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PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 1
Skill Acquisition
Pack 3
Theories of Learning
Name ______________
Group ______________
Lesson ______________
PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 2
Learning & Performance
Learning can be defined as a more or less permanent change in behavior/performance.
Stages of Learning
The psychologists Fitts and Posner classify learning into three distinct stages of learning:
Cognitive This is the beginner level where the performer first understands what needs to
be done and forms a mental image of the motor programme. The performer
sees the subroutines for the first time and needs to think about the sequence
and timing of them. This is learnt through observation/Social Learning.
Associative This is the practice stage where the performer tries to refine the sequence and
timing of the subroutines which need to be performed more consistently. The
performer models their performance upon the correct technique; indeed they
may never leave this lengthy stage.
Autonomous This is when the performer is at an advanced level of learning and can produce
the movement without thinking. They can perform the skills automatically
which allows the performer to concentrate on finer aspects of the skill, or adapt
their motor programme as required. A performer may never reach this stage,
and in fact will not remain in this stage if they stop practicing.
Task 1 – Watch the clip of the tumble turn and decide which stage of learning you are in for this
motor programme. Explain to your partner why you think this.
My stage of learning in a tumble turn:
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Explanation:
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PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 3
Types of Feedback
There are six types of feedback (notice they are opposites) a coach can give a performer.
Task 2 - Using the ‘Matching & Ranking’ cards complete the table below:
Type of Feedback Description
Intrinsic Feedback
Extrinsic Feedback
Positive Feedback
Negative Feedback
Knowledge of Performance
Knowledge of Results
PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 4
As a sports coach it is important to give appropriate feedback to performers. This clearly depends on
the performer’s stage of learning:
Task 3 – Looking at the two pictures below, which type of feedback is appropriate for these stages of
learning? Justify your answer.
Extension discussion: What are the advantages and disadvantages of Extrinsic Feedback?
PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 5
Homework – Exam Questions
As a tennis player moves from the early ‘stage of learning’ through to the final stage of learning, the type of feedback they use will change. 1) Name the early and the final stages of learning, and describe the characteristics of
each. (3 marks)
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...................................................................................................................................... 2) Describe how the ‘feedback’ that a tennis player uses will change between these
two stages of learning. (3marks)
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PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 6
3) Figure 3 shows rate of two badminton players, during a number of trials, performing a serve into
a target area. Using Figure 3, identify the stage of learning of player B and state two
characteristics of a performer in this stage of learning. [3 marks]
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...................................................................................................................................... 4) Which one of the following statements accurately describes the types of feedback most
appropriate for autonomous stage learners? [1 mark]
A Intrinsic, Positive, Knowledge of Result
B Intrinsic , Negative, Knowledge of Result
C Intrinsic, Negative, Knowledge of Performance
D Extrinsic, Negative, Knowledge of Performance
O
O
O
O
PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 7
Learning plateau.
When learning sports skills the level of successful performance changes over time, thus learning can be
represented graphically.
Task 4 – In small groups record the success of a group member performing a novel task 20 times. Plot
the results to show their Learning Curve.
Graph to illustrate ________________ performing juggling.
Describe the shape of the graph:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
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Low
Succ
ess
rate
H
igh
Time/Trials
PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 8
Compare your learning curve to the one above. It should fit the description below:
Description of the learning curve:
“initial low level of performance”
”followed by a rapid improvement in performance”
“ until the plateau in performance”
Reasons for plateau:
No more improvement in performance takes place because of a number of reasons:
• Targets set too low/lack challenge or too high
• Fatigue/lack of fitness/lack of rest periods/reached physical capability
• Lack of variety of practice methods
• Lack of motivation/interest/boredom/low level of aspiration/confidence/self-belief
• Mastered task
• Limit of coach’s knowledge
Definition of a plateau:
PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 9
• Fatigued/ lack of
fitness/ reached
physical capability
• Lost interest/ lack of
motivation
• Mastered task/
target set too low/
lack of challenge
• Targets set too high
• Limit of coach’s
knowledge/ poor
coaching
Ways to overcome
plateau
• Distribute practice/ allow rest
periods/ improve performer’s
fitness
• Offer rewards/ encouragement/
praise
• Vary practices / make more
interesting
• Resetting of goals/ make tasks
more challenging/ more
attainable
• Provide feedback
• Better quality coaching/ get a
new coach
External
reasons
Cognitive
reasons
Physical
reasons
Possible causes of
plateau
Coaches need to be able to help performers overcome the plateau and continue to make progress in
their learning. There are several strategies to overcome plateau:
Strategies to solve plateau:
• Reset goals/make tasks more challenging/break skill down into parts
• Distribute practice/allow rest periods
• Use Mental Rehearsal
• Make performer fitter
• Vary practices/ make more interesting/change role /responsibility
• Offer extrinsic rewards/encouragement/praise/positive reinforcement
• Make competitive
• Discuss the lack of progress/explain the plateau effect
• Better quality coaching/new coach
PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 10
Typical exam question
1) Games players may find that their skill performance reaches a plateau. Suggest possible
solutions that a coach could use to minimise a learning plateau. (4 marks)
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Marking principles
___________________ underlined incorrect ↑ key word missing
CognitiveTheory
Insight Learning (Gestalt)
Gestalt theorists came up with the notion of Insight Learning. It is based on the performer having a go at
the whole task to promote the performer’s own understanding of the process required to achieve the
result. For instance understanding the relationship between different factors that may influence the
whole problem rather than learning specific movement patterns. Practices will involve thinking
(cognitive process) which allows the performer’s to develop their own tactics/ strategies/
understanding in a situation. This enables the performer to modify their actions without the need for
specific input from the coach since they are able to apply their own tactics rather than rely on a coach. It
also helps them to identify their own role in a game or activity. Finally a major benefit of this type of
learning is that it is better than always being told what to do by the coach, so the performer learns to
think for themselves to solve future problems. However, the performer/team must have the
skill/experience of thinking for themselves to develop a solution, also Insight Learning is a time
consuming tool for learning.
Creditworthy
PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 11
Typical exam question
Explain the term ‘insight learning’ and suggest how this approach could have a positive effect on
learning to long jump. (3 marks)
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Behaviourism
Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
Operant conditioning is defined as “the use of reinforcement to ensure actions are repeated.”
Operant conditioning is based on trial and error learning, where behaviour is shaped by receiving
consequences to performer’s responses. Learning is based on strengthening the relationship between
the stimulus and the response/ S-R Bond.
Reinforcement and punishment may be given:
• Positive Reinforcement – when a pleasant consequence is given following a desired response
to increase the likelihood of it being repeated. E.g. a player receiving praise for making a good
pass.
• Negative Reinforcement – when an unpleasant consequence is taken away following a desired
response to increase the likelihood of it being repeated. E.g. when a coach stops criticising the
player when the player eventually makes the right pass.
• Punishment - when an unpleasant consequence is given following an undesired response to
decrease the likelihood of it being repeated. E.g. a coach makes the performer do press ups for
making the wrong pass.
Task 5 – In pairs explain each of these terms with reference to the basketball lay-up drill you
have just done.
PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 12
Task 6 – Play ‘Reinforcement Referee’!
Reinforcement Referee
Consider the example and raise your card
Green card for strengthening the SR bond Red card for weakening the SR bond
A coach could use operant conditioning to shape behaviour. A basketball coach could:
• Manipulate the environment – use cones to highlight the required responses, and then
reinforce as behaviour approaches the response. E.g. circles to indicate footwork for a lay-up
drill in basketball.
• Use conditioned games – enforce rules in mini games to encourage certain behaviour. E.g.
stipulate ‘no dribbling’ rule in 3 on 3 basketball game to reinforce preference for shooting or
passing.
• Make tasks easier- lower the baskets to give success.
Manipulate the Environment
Highlight target areas:
Mark out the correct footwork
for the lay up approach
Play conditioned games:
Enforce a ‘no dribbling’ rule in
a 3 on 3 basketball game
Use operant conditioning
to reinforce the response
Coaches can alter the practice environment so
that performers can produce a desired response
PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 13
Task 7 - Complete the ‘missing words’ worksheet below using all the words once only.
--------------------- can be encouraged and desired responses strengthened via positive and negative
reinforcement. Behaviour can also be discouraged and inappropriate responses --------------------- via
punishment.
Positive reinforcement is the presentation of a ------------------------ following a desired response in order to
increase the likelihood of future repetition. An example of this is the performer receiving a -------------- when
he or she reaches the required level in swimming or being praised by the coach for a successful
performance.
---------------- reinforcement should not be confused with punishment, as it is removal of an --------------
stimulus once the correct performance is achieved. For example, a coach ------------------ shouting at the
performer when he or she performs the skill correctly. This increases the -------------------------- that the
desired response will be repeated.
Punishment is used to reduce or ------------------------------------- undesirable behavior. For example, in a game
of football a penalty is given for a foul within the penalty area, or an athlete may be given -----------------
each time he or she makes errors in a training drill.
Badge press-ups stops unpleasant satisfier behavior
eliminate weakened negative likelihood
PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 14
Typical exam question
Define the term operant conditioning and explain how a coach can use operant conditioning to develop a performer’s skills. ...................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................(4 marks)
Social Learning
Observational Learning (Bandura)
This social learning theory relates to Bandura’s ‘four stage’ model:
Attention
• the performer must be attracted to the demonstration in order to copy the behaviour
Retention
• the performer must remember the demonstration /have a mental image
Motor Production
• the performer must be physically capable to copy the demonstration/ have the opportunity to try it
Motivation
• the performer must want to copy the demonstration/receive reinforcement
PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 15
A
R
M
M
Attention demonstrations should highlight the key areas of the skill and be attractive to the learner
Retention the performer must remember the information to reproduce it/ create a mental image
Motor production the performer must be physically capable of reproducing the skill and have an opportunity to practice
Motivation the performer must be willing to reproduce the skill drive/rewards can be used
Bandura's model theory of
observational learning
Effective Demonstrations are …
Attractive
Accurate
Visually powerful
Done by a
significant other/
role model
Can be clearly seen
by the performer
Relevant
Memorable
PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 16
Typical exam question
Explain the factors that can influence the effectiveness of attention, retention and motor production in
observational learning.
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(4marks)
Constructivism
Constructivism suggests that the athlete works with a coach or MKO to build their learning. It is based
on the concept that interaction with others plays a vital role in learning.
Social Development Theory - Vygotsky
Social learning tends to precede (i.e. come before) Social development. For Vygotsky, the environment
in which children grow up will influence how they think and what they think about.
During an athlete’s early development, skills are learned from the coach/MKO by a process called inter-
psychological learning, where the athlete is influenced by the external advice and feedback they are
given.
As development continues, learning from within occurs whereby the athlete thinks about and
constructs actions based on what they have learnt. This is known as intra-psychological learning.
Task 8- Use the lego pieces provided to ‘model’ Vygotsky’s theory. Explain the key terms to your
partner.
MKO - More Knowledgeable Other
To be effective the MKO needs to be
experienced and offer the correct
advice.
The MKO exhibits values so these
should be acceptable sporting
behavior.
PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 17
Zone of Proximal Development
This model suggests the athlete and their coach co-construct knowledge to develop skills based on what
they need to do next. The range of skill that can be developed with collaboration exceeds what can be
attained alone.
Task 9- Use the lego pieces provided to ‘model’ the Zone of Proximal Development. Explain the
key terms to your partner.
Stage 1
What can I do?
Stage 2
What can I do with help?
Stage 3
What can I yet do?
What next??
PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 18
Task 10 - Sketch your model below!
A model to illustrate Constructivism
PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 19
Typical exam questions
1) Vygotsky suggested that a performer learns skills via a process called Constructivism. Describe
the three stages the performer might use to build their learning using the Zone of Proximal
Development.
(3 marks)
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2) Evaluate how effective Vygotsky’s process of Constructivism might be in helping a performer to
learn skills. (3 marks)
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Homework task - Revise for a topic test on the principles and theories of learning and
performance.