Skeleton Excavation Manual

Poul

to

n Hu

man Remains Team

Skeleton Manual

Part 1 In the Field

Editor: Ray Carpenter

Seventh Edition

Second Revision - May 2013

Poulton Skeleton Manual -ii- 17-Aug-2013

Copyright Notice

Copyright 2013. This manual is the Copyright of Raymond Carpenter, Stephen Crane and Carla Burrell

who have asserted their right to be identified as the authors of the work in accordance with the Copyright,

Design and Patent Act 1988.

Poulton Skeleton Manual -iii- 17-Aug-2013

Table of Contents

List of Contributors 1

Editors Note 1

1 Introduction 3

1.1 Legal and Ethical Considerations 3 1.2 Overview of Human Remains at Poulton 3 1.3 Disarticulated Bone 3 1.4 Articulated Burials 4

2 Excavation 5

2.1 Cleaning In-Situ 5 2.2 Recording 5 2.3 Lifting and Bagging the Skeleton 8

3 Post-Excavation Cleaning 11

3.1 Skeletons 11

4 Cremations 13

4.1 Cremation Pits 13 4.2 Vessels 13 4.3 Recording 13 4.4 Post-Excavation Treatment 15

5 References and Bibliography 17

6 Appendices 19

Appendix A Bones of the Human Skeleton 21 Appendix B Skeleton Context sheet: Worked example 23 Appendix C Standard Context sheet for Grave Cut: Worked example 25 Appendix D Standard Context sheet for Grave Fill: Worked example 27 Appendix E Cremation sheet: Worked example 29

Poulton Skeleton Manual -iv- 17-Aug-2013

Poulton Skeleton Manual -1- 17-Aug-2013

List of Contributors Steve Crane, ex-Poulton Research Project

Carla Burrell, Liverpool John Moores University

Editors Note As Editor, I take full responsibility for this document. Everything correct belongs to Steve and/or Carla;

the mistakes are all mine.

Ray Carpenter

May 2013


1 Introduction Ray Carpenter & Steve Crane

This Skeleton Manual is a stand-alone companion to the Poulton Research Project Site Manual [Emery,

2005]. It provides a detailed handbook for the treatment of human remains at all stages of the

archaeological process. It is in two parts: In the Field and In the Laboratory. This, Part 1, covers

excavation and cleaning. It focuses on the types of human remains that have been found to date at

Poulton, together with the procedures developed by the Poulton Research Project to handle these

remains. It is not a general guide to the processing of human remains.

1.1 Legal and Ethical Considerations The overriding principle is that human remains must always be treated with respect, care and dignity.

It is a privilege to be allowed to excavate the remains of another human being. We adhere strictly to the

code of ethics published by the British Association for Biological Anthropology and Osteoarchaeology

[BABAO Code of Ethics, 2010].

There are important legal restrictions on the excavation and subsequent processing of human remains.

This is an area where the legal situation is currently under review by the Ministry of Justice (MoJ), and

may be subject to change in the near future [MoJ, 2011]. Excavation at Poulton is at present licensed by

the Ministry of Justice under the terms of the 1857 Burial Act.

1.2 Overview of Human Remains at Poulton Most of the human remains found at Poulton are from Christian inhumations dating to the medieval

period. This manual concentrates on the processing of such material. However, some cremations from

much earlier periods have also been found (see Section 4) and it is always possible that material from

other epochs will be found in the future.

Human bones found at Poulton can be classified into two categories:

a) Articulated Burials: where bones are still recognisably in place in the correct position. A single grave may contain the remains of one or more individuals. Each articulated burial is

assigned a skeleton number.

b) Disarticulated Bones: where bones have been disturbed and can no longer be associated with an individual burial. Disarticulated bones may be found completely out of context (for example,

where they have been disturbed by ploughing), or in the fill of an articulated burial (for

example, where that burial disturbed an earlier one), or deposited in a specially dug charnel pit.

Disarticulated bones are identified by year of excavation and the context in which they are

found.

Note: A skull is a lwa ys treated in the same way as an articulated burial, even if no other bones can be

associated with it.

1.3 Disarticulated Bone Where disarticulated bones are found in the fill of an articulated burial, they should be cleaned, and

bagged as disarticulated human bone from the grave fill context. If there is any doubt whether bones

belong to the skeleton or not, bag them as part of the articulated bones and let the Human Remains

Team resolve the issue.

Where significant quantities of disarticulated bone are found in their own charnel pit, they should be

cleaned, photographed and recorded as part of the standard context sheet for the fill of that pit. In any

other situation, they do not need to be recorded in detail, but should be treated as ordinary finds and

placed in the finds tray for that particular context.

A disarticulated bone may be of special interest, for example, if it shows some medical abnormalities or

if it appears to have been deliberately deposited in a disarticulated state (for example, material in

Neolithic long barrows). In this case, ask the supervisor if special procedures are needed.

Animal bones are common at Poulton and care is needed to differentiate them from human bones,

particularly where the remains are fragmentary. Guidance is given in [Brothwell, 1981: 36-43] and [Bass,

1995: 309-317]. If in doubt, treat the material as human and let the Human Remains Team resolve the

issue.


1.4 Articulated Burials The diagram below gives an overview of the process for handling an articulated burial

Acquire context numbers for grave

cut, fill & skeleton and skeleton tag

(Part 1: Section 2)

Clean burial

(Part 1: Section 2.1)

Record burial - context sheets, plans,

photographs


Lift & bag bones, clean grave cut


Clean bones and place in store

(Part 1: Section 3)

Basic post-excavation analysis - age

at death, sex, stature


Disposal

(Part 2: Section 5)

Extended post-excavation analysis.

Taphonomy and pathology

(Part 2: Section 4)

Identify a burial and define edges

Inventory and dentition record



2 Excavation Ray Carpenter & Steve Crane

When bones are first discovered in the ground, it may not be obvious whether they are part of an

articulated burial or disarticulated. The area should be carefully cleared to discover the extent of the

bones and to try to identify the edges of the grave cut.

Once it is clear it is an articulated burial, obtain the following:

Skeleton number from the Skeleton Register.

Context numbers for the grave fill, skeleton and grave cut (preferably in that order) from the Context Register. (The fill and the skeleton itself are assigned separate context numbers, as they

represent distinct archaeological events.)

The skeletons ID/photographic tag.

Ideally, a skeleton should be excavated in a single day to minimise damage. Avoid starting late in the

day. If it is not possible to complete the excavation in a day, cover the skeleton overnight to keep it

damp.

Graves must be excavated stratigraphically (deposit by deposit in reverse order of deposition) and in

plan: they must not be sectioned. They must be excavated by hand and the work kept scrupulously clean

as it proceeds. Great care must be taken to recover all of the bones present in as good a condition as

possible; this directly affects the quality of the post-excavation analysis.

Gloves MUST always be worn when excavating a skeleton (and whenever else bones are

handled), to minimise contamination that might compromise future DNA analysis.

2.1 Cleaning In-Situ The skeleton must be carefully cleaned prior to recording, using a variety of tools such as a leaf trowel,

small paintbrushes, dental tools and wooden sticks. The cleaning of small bones such as hands, feet and

ribs can cause disturbance and it is often best to excavate only the minimum amount of soil necessary to

show their position. Do not excavate any soil from cavities within the skull (eye sockets, ears and jaw)

as this can damage the bones. If the soil is hard, it may be lightly sprayed with water to help soften it.

Individual bones may not always appear where you expect them! This may be a feature of the original

burial, or due to later disturbance or deposition of disarticulated bone.

Note: Be aware that a grave could contain multiple burials, or that the remains of a foetus could be present

with (inside) an adult skeleton.

Any metal nails that are found during excavation should be treated as potentially in-situ coffin nails.

They should be left exactly as found and their positions recorded.

2.2 Recording Digital photography is our preferred method of recording a skeleton in-situ: it is both rapid and accurate.

The traditional approach of site drawings of skeletons at 1:10 is time-consuming and often inaccurate.

2.2.1 Planning The skull, pelvis and long bones of the skeleton should be recorded precisely on the plan of the grave cut

(at the usual 1:20 scale). This will enable the photographs (see below) to be accurately located in relation

to the site grid.

2.2.2 Context Sheets Each skeleton should normally have at least 3 associated context sheets:

Standard cut-type sheet for the grave cut see worked example in Appendix C.

Standard fill-type sheet for the grave fill see worked example in Appendix D.

Specialised skeleton sheet see worked example in Appendix B.

However, in the event of multiple contemporary burials, there may only be one cut context sheet and

one fill context sheet covering several skeletons.

If the remains of a coffin are found, this should have its own context sheet.


Detailed notes on filling in the skeleton context sheet are given below:

Site Code POU/CHF/ followed by the last two digits of the year, for example,

POU/CHF/12.

Trench Number of the trench containing the burial.

SW Grid The south-western grid co-ordinates of the 5-metre grid square in which the

grave is situated (if the grave spans more than one 5-metre square, give the

SW co-ordinates of all the squares).

Skeleton No Unique skeleton reference number.

Skeleton Context Context number of skeleton.

Grave Cut Context Context number of the grave cut.

Grave Fill Context Context number of the grave fill.

Shade bones present Shade all the bones which are present in the grave. (Note: this may have to

be updated as the bones are lifted.) Indicate any breaks in long bones.

Position Sketch the attitude of the skull and limbs in relation to the pelvis and spine.

Define the orientation of the burial by indicating the end of the grave at

which the head is placed (for example, W).

Prone = face down, lying on the front

Supine = face up, lying on the back

Extended = laid out in approximately straight line

Flexed = leg joints bent by < 90

Crouched = leg joints bent by > 90

Contracted = knees hard up against chest (foetal position)

Preservation Note the condition of the bone, For example, well preserved, friable

(crumbly), weathered.

Disturbance by roots, animals, erosion, etc. should be noted and also shown

on the sketch plan (see below).

Truncation (cutting away by a later feature) where skeleton is truncated,

indicate on bones diagram (above) and on sketch plan (below) with

truncating context features.

Post-mortem damage (for example, breaks in long bones, crushing of skull)

should be noted.

Additional

Description

Pathology any evidence of disease and/or ante-mortem fractures of the

bones. At this stage, it is only possible to identify obvious pathologies,

which should be briefly described. More detailed study of pathology will be

performed during post-excavation analysis.

Shroud/Coffin: Presence indicate if there is any evidence for a shroud

(for example, pins) or a coffin. If a coffin was present, then define:

Type For example, wooden (nailed), wooden (dowelled), lead,

stone.

Context No number assigned to coffin

Any other points of interest (for example, assemblies of stones) any other

aspects of the burial which may be of interest or are unusual, for example,

associated burials, female with foetus in place, or any other complex burial

situation. These should also be shown on the sketch plan (see below).

Of particular interest are assemblies of stones, which have been found in

several burials, predominantly around the skull. These should also be

photographed before and after lifting the bones.

Stratigraphic Matrix List all the contexts which come immediately before and after the skeleton

context in the Harris matrix.

Those below (before) the skeleton context will include the grave cut context.

Those above (after) the skeleton context will include the grave fill context.


Environmental

Samples

List the sample numbers and where they were taken from (see Section

2.3.4).

Sketch Plan Draw a sketch of the burial (with the skeleton in simple outline only),

including its relationship to surrounding layers, features and other burials,

associated finds and grave goods.

Ensure the plan is correctly oriented to the site grid.

Note: This is not a substitute for accurate plans!

Levels & Co-

ordinates

Wherever possible, the grid co-ordinates and levels of the skull, pelvis and

ankle(s) should be measured: the positions of these points are shown on the

bones diagram above. Other points may be measured, for example, if any of

the standard locations is not present or if the skeleton is in an unusual

configuration: in such a case, indicate the points which were measured on

the bones diagram.

TBM = Temporary Bench Mark height

BS = Backsight to Temporary Bench Mark

IH = Instrument Height (TBM + BS)

FS = Foresight to point of interest

RL = Reduced Level of point of interest (IH FS)

Measure the overall length of the skeleton (as an approximation to the

stature of the individual, if the burial is extended).

Associated Finds and

Small Finds

Any finds associated directly with the burial (but not general constituents

of the grave fill such as building rubble, which will be recorded on the fill

context sheet). These finds will often be treated as Small Finds and assigned

their own numbers.

Plan Nos The drawing numbers of all plans which show the skeleton (see Section

2.2.1).

Digital Photos The film and frame numbers of all the photographs which show the

skeleton (see Section 2.2.3).

Interpretation A brief interpretation of the burial as a whole, including comments about

the coffin, grave and grave goods (if any).

The estimated sex and age should only be recorded where this is obvious or

where the person completing the sheet has some expertise in this area

(otherwise it can be a good source of amusement for the post-excavation

team). More detailed analysis will be carried out by the Human Remains

Team.

Recorded By / Date Name of person completing the form and date completed.

Checked By / Date Name of supervisor and date form checked.

2.2.3 Photography The photographs are the primary visual record of the skeleton. Photographs should be taken as soon as

possible after the skeleton has been exposed. The usual site guidelines for photography apply, but in

addition:

If the bones are well preserved, then they can be cleaned with a small sponge and water to improve definition. If poorly preserved, a fine water spray may achieve the same result.

However, skeletons are not to be repeatedly wetted and allowed to dry; this damages the bones.

Photographs of the entire skeleton should be taken from not too oblique an angle and from the feet end of the grave where possible.

Close-up photographs should also be taken of any abnormalities, particularly if the bone is fragile and may be damaged on lifting. Any stone assemblies associated with the burial should

also be photographed.


Each photograph must show the skeleton context and skeleton number. Specifically, the skeletons ID tag should be clearly visible in all photographs. When dealing with multiple

burials, ensure that all the ID tags are present and clearly identify the correct remains.

Digital photographs should be taken and their film and frame numbers recorded on the skeleton context sheet.

2.3 Lifting and Bagging the Skeleton Once the skeleton has been cleaned and all recording completed, it may be lifted.

2.3.1 Equipment 1. Skeleton number, context numbers of skeleton and fill

2. Finds tray for any finds within the fill

3. Trowel, small tool, picks, etc.

4. Plastic bags for bones and other finds. The number of bags required and their sizes depend on

the number of bones surviving and their dimensions: there is no point using large bags for the

remains of a very young child. Potentially, up to 8 large and 12 medium bags might be required

for a complete adult skeleton (see Section 2.3.3).

5. Permanent marker pen

6. Large boxes or trays for transporting filled bags

7. Skeleton context sheet, in case it needs updating during lifting, for example, if more bones are

found

2.3.2 Procedure When in doubt, ask the supervisor!

1. Work systematically through the skeleton, as defined in Order of Lifting below (Section 2.3.3.).

2. Choose an appropriate size bag, write on the outside the skeleton number, skeleton context

number and description of bones, for example, SK 102 (1503) Right Arm.

3. Using the tools, fully expose and undermine the bones, gently lift, carefully remove any large

clods of attached earth and place bones in bag. If the soil is hard, it can be lightly sprayed with

water to help soften it. As many fragments of bone should be recovered as possible.

Notes:

a) Dont scrape the bones, or attempt to remove earth from holes (particularly from the skull!).

b) Dont forget the epiphyses on juveniles & infants these may resemble small stones!

c) If possible, lift the skull and mandible together as a single piece.

d) Skulls must always be supported by both hands and never picked up by the eye orbits the weight of

an earth-filled skull should not be underestimated.

e) Long bones should always be lifted by both hands to avoid breakage.

f) Beware of vertebrae or other bones which may be fused by disease. Do not try to separate them.

4. If additional bones are found during lifting, update the diagram on the skeleton context sheet.

5. When each bag is full, seal it (if possible) and place gently in a box.

6. Any finds within the fill should be placed in the finds tray. At the end, transfer the finds to their

own bag and label it with the fill context number.

7. Gently trowel over the area where the skeleton laid, in case there are further small bones or

finds.

8. Fully excavate the grave cut and record it on its own context sheet.

9. Transport the filled bags to the washing tent.


2.3.3 Order of Lifting There is no correct order, but a suggested order is given below (maximum bag size is indicated by L =

large bag [46 x 33 cm], M = medium [28 x 20 cm]):

1. Right hand (M)

2. Right arm (L)

3. Left hand (M) if the hands cannot be easily separated, then bag together

4. Left arm (L)

5. Right foot (M)

6. Right leg (L)

7. Left foot (M) if the feet cannot be easily separated, then bag together

8. Left leg (L)

9. Skull and hyoid cartilage (L)

10. Mandible (M) only if easily separated from the rest of the skull, otherwise bag together

11. Loose teeth (M)

12. Sternum & Manubrium (M)

13. Right Ribs (M)

14. Left Ribs (M)

15. Right Clavicle & Scapula (M)

16. Left Clavicle & Scapula (M)

17. Pelvis including Sacrum (L)

18. Vertebrae (L)

19. Miscellaneous loose bones (as necessary)

20. Finally, lift the skeleton ID tag and bag it with the skull (or the largest bone if no skull)

Notes:

a) If the loose bones are d efinitely not associated with the articulated skeleton (for example, a third femur),

then they should be bagged separately and labelled as part of the fill context rather than the skeleton

context. If there is any doubt then they should be treated as part of the skeleton.

b) The terms left and right above mean the siding of the item as in life. Hands/arms, and sometime feet, are

often crossed as part of the laying out process and the left hand is often on the right side of the skelelton and

vice-versa.

2.3.4 Environmental Samples and Other Organic Material Environmental samples can tell us about the overall environment at the time of the burial (for example,

from pollen and snails), as well as about the individual (for example, food remains and kidney stones).

The supervisor will determine whether or not environmental samples are required for each skeleton.

This will depend on the needs of the research programme and the likelihood that organic material has

been preserved. If required, they should be taken from some or all of the following areas:

Skull

Neck

Chest

Abdomen

Pelvis

The usual guidelines for environmental samples apply, but in addition:

Sample size is 1Kg.

Sample numbers and locations are entered on the skeleton context sheet.


The excavator should also be aware of other material which is associated with the skeleton and which

should be retrieved if not specifically included in environmental samples. These include:

1. Kidney, bladder, sinus and gallstones. These resemble small pebbles and are therefore difficult

to recognise.

2. Hyatid cysts, produced as a reaction to the tapeworm parasite, can be found in many regions,

most commonly in the abdomen, thorax and cranium. These are normally of a thin calcareous

nature and roughly spherical.

3. Biological material stomach contents and coprolites. These may contain cereal fragments,

seeds of food plants and the eggs of intestinal parasites. These are most likely to occur in

waterlogged deposits and hence are rare at Poulton.


3 Post-Excavation Cleaning Ray Carpenter & Steve Crane

Much of the material in this section comes from [Anderson, 1993] and [BABAO Code of Practice, 2010].

Excavated human bones need to be cleaned, both to prevent them from going mouldy and to aid post-

excavation analysis. Although some sources recommend dry brushing as a means of removing soil, this

is generally ineffective with the clay soil typical of Poulton: instead, the bones must be washed.

Bones must not be treated with any sort of chemicals. In certain circumstances, broken bones may be

glued together on a medium term basis using HMG acrylic adhesive B72. This adhesive may be safely

removed with solvents. For short term use (such as photography), 3M Scotch Magic Tape may be

used.

Note: Bones should only be glued for specific research purposes (for example, reconstruction of a fragmented

skull), and with the prior agreement of the Human Remains Team.

Gloves MUST be worn when cleaning a skeleton (and whenever else bones are handled), to

minimise contamination that might compromise future DNA analysis.

3.1 Skeletons Wash the bones before the clay soil dries out completely, otherwise it becomes too hard. The bones

should be carefully washed in lukewarm water using a soft toothbrush, without being soaked, in the

same way as other finds. If there are incomplete and/or damaged bones, soil can be carefully removed

from the broken ends using picks or other fine tools, but great care must be taken to avoid damaging the

bone. The skull may fall apart when washed (often it is only the soil inside which holds it together), but

as long as all the pieces are saved this is not a major problem. The facial bones in particular are very

fragile. Care should also be taken not to remove any deposits from teeth.

When changing the water, ensure that small bones and bone fragments are not thrown away. Change the

water frequently and always before starting a new skeleton.

The bones should now be laid out to dry in clean trays lined with newspaper and with the original bag

(which is the only form of identification) turned inside out so that it can dry thoroughly too. Do not

overload the trays; ensure the bones have plenty of air around them. If required, use two or more trays.

In that case, ensure that each and every tray contains either the bag or a label which identifies both the

component and skeleton. The bones should now normally be transferred to the bone cabin for drying

and further processing. If this is not possible or practicable, transfer the trays to another secure location

with a fairly consistent and moderate temperature. Do not leave the bones in direct sunlight or apply

artificial heat


.


4 Cremations Steve Crane

A cremation consists of the burnt remains of a human body. In most cases, only fragments of bones

remain. The average human body reduces to about 3kg of ash, but it is rare to find this quantity. The

bone are often be fragmented (sometimes deliberately) and is very fragile.

Burnt bones are not necessarily human: animal bones may be found on their own or mixed with human

bone. However, unless it is obvious that the bones are animal, they should always be treated as human

bone during excavation and recording, leaving differentiation to the post-excavation phase.

Although smoking is not permitted on site in any case, this ban is particularly important when working

on cremations, as tobacco ash can easily contaminate the cremation material.

4.1 Cremation Pits Most cremations will have been deposited in a small hole in the ground, known as the cremation pit. As

with inhumations, the burial should be excavated stratigraphically (that is, deposit by deposit in

reverse order of deposition) and in plan. Where a vessel is found containing the burnt bones, then the

backfill round this vessel will be excavated first: on the other hand, if the cremation pit has simply been

backfilled with the ashes, then they will be treated as a fill. Cremated bone is very fragile. Every effort

must be made not to break it during excavation, as this makes identification more difficult: frequent

dampening of the soil can make it easier to lift the bone.

All deposits removed from cremation pits should be treated as environmental samples and will be

processed later to remove all the burnt bone, carbonised wood and other materials. Where a vessel is

broken or the soil is disturbed, great care may be needed to ensure that all the cremation material is

recovered.

Sometimes the pit will contain grave-goods, which may or may not have been burnt together with the

body. The fill may also contain nails and fragments of carbonised wood, which may be from a coffin or

the funeral pyre. All of these should be collected along with the pit fill and noted on the appropriate

context sheet(s).

Special finds such as jewellery should be recovered separately and treated as ordinary small finds. They

should also be noted on the context sheet of the fill in which they were contained.

4.2 Vessels Any vessel (or urn) containing burnt bone is assigned a separate context number and the contents left

intact for later off-site excavation. The vessel must be completely exposed before any attempt to lift it.

Sometimes there will also be cremated bone outside the vessel; such bone should be collected as part of

the cremation pit backfill.

The cremation pit may also hold other vessels which do not contain any bone. These are also assigned

individual context numbers and their contents left intact as they may have contained food offerings to

the deceased. Again, they must be completely exposed before any attempt at lifting.

Extreme care is required if a vessel is broken, to ensure that none of its contents are lost. It may be

helpful to bandage the vessel to provide extra support. If the vessel is badly smashed, then it may have to

be excavated in-situ.

4.3 Recording An overall plan at a scale of 1:10 should show the general areas in which bone fragments are found,

together with larger individual fragments and the locations of vessels and other finds. However, there is

no need to plan every bone revealed during excavation.

Digital photographs should be taken.

An appropriate standard context sheet should be completed for each of the following:

Cremation pit (cut) one sheet

Each layer of fill in the pit one sheet for each layer

Vessel(s) containing ashes and accessory vessels without ashes one sheet for each vessel


In addition to the context sheets, a separate cremation record sheet should be completed, providing a

summary of the contents of the burial. See Appendix E for a worked example. Detailed notes on filling in

the cremation record sheet are given below:

Site Code POU/CHF/ followed by the last two digits of the year, for example, POU/CHF/12.

Trench Number of the trench containing the cremation.

SW Grid The southwestern grid co-ordinates of the 5-metre grid square in which the

cremation is situated (if the cremation spans more than one 5-metre square, give

the SW co-ordinates of all the squares).

Context No Context number assigned to the bone: this will be either the number of the pit fill (if

unurned) or the number of the cremation urn (if inurned).

Cremation Pit Context Context number of the cremation pit.

Fill Context(s) Context numbers of all the fills of the cremation pit.

Vessel Context(s) Context numbers of all the vessels in the cremation pit.

Inurned / Unurned Inurned = bones contained within a vessel (may also be bones outside the vessel)

Unurned = no bones inside a vessel

Level at Surface Level at top of the cremation pit (in metres, to nearest cm).

Level at Base Level at base of the cremation pit (in metres, to nearest cm).

Sketch Plans Draw a sketch of the cremation, including its relationship to surrounding layers,

features, associated vessels and finds.

Ensure that the plan is correctly oriented to the site grid and that the co-ordinates

of the grid squares are shown.

Note: This is not a substitute for accurate plans!

Additional

Description

A written description of the cremation pit and its contents.

Note any discolouration of the sides of the pit suggestive of burning or scorching.

Interpretative comments should not be included here, but under Interpretation

below.

Vessels Number of vessels in the cremation pit, the material of which they are made

(pottery, glass, wood, etc.), their condition (whole, broken, crushed, burnt, etc.) and

a description of each vessel.

Each vessel should be given a reference number keyed to the sketch plan.

Material Outside

Vessels

Note type and quantity of any bone (burnt or unburnt), or other significant

material such as charcoal and slag, found in the fill outside of any vessels.

Record maximum size of bone fragments prior to lifting.

Stratigraphic Matrix List all the contexts which come immediately before and after the bone context in

the Harris matrix.

Those below (before) the bone context will include the cremation pit context.

Environmental

Samples

List the sample numbers assigned to the fill(s).

Associated Finds &

Small Finds

Any finds associated directly with the cremation (but not general constituents of

the fills such as bone and charcoal, which will be recorded on the relevant fill

context sheet). These finds will often be treated as Small Finds and assigned their

own numbers.

Plan Nos The drawing numbers of all plans which show the cremation.

Section Nos The drawing numbers of all sections which show the cremation.

Photos The film and frame numbers of all the photographs which show the cremation.

Interpretation A brief description of the cremation as a whole, including comments about the

bone, vessels and finds (if any).

Excavation Method Cremations should be excavated in plan: give reasons if any other method was

used.

Excavation Tools List all the tools used in the excavation.


Risk of Contamination Assess the risk of contamination of the bones as Low, Medium or High.

Recorded By / Date Name of person completing the form and date completed.

Checked By / Date Name of supervisor and date form checked.

4.4 Post-Excavation Treatment The processing of cremated bone (including the emptying of vessels) is a specialised task which would

normally be performed by external experts. See [Brickley and McKinley, 2004: 9-13], [McKinley and

Roberts, 1993: 7], [Brothwell, 1981: 14] and [Mays, 2010: 311].


5 References and Bibliography The most important reference book for anyone with a professional archaeological interest in human

remains is [Brothwell, 1981]. [Mays, 2010] is also essential reading. For those with a more general

interest, [Stirland, 1999] is an accessible and affordable introduction.

Anderson, S., 1993 Digging Up People: Guidelines for Excavation and Processing of

Human Skeletal Remains.

http://www.spoilheap.co.uk/pdfs/digbone.pdf. Date accessed 26-

Jan-2013.

BABAO Code of Ethics, 2010 2010 BABAO Code of Ethics. British Association for Biological

Anthropology and Osteoarchaeology and

http://www.babao.org.uk/index/ethics-and-standards. Date

accessed 26-Jan-2013.

BABAO Code of Practice, 2010 2010 BABAO Code of Practice. British Association for Biological

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6 Appendices A Bones of the human skeleton

B Skeleton Context sheet: Worked example

C Standard Context sheet for Grave Cut: Worked example

D Standard Context sheet for Grave Fill: Worked example

E Cremation sheet: Worked example

Note: The pro-forma sheets are always being revised and those in current use may differ in detail from those

shown in these appendices.


Appendix A Bones of the Human Skeleton


Bones of the Adult Skeleton

from [Mays, 2010: 2-3]

Skull: 28 (including mandible & ear ossicles)

Hyoid 1

Spinal column: Vertebrae 24 (7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar)

Sacrum 1

Coccyx 1

Thoracic cage: Rib 24 (12 pairs)

Sternum 1

Pectoral girdle: Clavicle 2

Scapula 2

Pelvic girdle: Pelvic bone 2

Limb bones: Arm bones: Humerus 2

Radius 2

Ulna 2

Wrist/hand: Carpal 16

Metacarpal 10

Phalanx 28

Leg bones: Femur 2

Patella 2

Tibia 2

Fibula 2

Ankle/foot: Tarsal 14

Metatarsal 10

Phalanx 28

Total 206

In addition, there are a variable number of small bones (sesamoids) embedded in the tendons of the

hands and feet.

Although this list shows the standard number of bones in an adult skeleton, extra bones are not

uncommon, for example, 13 rather than 12 thoracic vertebrae, or 6 rather than 5 lumbar vertebrae.

Detailed descriptions and photographs of all the bones can be found in [White & Folkens, 2005].


Appendix B Skeleton Context sheet: Worked example


Appendix C Standard Context sheet for Grave Cut: Worked example


Appendix D Standard Context sheet for Grave Fill: Worked example


Appendix E Cremation sheet: Worked example

Documents

Skeleton Excavation Manual