects in theirown environments. Remind

them that these things fillimportant ecological niches:an antler is gnawed by a kan-garoo rat; a scorpion findsshade under a piece of drift-wood; some petrified woodshelters the entrance of apika’s burrow; and a featheris woven into the nest of anosprey. Objects in naturederive much of their beautyfrom their surroundings andnever look quite the sameback home.

AVOID SPREADING NON-NATIVE PLANTS AND ANI-MALS. Invasive species ofplants, animals, and organ-isms can cause large-scale,irreversible changes toecosystems by eliminatingnative species over time.According to the U.S. Fish


LEAVE What You Find

and Wildlife Service, invasivespecies have contributed tothe decline of 42 percent ofthe country’s threatened andendangered species. At least1.5 million acres of NationalPark Service lands are severe-ly infested. Invasive plantsaffect every habitat typefound in national forests andBureau of Land Managementlands in the U.S. There is noeffective treatment for manyinvasive species and we arelosing the native, living nat-ural heritage protected landswere intended to conserve.

Recreationists play a rolein the spread of invasives bytransporting live animals,plants and seeds, and agentsof disease such as Giardia.The potential for new infesta-tions increases every day asmore and more outdoorseekers travel from one wild-land to another around theglobe. On campsites in theBob Marshall Wilderness,MT, for example, three of thefour most common speciesare non-native plants.

We can help prevent thespread of invasive species byfollowing a few practical sug-gestions.

• Don’t transport flowers,weeds, or aquatic plantsinto wildlands.

• Empty and clean yourpacks, tents, boats, fishingequipment and other gearafter every trip. Water,

mud and soil may containharmful seeds, spores, ortiny plants and animals.

• Clean the dirt out of yourboots or tire treads.

• Never discard or releaselive bait.

• Make sure pack stock andpets are immunized, andtheir coats are free ofseeds, twigs, and harmfulpests such as ticks.

• If you carry hay or otherfeed, make sure it’s weed-free. Feed pack animalsfood that is certified weed-free for at least three daysbefore entering wildlands.

• Help landowners or landmanaging agencies initiatecontrol efforts by alertingthem to infested areas.


LEAVE What You Find

The natural appearance ofmany recreation areas hasbeen compromised by thecareless use of fires and thedemand for firewood.Campfires are beautiful bynight. But the enormousrings of soot-scarredrocks—overflowing withashes, partly burned logs,food and trash—areunsightly. More important,campfires can and do ignitewildfires.

Some of us grew up withthe tradition of campfires.But they are no longer essen-tial to comfort and foodpreparation. Many lastingimpacts associated withcampfires can be avoided byusing lightweight stoves, firepans, mound fires and otherLeave No Trace techniques.

USE A STOVE. Visitorsshould carry a stove, pot,matches and sufficient fuel tocook all meals. Build fires

only when con-ditions are

right—the

danger of wildfire is low,downed and dead wood isplentiful, and there is suffi-cient time to prepare the fire

MINIMIZE Campfire Impacts

site, burn all the wood tocold ash, and clean up.

Fires are inappropriate infragile environments whereplant growth is extremelyslow. Wood from an arcticwillow or alpine krumholz,which is hundreds of yearsold, will burn only a fewshort minutes.

BUILD A MINIMUM IMPACTFIRE. Consider whether a firemakes good sense at your pic-nic or campsite.

If a campfire is important to you:

• Ask about pertinent regula-tions and campfire man-agement techniques.

• Judge the wind, weather,location, and wood avail-ability. Decide whether it’ssafe and responsible tobuild a campfire.

• Where there are no firerings or grates, bring a firepan or set aside time tobuild a mound fire.

• Have a trowel or smallshovel and a container forsaturating the ashes withwater.

Use an established firering. If you camp near anexisting rock ring, use itinstead of building a newone. The most inviting firerings are of a reasonable sizeand free of excess ashes, half-burned wood and trash.



Leave a fire ring that encour-ages others who want a fireto use it.

Beach fires. A gravel baror beach campfire is made byexcavating a shallow depres-sion in the sand or gravelalong the shorelines ofoceans or large rivers. Makesure to remove all the ash,and scatter it before refillingthe depression. If left inplace, the ash will “float”through the sand or gravel,and the fire site will be obvi-ous to others.

Pit fires. Pit fires arecampfires built in a shallowpit where there is no overly-ing vegetation. Use gravely,rocky or sandy sites only.Avoid organic soils and duff,and places where the firecould damage plants or othernatural features. Remove andscatter the ashes before fillingin and camouflaging the pit.

Mound or pan fires. Firepans are metal oil pans oraluminum roasting pans thatmake good containers forlow-impact fires. Use a panon a durable, unvegetatedsurface away from cliffs oroverhangs. Line itwith a few

inches of inorganic soil, andelevate it with stones to pre-vent damage to vegetationand soils below. Drill two orthree holes through the sideof the pan to attach it to apack with cord for transport.

Mound fires are built onpedestals of sand, gravel, oron soil with a low organiccontent. Try to disturb as lit-tle vegetation as possiblewhen collecting this material.Haul it to a durable fire siteusing a stuff sack (it willrequire several loads). Con-struct a pedestal 6-8 inchesthick and 18-24 inches indiameter on top of a tarp orground cloth. This helpsfacilitate cleanup. The clothcan be rolled up under theedge of the mound to pre-vent embers from singeing it.A thick enough mound insu-lates the ground and the tarpor ground cloth from theheat of the fire. Be sure toreturn the soil to its sourcewhen the fire is completelyout.




USE DEAD AND DOWNEDWOOD. Keep fires small.Don’t snap branches off oftrees, either living or dead,because this scars them. Forexample, in the early 1980s,95 percent of the trees inEagle Cap Wilderness, OR,campsites were damaged bypeople collecting firewood ordamaging tree trunks. Use

only sticksfrom theground that

can be broken by hand. Larg-er pieces of downed woodplay an important andunique role in nutrition,water cycling and soil pro-ductivity. They provide shel-ter for wildlife such as lizardsand, while decaying, germi-nation sites for many plantspecies.

Firewood smaller than thediameter of your wristbreaks easily and burns com-pletely to ash, making cleanup easier. Half-burned logspresent a disposal problem—and often a disagreeable sightfor the next campsite visitor.The use of hatchets, axes orsaws isn’t necessary or desir-able. In the backcountry,gather firewood en route toyour camp so the areaaround your site retains anatural appearance.

MANAGE YOUR CAMP-FIRE. No matter whichcampfire technique youemploy:

• Never leave a fire unattended.

• Don’t try to burn foil-linedpackets, leftover food, orother garbage that wouldhave to be removed later.

• Burn the wood completelyto ash: Stop feeding thefire, and give yourself anhour or more to add allthe unburned stick ends.

• Saturate the ash with water.Make sure it’s cool to thetouch, and remove anytrash.

• Scatter all the ashes widelywith a small shovel or pot lid.

• Restore the appearance ofthe fire site.

In popular areas, leave asingle, small, clean rock ringcentered in the campsite.Dismantle and clean up anyextra fire rings. If a fire grateis present, don’t build or usea rock ring. Leave the grateclean and ready for the nextperson. In remote areas,clean up thoroughly and dis-guise the fire site to make itappear as natural anduntouched as possible.

RESPECT Wildl i fe

The stark truth is, if wewant wild animals, we haveto make sacrifices.

—Colin Tudge, Wildlife Conservation

Encounters with wildlifeinspire tall tales and longmoments of wonder. Unfor-tunately, wildlife around theworld faces threats from lossand fragmentation of habitat,invasive species, pollution,over-exploitation, poachingand disease. Protected landsoffer a last refuge from some,but not all, of these prob-lems. Consequently, wild ani-mals need recreationists whowill promote their survivalrather than add to the diffi-culties they already face.

We know that animalsrespond to people in differ-ent ways. Some species adaptreadily to humans in theirdomain, resume their normalbehaviors and are said to be“habituated.” Other animalsflee from humans, abandon-ing their young or criticalhabitat. Still others areattracted and endangered byhuman food and trash.

Because outdoor recreationis dispersed over large areasand at all times of the year,its impacts on wildlife can beequally extensive. Fish, birds,and reptiles, as well as mam-mals, are affected by peopleusing their habitats. We areresponsible for coexistingpeacefully with wildlife.

OBSERVE FROM A DISTANCE. Always watch orphotograph animals from asafe distance to avoid star-tling them or forcing them toflee. Do not follow orapproach them. If you’rehunting, know your gameand take only safe, cleanshots.

Use the observation areas,platforms and trails providedin many areas, and bringbinoculars, spotting scopes,and telephoto lenses to watchwildlife. Back away if animalsreact to your presence. Toleave the area, move awayfrom the animal even if youmust detour from yourintended travel direction. Youhave more options inyour

move-mentsthan animalsdo. Treat them generously.

Avoid quick movementsand direct eye contact, whichmay be interpreted as aggres-sion. Don’t disturb wildlife(i.e. by shouting to get theirattention) to get a betterphoto. If animals are on themove, stay out of their line oftravel. Travel quietly except inbear or mountain lion coun-try. Don’t hike at night where


nocturnal predators may pre-sent a hazard to safety.

Adult behaviors influencethe relationship of childrento the natural world. Showrespect and restraint byteaching children not toapproach, pet or feed wildanimals. Always keep chil-dren in immediate sight.They’re often the same size asanimal prey. Don’t encircle orcrowd wildlife, tease orattempt to pick up a wildanimal. Young animals,removed or touched by well-meaning people, may beabandoned by their parents.If you find an animal in trou-ble, notify a game warden.

AVOID SENSITIVE TIMESAND HABITATS. Considerthe seasonal stresses thatwildlife face. In some situa-tions, avoid their habitats, foryour safety and the animals’.For example, in Mark TwainNational Forest, MO, winter-time disturbance of endan-gered Indiana and gray batsgreatly decreases their chanceof survival. Grizzly bears fre-

RESPECT Wildl i fe

quent berry patches in latesummer in Montana. Eaglesand songbirds are wary ofhumans and trails whenchoosing nesting territoriesin early spring in many wild-land areas.

In general, animals aresensitive to recreationistswhile pursuing and defend-ing mates and territories,birthing, guarding young ornests, and when food isscarce. The more you under-stand about a species, themore considerate you can beof the animal’s needs andtemperament, especially atcritical times and in criticalplaces.

NEVER FEED ANIMALS.Feeding wildlife damagestheir health, alters naturalbehaviors, and exposes themto predators and other dan-gers. Headlines are madewhen wildlife is attracted tohumans and their food. Bearsget the most attention fortearing into tents, coolersand cars in search of a meal,but campers more commonly



have to deal with the annoy-ance of rodents, raccoons orbirds looking for a handout.These animals pose littlethreat to human safety, buttheir presence is a nuisance,they can be vectors for dis-ease, and their reliance onhuman food is a detriment totheir own well-being.

Human foods and prod-ucts are harmful to wildlifebecause animals would oth-erwise forage and eat anutritious diet derived fromtheir natural environment.Serious illness or death canoccur when wildlife con-sumes food wrappers, vehi-cle antifreeze and other“inedibles.”

Animals are adept oppor-tunists. When offered thetemptations of an untidybackcountry kitchen or ahandout from a curiouscamper, they can overcometheir natural wariness ofhumans. Aggressive ordestructive behavior may fol-low, and in conflicts withhumans, animals ultimatelylose. Prospects of an easymeal also lure wildlife intohazardous locales such ascampsites and trailheads,roads and entry points, wherethey can be chased by dogsor hit by vehicles. They mayalso congregate in unnaturalnumbers, increasing stressand the spread of diseasewithin their populations.

STORE FOOD ANDTRASH SECURELY. “Food”includes garbage, cannedfood, stock feed, pet food,fuel and scented or flavoredtoiletries. The salt in hikingboots, backpacks or clothingalso attracts many smallmammals. Appropriate stor-age and transportation meth-ods vary considerably fromplace to place, so consultlocal land managers about thebest practices. Keep a cleancamp by removing allgarbage and even the tiniestfood scraps. Be careful not todrop food on the trail as well.

In bear country, hang“food” from tree limbs 12 feetoff the ground, 6 feet fromthe tree’s trunk, and 6 feetbelow the supporting limb,or store it in speciallydesigned bear-resistant canis-ters or on-site lockers. Canis-ters are available for rent andsale at sporting goods suppli-ers and some land manage-ment agencies. Used properly,they ensure a good night’ssleep for you and a naturaldiet for bears.

RESPECT Wildl i fe

Today, we must share wild-lands with people of allrecreational persuasions.There is simply not enoughcountry for every categoryof enthusiast to have exclu-sive use of trails, lakes,rivers, and campgrounds.

Yet the subject of outdoor“etiquette” is often neglected.We’re reluctant to examineour personal behaviors, leastof all in wildlands where, tomany, a sense of freedom isparamount.

RESPECT OTHER VISITORS AND PROTECTTHE QUALITY OF THEIREXPERIENCE. Some peoplevisit wildlands to enjoy quietand solitude. Others comefor comraderie. Even remotewildlands are under increas-ing use pressure. So, when-ever possible, find an estab-lished campsite out of sightand sound of other visitors.

Choose to maintain acooperative spirit in wild-lands. Our interactionsshould reflect the knowledgethat we can and do rely oneach other when mishapsoccur. More often than not,our experiences ultimately


BE CONSIDERATE of Other Vis i tor s

CONTROL YOUR PET.Wildlife and pets are not agood mix—even on a leash,dogs harass wildlife and dis-turb other visitors. The bestoption is to leave them athome. Obedience championor not, every dog is a potentialcarrier of diseases that infectwildlife.

If you must travel withyour pet, check for restric-tions in advance. Mostnational parks prohibit dogson all trails. Ensure your ani-mal is in good condition forthe trip. Dogs should havecurrent vaccinations to avoidbeing carriers of or contract-

ing infectious diseases suchas rabies and parvo-virus,especially in areas with wolfpopulations. Always use acollar and a short leash tocontrol your dog. Removepet feces from trails, picnicareas, and campsites by dis-posing of it in a cat hole, asyou would human waste, orin a trash can.

RESPECT Wildl i fe


depend on our treatment ofothers and their attitudestoward us. Although ourmotivations and sense ofadventure vary, there’s alwaysroom on the trail for peoplewith open minds and gener-ous hearts.

YIELD TO OTHERS. The lit-tle things are often the mostimportant. Simple courtesiessuch as offering a friendlygreeting on the trail, wearingearth-toned clothing to blendin with the scenery, steppingaside to let someone pass,waiting patiently for a turn,or preserving the quiet, allmake a difference.

Show your respect tonative peoples whose com-munities and seasonal campssupport a subsistence lifestylein a wildland setting. Befriendly, unobtrusive andself-sufficient. Take note oftribal land boundaries, askpermission to cross privatelands, and obey special lawsand restrictions. Uphold vol-untary closures of publiclands for Native Americanreligious ceremonies.

Likewise, don’t disturb thelivestock or equipment ofranchers, anglers, loggers,trappers, miners and otherswho derive their income fromthe permitted use of publiclands. Leave gates open orshut, as you find them.

Groups leading or ridinglivestock have the right-of-

way on trails. Hikers andbicyclists should move to thedownhill side and talk quietlyto the riders as they pass,since horses and other packstock frighten easily. Stay incontrol while moving quicklywhether you are jogging, ski-ing or riding a mountainbike. Before passing others,politely announce your pres-ence and proceed with cau-tion. Boaters, climbers,campers and other visitors topopular areas frequently findthemselves waiting in line.Lend a hand, if appropriate,to help those ahead.

KEEP A LOW PROFILE. Takerest breaks a short distancefrom the trail on durable sur-faces, such as rock or bareground. If the vegetationaround you is thick or easilycrushed, pick a wide spot inthe trail so others can pass by.If possible, camp out of sightand sound of trails and othervisitors.


LET NATURE’S SOUNDSPREVAIL. Avoid the use ofbright lights, radios, electron-ic games and other intrusivedevices. To some, technologyis a necessity even in wild-lands. To others, it is inap-propriate. Avoid conflicts bymaking a conscious effort toallow everyone his or herown experience.

Some outdoor activities arenecessarily loud. The dis-



charge of firearms can beheard for miles, the barkingfrom a sled dog team almostas far. As much as possible,keep the noise down, espe-cially at night or in remoteareas. Sight-in rifles on a fir-ing range. Teach dogs to bequiet. Wear headphones tolisten to music. Keep voiceslow. Use cellular phones dis-creetly. Most of all, tune in tothe sounds of nature.

WILDLAND ETHICS

Those of us with a stake in thefuture of wilderness must begin todevelop… an agenda which willplace a clear, strong, nationalfocus on the question of theresponsibility of the wildernessuser to wilderness.

—Paul Petzoldt

Paul Petzoldt believed in the powerof the “wild outdoors” to make usbetter, more capable, compassionatepeople. Over a 70-year career hetraveled wild lands around the globeteaching technical outdoor skills,leadership and “expedition behavior”to thousands of young adults. Paulwas an advocate nonpareil of youthand wilderness. The father of “mini-mum impact” died in 1999 at the ageof 91.

Like others, Paul noticed that out-door recreation altered the land, buthe was the first to develop a system-atic approach to reducing the impactsof camping and outdoor travel. Atfirst this meant tossing tin cans intothe willows where they wouldn’t beseen and building smaller fires. Ulti-mately, it meant an entirely new wayof seeing and appreciating nature.

Paul thought that people couldenjoy wildlands without harmingthem—if they were educated. Mil-

lions of outdoor enthusiasts haveshared his dream of sustainable out-door recreation. But that dream isfading as more and more acres arelost to development around theglobe. The pursuit of non-motorizedoutdoor recreation, long considered a“non-consumptive” use of wildlands,is taking a toll on native species, theappearance of the land, and the qual-ity of our experiences.

We can travel the world, climb thepeaks, ride the waves, float the rivers,and sail down the single track, butwe won’t save a single acre unless weput our experiences to use as wild-land advocates. The future of wild-lands and wildlife depends onresponsible recreation—and a wholelot more.


Contact land managementagencies and groups in yourarea to learn how you canhelp. Be active in the plan-ning and management ofareas that are important toyou. Volunteer for clean upefforts, trail maintenance,and rehabilitation projects, ororganize them for your localarea. Get involved and letyour opinions on land use beknown. Today, that’s what anoutdoor ethic is all about.

A FINAL Chal lenge

Information on obtainingLeave No Trace curriculummaterials, courses and train-ings is available by calling800-332-4100 or visiting theextensive LNT website:www.LNT.org.

Another resource for visi-tors using motorized ormechanized craft or vehiclesis the Tread Lightly program.Contact Tread Lightly, Inc. at(800) 966-9900 orwww.treadlightly.org.


A FEW TERMS Defined

cryptobiotic soils: Living soil “crusts” containing mosses, lichens and algae.

established campsite: Campsite made obvious by devegetated ground or “barren core.”

invasive species: Plant or animal that aggressively out-competes native species.

pristine: A place where signs of human impacts are absent or difficult to detect.

social paths: Paths created by travelling on non-durable surfaces between campsites andother sites of interest.

krumholz: Stunted forest characteristic of timberline.

Written by Tami Pokorny Illustrations by Scott Knauer

The Leave No Trace educational program promotes skillsand ethics to support the sustainable use of wildlands and natural areas. The concept originated in the U.S. as a way tohelp recreationists minimize their impacts while enjoying theoutdoors. In 1991, the U.S. Forest Service teamed with theNational Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS) and theBureau of Land Management as partners in the Leave NoTrace educational program. NOLS, a recognized leader inminimum-impact camping practices, became involved as theprovider of Leave No Trace materials and training.

Today, the non-profit organization The Leave No TraceCenter for Outdoor Ethics, established in 1994, manages thenational program. The Center unites four federal landmanagement agencies—the U.S. Forest Service, NationalPark Service, Bureau of Land Management, and U.S. Fish andWildlife Service—with manufacturers, outdoor retailers, user groups, educators, and individuals who share acommitment to maintain and protect our wildlands andnatural areas for future enjoyment.

Humans need to know about wildplaces, to experience them andunderstand the rhythms they follow.We need to contemplate our placewithin these wildlands, to discernwhat it is that draws us there. Weneed to carry with us an ethic thatrecognizes the value of wild places,and acknowledges our responsibilityto treat them with respect, and applygood judgement as we visit and travelwithin them. We need to care for wildplaces as if they were our homesbecause, in many ways, they are. To dothis is good for us, it’s good for thosewho will surely follow, and it’s goodfor the wild places, wherever theymay be found.

Contact land management agenciesand groups in your area and see howyou can help. Be active in the planningand management of areas that areimportant to you. Volunteer for trailclean ups and maintenance, habitatrestoration efforts, and public educa-tion programs, or organize them foryour local area. Get involved and letyour opinions on land use be known.Support wildlands and sustainablerecreation.

Information on obtaining LeaveNo Trace curriculum materials,courses and trainings is availableby calling 800-332-4100 or visitingthe extensive Leave No Tracewebsite: www.LNT.org.

A FINAL Challenge

NOTES

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Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor EthicsPO Box 997

Boulder, Colorado 80306http://www.LNT.org

©Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics/National Outdoor Leadership SchoolLeave No Trace Skills & Ethics Series

Published 4/01

For more Leave No Trace information or to order materials,call1-800-332-4100 or visit www.LNT.org.

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SKILLS & ETHICS - Leave No TraceDEVELOP THE SKILLS. Know the skills and gear that are needed for your chosen activity. Learn from an expe-rienced friend, take a course, or hire a competent