Skeleton Excavation Manual Part 2

Poul

to

n Hu

man Remains Team

Skeleton Manual

Part 2 In the Laboratory

Editor: Ray Carpenter

Seventh Edition

First Revision - April 2013

Poulton Skeleton Manual -ii- 17-Aug-2013

Copyright Notice

Copyright 2013. This manual is the Copyright of Raymond Carpenter, Stephen Crane and Carla Burrell

who have asserted their right to be identified as the authors of the work in accordance with the Copyright,

Design and Patent Act 1988.

Poulton Skeleton Manual -iii- 17-Aug-2013

Table of Contents

List of Contributors 1

Editors Note 1

1 Introduction 3

1.1 Legal and Ethical Considerations 3

2 Post-Excavation Storage 5

2.1 Skeletons 5

2.2 Disarticulated Bones 5

2.3 Date Coding 6

3 Basic Post-Excavation Processes 7

3.1 Inventory Record 7

3.2 Basic Analysis 7

4 Advanced Post-Excavation Analysis 23

4.1 Overview 23

4.2 Other Ageing Methods 23

4.3 Other Sexual Dimorphism 23

4.4 Abnormalities 24

5 Disposal 27

6 References 29

7 Appendices 31

Appendix A Bones of the Adult Human Skeleton 33 Appendix B Bones of the Juvenile Human Skeleton 35 Appendix C Inventory: Worked example 37 Appendix D Post-Excavation Skeleton Analysis: Worked Example 41 Appendix E Descriptions of Pubic Symphyseal Surface Phases 45 Appendix F Descriptions of Auricular Surface Phases 47 Appendix G Stature Estimation: Worked example 49 Appendix H Notes on the Formulae used to Estimate Stature 51

Poulton Skeleton Manual -iv- 17-Aug-2013

Poulton Skeleton Manual 1 17-Aug-2013

List of Contributors Steve Crane, ex-Poulton Research Project

Carla Burrell, Liverpool John Moores University

Editors Note As Editor, I accept full responsibility for this document. Everything correct belongs to Steve and/or

Carla; the mistakes are all mine.

Ray Carpenter

March 2013


1 Introduction Ray Carpenter & Steve Crane

This Skeleton Manual is a stand-alone companion to the Poulton Research Project Site Manual [Emery,

2005]. It provides a detailed handbook for the treatment of human remains at all stages of the

archaeological process. It is in two parts: In the Field and In the Laboratory. This, Part 2, covers

storage, post-excavation analysis and disposal. It focuses on the types of human remains that have been

found to date at Poulton, together with the procedures developed by the Poulton Research Project to

handle these remains. It is not a general guide to the processing of human remains.

1.1 Legal and Ethical Considerations The overriding principle is that human remains must always be treated with respect, care and dignity.

It is a privilege to be allowed to excavate the remains of another human being. We adhere strictly to the

code of ethics published by the British Association for Biological Anthropology and Osteoarchaeology

[BABAO Code of Ethics, 2010].

There are important legal restrictions on the excavation and subsequent processing of human remains.

This is an area where the legal situation is currently under review by the Ministry of Justice (MoJ), and

may be subject to change in the near future [MoJ, 2011]. Excavation at Poulton is at present licensed by

the Ministry of Justice under the terms of the 1857 Burial Act.


2 Post-Excavation Storage Ray Carpenter & Steve Crane

Much of the material in this section comes from [Anderson, 1993] and [BABAO Code of Practice, 2010].

Excavated human bones need to be cleaned, both to prevent them from going mouldy and to aid post-

excavation analysis. Although some sources recommend dry brushing as a means of removing soil, this

is generally ineffective with the clay soil typical of Poulton: instead, the bones must be washed.

Bones must not be treated with any sort of chemicals. In certain circumstances, broken bones may be

glued together on a medium term basis using HMG acrylic adhesive B72. This adhesive may be safely

removed with solvents. For short term use (such as photography), 3M Scotch Magic Tape may be

used.

Note: Bones should only be glued for specific research purposes (for example, reconstruction of a fragmented

skull), and with the prior agreement of the Human Remains Team.

Gloves MUST be worn when cleaning a skeleton (and whenever else bones are handled), to

minimise contamination that might compromise future DNA analysis.

2.1 Skeletons On arrival in the bone cabin, the trays should be laid out on the drying racks. The drying process may

take several days depending on the conditions.

Once dry, the skeleton should be fully laid out and the full inventory and dental recording (Section 3.1)

completed. If time and resources permit, the full basic analysis (Section 3.2) should now be completed.

Otherwise, the dry bones should be placed back in the original bags (turned the right way out), or if the

bags are too dirty or damaged, in new bags. The site code, trench number, skeleton number, skeleton

context and description of bones should be written on the outside of the bag with an indelible marker.

All the bags for a single skeleton should be stored together. Normally one box per skeleton is sufficient

but additional boxes may be used if necessary. For example, if the skull is reasonably complete, or if

there are environmental samples, which should be kept with the skeleton at this stage. In this case, label

the boxes 1 of 2, 2 of 2, etc.

A standard label (below) should be stuck onto the end of the box(es) for each skeleton, giving the

skeleton number and context number, and its status in terms of post-excavation analysis. See Section 2.3

below regarding colour coding.

Finally, the box should be placed in the skeleton store, in the area allocated to skeletons awaiting post-

excavation analysis, with the label visible. Boxes should not be stacked too high, to avoid crushing.

Stacking directly on the floor should also be avoided as the boxes may become damp.

2.2 Disarticulated Bones Disarticulated bones are processed in basically the same way as articulated skeletons, but note the

following:

All the bones excavated at one time from a single context should be kept together. The Site Code and year of excavation (POU/CHF/yy), the description DISARTICULATED HUMAN BONE (or

DHB for short) and the context number should be identified on a label and/or by writing on the

bag. If the remains are unstratified, write U/S as the context number.


There may be several bags for each context, either because the bones were excavated at different times, or because of the sheer volume of material.

Disarticulated bone should be stored in separate boxes from articulated skeletons. It is quite acceptable to store disarticulated bone for different contexts as well as unstratified bone in a

single box, so as not to waste space. A standard label (below) should be stuck on the end of each

box. See Section 2.3 below regarding colour coding.

Finally, the boxes should be placed in the area allocated to disarticulated bones.

2.3 Date Coding From 2008 onwards, due to differing reburial requirements, the storage boxes for both articulated

skeletons and disarticulated bones are colour coded according to the year of excavation. The first style

was single colour stickers:

Red = 2008

Yellow = 2009

Green = 2010

Blue = 2011

From 2012 onwards, two coloured circles are printed on the labels. These colours represent the last two

digits of the year according the significant figure colours of the Electronic Colour Code [EN 60062:

2005], that is:

Brown & Red = 2012

Brown & Orange = 2013

Brown & Yellow = 2014

Brown & Green = 2015


3 Basic Post-Excavation Processes Ray Carpenter, Steve Crane & Carla Burrell

An inventory and a basic level of post-excavation analysis must be carried out on every excavated

skeleton.

Gloves MUST be worn when analysing a skeleton (and whenever else bones are handled), to

minimise contamination that might compromise future DNA analysis.

3.1 Inventory Record The inventory should be completed as soon as the skeleton can be safely handled after its arrival in the

bone cabin. On completion of the inventory, the skeleton may be put into its own box(es), clearly

labelled and placed in store pending further analysis.

There are a number of standards for inventories. The form used at Poulton (Appendix C) was created by

Carla Burrell and is derived from an inventory recording form for complete skeletons used in standards

[Buikstra, J. E., and Ubelaker, D. H., 1994] and the forensic data bank form [Burns, K. R., 2007]. It also

includes a dentition chart which should be completed. The data from this chart is used later in assessing

the age of the skeleton.

For the analysis of each skeleton, the inventory is the initial starting point. The skeleton is laid out in

the anatomical position. This view of the remains provides an accessible observation of the whole

skeleton. Each bone whether complete or fragmented is recorded in sequence from the cranium to the

metatarsals. The form used at Poulton provides a selection of tables, sectioning the skeleton into 6 areas;

cranial and post-cranial bones, vertebral column, long bones, the extremities (hands and feet) and the

dentition. Each table contains a list of the typical bones present of a complete skeleton, the side whether

left, right or medial and finally, further comments such as the condition of the bone and noticeable

pathologies. There is also a review section at the end of the form to record any anomalies that may have

arisen. This is an important process of any analysis in the archaeological context and even in the

forensic context. Any pathology or trauma noticed here could be missed at a later point in the

examination process; in turn these forms become a reference point throughout the rest of the analysis.

3.2 Basic Analysis This is the estimation of the age at death, sex, stature of the skeleton. An example of a completed form

used to record the results of this analysis is shown in Appendix D.

3.2.1 Age at Death Estimation In order to estimate sex and stature, it is necessary to establish an arbitrary age of adulthood. At

Poulton, that age is 18; below that, skeletons are classified as subadults without further distinction. All

techniques for determining age at death rely on relating changes in the skeleton to the age of the

individual concerned. Even where these relationships can be determined with some degree of accuracy

for modern populations, there is no guarantee that they will be equally applicable to the population

under study. Furthermore, individuals within a population can show great variability. It may

sometimes prove impossible to estimate the age at all, though it is usually possible to differentiate

between adult and sub-adult.

3.2.1.1 Adult/Subadult Differentiation A brief examination of the skeleton should be done to establish the approximate age of the skeleton

before undertaking any detailed analysis. In particular, overall bone size (length and diameter), the

state of epiphyseal fusion and/or dental development will normally allow adult/subadult categorisation.

Specifically, the skeleton is adult if:

One or more third molars are (or have been) fully erupted

All the epiphyses (except perhaps the sternal end of the clavicle) are fused.

In the case of doubt, treat the skeleton as a subadult and do a full dental development and/or a fusion

analysis and reclassify the skeleton as appropriate.


3.2.1.2 Adults Many methods have been proposed for estimating adult age at death but there is not one that is fully

satisfactory. It is only possible to assign skeletons to fairly wide age bands, for example the groups

defined by [Powers, 2008]:

Description Age Range

Young adult 18 25 years

Early middle adult 26 35 years

Later middle adult 36 45 years

Mature adult 46 years

The three techniques used at Poulton are:

dental attrition,

pubic symphysis degeneration, and

auricular surface degeneration.

We use all three techniques where possible to increase the accuracy of the overall age determination.

However, in some cases the relevant parts of the skeleton may not be available or may be in poor

condition.

Cranial suture closure is another widely used technique [White & Folkens, 2005: 369], but this requires

relatively complete and undamaged skulls; these are rare at Poulton. Similarly, we do not use the

technique based on metamorphosis of the sternal end of the fourth rib, because of the difficulty in

identifying this rib in incomplete skeletons and the damage that this area often suffers.

Dental Attrition

The diagram below [Brothwell, 1981: 72] shows the pattern of molar wear in Neolithic to Medieval

British skulls, which covers most of those expected to be found at Poulton.


Notes

1. The correlation between age and dental wear is greatest for first and second molars, and much lower

for third molars [Mays, 2010: 72].

2 . It is possible for the third molar to be present on the mandible but not on the maxilla (or vice-versa) or

even more confusingly, to vary from side to side of the maxilla or mandible. In this situation, there

would be minimal wear on the third molar, but this would give little or no indication of age. This

should be borne in mind particularly when you are missing the mandible or maxilla.

Pubic Symphysis Degeneration

The changes in the surfaces of the pubic symphysis at the front of the pelvis are considered to be one of

the most reliable criteria for estimating adult age [Buikstra & Ubelaker, 1994: 21]. The surfaces

degenerate with age from a distinctive ridge and furrow pattern to a smoother surface. However, be

aware that these bones are often damaged in the supine burials typical of Poulton, and also that the

technique does require knowledge of the sex of the skeleton.

We use the Suchey-Brooks scoring system ([Brooks & Suchey, 1990] and [Buikstra & Ubelaker, 1994: 21-

24]), in conjunction with:

the diagrams below

the detailed descriptions in Appendix E, and

the full set of acrylic casts.

The latter are preferred; they are an easier to use, more reliable aid to assessing the phase. Each side

should be scored separately.


The phase is converted to an age range (years, with 95% certainty) using the following table:

Phase Female Male

1 15 24 15 23

2 19 40 19 34

3 21 53 21 46

4 26 70 23 57

5 25 83 27 66

6 42 - 87 34 - 86

Auricular Surface Degeneration

Like the pubic symphysis, the auricular surface, where the os coxae meet the sacrum, also degenerates

from an undulating to a smooth surface. This area of the skeleton tends to survive burial well, and the

technique can be applied even where the sex of the skeleton is not known.

We use the technique described by [Lovejoy et al., 1985] and [Buikstra & Ubelaker, 1994: 24-32], using the

diagrams below and the detailed descriptions in Appendix F. Each side should be scored separately. The

photographs in [Buikstra & Ubelaker, 1994: 26-32] may also be useful.


3.2.1.3 Children and Young Adults Age at death is most accurately determined for children and young adults, as age-related changes to the

skeleton are most distinct at this stage of development. The most accurate method is dental

development. The teeth are relatively less affected by environmental influences such as poor diet or

disease during growth [Roberts, 2009: 130]. For older children and young adults, the fusion of the

epiphyses is also commonly used [Mays, 2010: 56] and [Bass, 1995: 194].

The dentition chart (see section 3.1) should be used in conjunction with the chart below, taken from

[Buikstra & Ubelaker, 1994: 51], to determine age based on overall development of the teeth:


Epiphyseal Fusion

The diagram below [Mays, 2010: 58] with the addition of the ischiopubic ramus (o) from [Bass, 1995: 194]

shows the ages of epiphyseal fusion. Use the recording form (Appendix D) to record absence or presence

of fusion for each available epiphysis and then use the diagram to determine a bounding age for each

one. For example:

If the femur head (p) is fused in a male skeleton, then record age as 14.

If the radius distal epiphysis (f) is unfused in a female skeleton, then record age as 20.

In cases where it is not possible to determine the sex, check the figures for both males and females and

use the least restrictive condition. For example:

If the femur head is fused, it implies 14 (male) or 13 (female). Record age as 13.

If the radius distal epiphysis is unfused, it implies 23 (male) or 20 (female). Record age as 23.


Finally, use the data for all available epiphyses to determine an overall age range. A Visual Basic

program is available which performs all these calculations.

Note: Newborn infants do not have any epiphyses. However, the absence of epiphyses should not be used as a

guide to age determination, as these small and less-mineralised bones often do not survive anyway or

are lost during excavation.


Key Description

a Clavicle: sternal

b Humerus: head

c Humerus: distal

d Humerus: medial epicondyle

e Radius: proximal

f Radius: distal

g Ulna: proximal

h Ulna: distal

i Metacarpals: proximal

j Metacarpals: distal

k Phalanges: first and second

l Phalanges: third

m Pelvis: iliac crest

n Pelvis: triradiate

o Pelvis: ischiopubic ramus

p Femur: head

q Femur: greater trochanter

r Femur: distal

s Tibia: proximal

t Tibia: distal

u Fibula: proximal

v Fibula: distal

w Tarsal

x Metatarsals

y Phalanges

Diaphyseal and Epiphyseal Length

For subadults, there is obviously a relationship between age and height, and thus between age and the

length of the long bones. This technique is particularly useful where insufficient material is available to

assess age based on dental development and/or epiphyseal fusion. However, it does tend to produce a

lower estimate of age than these other methods (at least for the Poulton skeletons). This matches the

results found at Wharram Percy [Mays, 2010: 134-137], where medieval children were found to be

significantly shorter than modern children of the same age, lagging in growth by about 1-2 years.

The table below (taken from [Schaefer, Black & Scheuer, 2009: 267; 286; 302; 174; 191; 207] and by taking

the mean of the male and female measurements) can be used to estimate the age of subadults based on

the length of the long bones. For bones where the epiphyses have not yet fused, this is the diaphyseal

length (Di in the table below), that is, the length of the diaphysis or shaft of the bone. For bones where

the epiphyses have fused, this is the epiphyseal length (Epi in the table below). The bones should be

measured to the nearest mm using an osteometric board, and the lengths and derived ages recorded on

the form (Appendix D) under the Height Determination section.


Age (Yrs) Femur Tibia Fibula Humerus Radius Ulna

Di Epi Di Epi Di Epi Di Epi Di Epi Di Epi

1 13.6 10.9 10.6 10.5 8.1 9.1

2 17.2 13.9 13.7 12.9 9.7 10.8

3 19.9 16.2 16.1 14.6 11.0 12.2

4 22.4 18.2 18.1 16.2 12.1 13.4

5 24.7 20.1 20.0 17.7 13.2 14.6

6 26.9 21.8 21.7 19.0 14.2 15.6

7 29.0 23.5 23.3 20.3 15.1 16.6

8 31.1 26.8 25.0 21.7 16.1 17.6

9 33.0 26.7 26.5 22.8 16.9 18.5

10 34.9 38.4 28.5 32.1 28.0 30.9 24.0 25.7 17.9 19.1 19.5 20.3

11 36.7 40.4 30.0 33.9 29.5 32.5 25.2 27.0 18.7 20.1 20.5 21.4

12 38.7 42.7 31.7 35.9 31.1 34.4 26.4 28.5 19.7 21.3 21.5 22.7

13 44.7 37.6 35.9 29.9 22.4 23.9

14 46.5 39.1 37.4 31.3 23.4 25.0

15 47.7 39.9 38.3 32.2 24.2 25.8

16 48.5 40.5 38.9 32.9 24.6 26.4

17 48.6 40.4 38.9 33.1 24.8 26.5

Note: All bone lengths in cm.

For other methods of ageing children, see Section 4.

3.2.1.4 Infants and Foetuses Diaphyseal bone length is a good indicator of age in infants and foetuses. Bone growth is less affected by

external factors (for example, malnutrition) than after birth, and the skeleton grows rapidly during this

stage. Age can be estimated from long-bone length to an accuracy of approximately 2 weeks. The data in

the table below is from [Schaefer, Black & Scheuer, 2009: 264; 284; 300; 171; 188; 204]. For foetuses younger

than 20 weeks, see Section 4.

The bones should be measured using an osteometric board or sliding callipers and the lengths recorded

on the form (Appendix D) under the Height Determination section.

For other methods of ageing infants, see Section 4.

Foetal Age (weeks) Femur Tibia Fibula Humerus Radius Ulna

20 3.26 2.85 2.78 3.18 2.62 2.94

22 3.57 3.26 3.11 3.45 2.889 3.16

24 4.03 3.58 3.43 3.76 3.16 3.51

26 4.19 3.79 3.65 3.99 3.34 3.71

28 4.70 4.20 4.00 4.42 3.56 4.02

30 4.87 4.39 4.28 4.58 3.81 4.28

32 5.55 4.82 4.68 5.04 4.08 4.67

34 5.98 5.27 5.05 5.31 4.33 4.91

36 6.25 5.48 5.16 5.55 4.57 5.10

38 6.89 5.99 5.76 6.13 4.88 5.59

40 7.43 6.51 6.23 6.49 5.18 5.93

Note: All bone lengths in cm.


3.2.2 Sex Estimation Within any human population, adult male and female skeletons differ in general size and shape and this

is the basis for determining their sex. There are currently no generally agreed standards for

determining sex in juveniles (apart from DNA analysis which we are unlikely to use at Poulton).

This can lead to problems with adolescent skeletons [Buikstra & Ubelaker, 1994]:

Pelvis Immature pelvises tend to follow the male pattern. Hence female features are a reasonable indicator of sex, but male features are ambiguous, since they may represent either a

male or an immature female.

Skull Conversely, immature skulls tend to follow the female pattern. Hence male features are a reasonable indicator of sex, but female features are ambiguous since they may represent

either a female or an immature male

The estimation of sex should always be done after that of age (see Section 3.2.1) and when the skeleton is

believed to be an adult. Occasionally, skeletons classified as subadult display sufficient sexual

dimorphism to estimate the sex. In that case, do the sex estimation and record the results.

The two primary bones for determining sex are the pelvis and skull. The accuracy which can be

achieved has been estimated as follows [Dunn, 2002]:

Skull alone 80%

Pelvis alone 95%

Both skull and pelvis 98%

Many different attributes of the pelvis and skull have been proposed as a means of sex estimation. A

number of the most commonly used have been taken from [Brothwell, 1981: 60], [Buikstra & Ubelaker,

1994: 17-20], [Sutherland and Suchey, 1991: 502] and [Mays, 2010: 41]. As many as possible of these

attributes should be used for each skeleton; this increases the accuracy of sex determination. Sometimes

the skull or pelvis may not be available or may be in poor condition, that it is not possible to determine

the sex. In this case, record the sex as indeterminate. Equally, sometimes the indicators may be

contradictory. If the pelvis and skull are self-consistent but contradictory, score the sex according to the

pelvis. If the pelvis is not self-consistent, review the balance of stronger and weaker indicators and

consider recording the sex as Ambiguous.

On the recording form (Appendix D), each attribute is scored using a range of 1 (most female) to 5 (most

male), using as a guide the diagrams given below.

Where diagrams are only given for values of 1 and 5, interpolate for the intermediate values.

Attributes more extreme than 1 and 5 should be scored as 1 and 5 respectively.

If it is not possible to assess the attribute (for example, because of damage to the bone), then assign a score of 0.

Finally, make an overall assessment based on all the available data and taking into account the varying

reliability of the different indicators (That is, dont simply average the scores!)

3.2.2.1 Pelvis The Grea ter Scia tic No tch tends to be broad in females and narrow in males. Hold the os coxae

(innominate) about 15cm above the figure below [Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994: 18] and align it as closely

as possible with the diagram (which shows the left side).

As a rule of thumb, place your thumb in the notch. If the notch is filled or only limited side-to-side

movement is possible, it is male. If considerable side-to-side movement is possible, it is female.


The Sub-P ubic Angle , the dotted line in figure [after Mays, 2010: 41] below, tends to be wider and more U-

shaped in females, narrower (generally less than 90) and more V-shaped in males.

1 5

The P rea uricula r Sulcus (location shown in the left figure [Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994: 19] and the

details in the right figure by one of the authors, C. Burrell, below) is more consistently present in

females, although sometimes poorly developed, or present on one side only or not present at all.

1 5


There are three main attributes of the subpubic region, the area indicated in the figure below (the right

side is shown):

The Ventra l Arc is a slightly elevated ridge of bone across the ventral surface of the pubis, which tends

to be present in the female (diagram shows view from front):

1 5

The Subpubic Co nca vity (diagram shows left side viewed from rear):

1 5 1 5


The I schio pubic R a mus Rid ge (diagram shows left side viewed end-on):

1 5

3.2.2.2 Skull Males tend to have larger, more robust skulls than females, but the differences can be difficult to

interpret. Four key aspects have been chosen, based on the parts of the skull which tend to survive

reasonably intact at Poulton, and are illustrated below (originally from [Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994]

but also in [White and Foulkens, 2005: 391]).

Nuchal Crest: Hold the cranium (or relevant part of it) at arms length a few inches above the

appropriate part of the figure, oriented as closely as possible to the diagram.

Mastoid Process: The most important variable to consider is the volume, not the length.

Supra-Orbital Margin: Hold the edge of the orbit between your fingers to determine its thickness. To

score 1, the edge should feel sharp, like the edge of a slightly dulled knife. To score 5, the edge should feel

thick and rounded like a pencil.


Supra-Orbital Ridge/Glabella: Hold the cranium (or relevant part of it) at arms length a few inches

above the appropriate part of the figure, oriented as closely as possible to the diagram.

3.2.3 Stature Estimation For adults, the most reliable method of estimating stature is from the long bones [Brickley & McKinley,

2004: 33]. Formulae can then be applied to calculate height from the length of these bones. This technique

can only be applied to mature individuals (that is, those with fused epiphyses) because the relative sizes

of the bones change during development. There is currently no generally agreed method for estimating

height in subadults.

Use the following procedure for an adult skeleton:

Back of bone placed face

downward on board,

rotate bone to find

maximum length.

Back of bone placed face

downward on board, long

axis of bone parallel to

long axis of board.

Head placed against fixed vertical, distal

end against movable upright. Bone moved

up & down and side to side until maximum

length obtained.

(Ulna and fibula are also measured in the

same way).


Measure the lengths of all available bones to the nearest mm using an osteometric board. The diagrams above [Brothwell, 1981] show how the bones should be positioned. Horizontal arrows

denote movement from side to side, curved arrows circular movement.

Broken bones can generally be re-assembled and measured, provided that the breaks are clean and all pieces are present. The pieces should be held together by hand and not glued or fixed in

any way other than by the minimal use of 3M Scotch Magic Tape [BABAO Code of Practice,

2010]. This may require two people, one to hold the bone and the other to operate the osteometric

board.

The measurements are recorded on the form (Appendix D).

Also record on the form the number of pieces of each bone and whether or not it is complete.

Calculate the stature using the appropriate set of equations, Male American White or Female American White, depending on sex (stature can only be determined if the sex is known).

Each formula should be calculated separately for left- and right-side bones and the results are normally averaged where both values are available. However, when clear pathology causes the

left and right values to differ significantly (>0.3cm), consider ignoring the affected side.

Examine and compare the various estimates and consider rejecting any outliers which appear too different from the rest (for example, might a bone from a different skeleton have been

measured?). Also carefully (re-)examine the bones for pathology that might explain the

difference. A common cause is a healed fracture.

The stature estimate based on the equation with the lowest standard error should be taken as the best estimate, rather than averaging the estimates from all the available equations.

A spreadsheet is available which performs all these calculations (see Appendix G).

Record the estimated stature and the standard error of the corresponding equation on the Post-Excavation recording form (Appendix D). The stature should be recorded to a precision of 0.1cm

and ", and the standard error to a precision of 0.1cm.

Detailed notes on the formulae used are in Appendix H.


4 Advanced Post-Excavation Analysis Ray Carpenter & Carla Burrell

4.1 Overview This section firstly describes methods and techniques that have been used at Poulton when those

described in Section 3 cannot be applied. Note that in all cases the results will be less reliable than those

obtained from the methods described in Section 3.

Secondly, it describes bone abnormalities and anomalies not covered at all in Section 3.

It is intended for people with experience in human ostoeology. There are no illustrations or diagrams

but there are references to standard text-books. The reader is expected to have (access to) a copy.

4.2 Other Ageing Methods Although dental development remains the best method for ageing subadults, the dentition is not always

available. The long bone measurements in Section 3 may be used (with the caveat that long bone age

and dental development age may not agree for Poulton specimens). The relevant chapters of [Schaefer,

Black & Scheuer, 2009] contain alternative sets of measurements and extended ranges of the

measurements quoted.

There are also other age indicators which been used successfully at Poulton when the dentition is not

available and the long bones are in a poor state.

In some cases, age estimation using the ribs may be possible [Iscan, Loth, & Wright, 1984] and [Iscan,

Loth, & Wright, 1985].

4.2.1 Other Fusions As well as the epiphyseal fusions identified in Section 3, there are other sites of fusion in the subadult

skeleton that we commonly use at Poulton to give an (albeit poorer) estimate of the age at death. There

are also many other fusion sites across the subadult skeleton that can be reviewed if required.

Vertebral Fusion

Most vertebrae are in three pieces at birth and fuse to a single entity by the age of 5. [Schaefer, Black &

Scheuer, 2009: 114] shows the age of fusion on the posterior arch and of the arch to the centrum.

The atlas and axis (C1 & C2) also follow a documented fusion process which can be used.

Sacral Fusion

[Schaefer, Black & Scheuer, 2009: 121] gives an outline of sacral fusion by age.

Occipital Fusion

The two pars lateralis and the pars basilaris often seem to survive intact at Poulton. The morphology

and age as these (and the pars supra-occipitalis) fuse to encircle the foramen magna is documented in

[Schaefer, Black & Scheuer, 2009: 15]

4.2.2 Bone Metrics As well as the long bones, metrics of other parts of the subadult skeleton which survive at Poulton have

been used to estimate the age at death.

Bone Reference

Pars basilaris [Schaefer, Black & Scheuer, 2009: 11; 13]

Pars lateralis [Schaefer, Black & Scheuer, 2009: 11]

Maximum iliac length & width [Schaefer, Black & Scheuer, 2009: 241-242]

4.3 Other Sexual Dimorphism Although not as reliable or accurate as those described in Section 3, there are other techniques for

estimating the sex of a skeleton. These may be helpful when the previously described methods cannot be

used.


Humeral and femoral head diameters

The femoral and/or humeral head is measured using a sliding calliper according to [Stewart, 1979]

Diagnostic categories are [Stewart, 1979]:

Femoral head: 47.5mm = Male

Humeral head: 47mm = Male

[Berrizbeitia, 1989] provides similar data for the radial head:

21mm = Female

22 - 23mm = Ambiguous

24mm = Male

Curvature of the sacrum

Sacral curvature is an additional observation. [Bass, 1995] indicates that the sacrum is generally more

curved in males than females. [Mishra, Singh, Agrawal & Gupta, 2003] have also reported more detailed

results based on the sacral curvature.

Dentition

A number of authors have proposed methods of sex estimation based on dentition. These include:

The mandibular canines [Mays, 2010]

General sexing of permanent dentition: [Ditch and Rose, 1972]

Immature skeletons [Rosing 1983]

Gonial Angle

The gonial angle has been proposed as sex determinant. However, to date the evidence is contradictory.

[Karoshah, Almadani, Ghaleb, Zaki & Fattah, 2010] suggest (using CT scans rather than the dry

mandible itself) that such a metric is viable; [Ayoub, Rizk, Yehya, Cassia, Chartouni, Atiyeh & Maizoub,

2009] suggest the contrary. Considerably more work needs to be performed using the Poulton

assemblage before this metric could become a reliable sex determinant.

4.4 Abnormalities Any abnormality in the skeleton must be identified as either taphonomy or pathology. Taphonomy

occurs to the bone after death (post-mortem); pathology occurs before death (ante-mortem). There are

some around death (peri-mortem) anomalies but they can be difficult to identify.

Taphonomic abnormalities such as root marks, rodent gnawing, deformation through soil pressure, and

soil erosion. These should be noted on the recording form (Appendix D), for possible further

investigation.

Pathological anomalies are more common and potentially more interesting. Definite abnormalities

should be recorded. The following information should be recorded for each abnormality:

Which bone/tooth is affected (including side)?

Which part of the bone/tooth (for example, proximal shaft)?

What is the nature of the change has additional bone been formed (most common), has bone been destroyed, or has the bone changed shape (least common)?

If bone has been formed, is it disorganised (indicating active disease at the time of death) or organised (indicating a healed lesion)?

If bone has been destroyed, is there any sign of healing, for example, rounding of the edges of the lesion?

What is the distribution pattern if more than one tooth/bone is affected?

Can the abnormality be measured and compared with a normal tooth/bone?


Photographs should be taken and noted on the recording form. A scale bar and label showing the site

code and skeleton number should be included in each photograph. Where appropriate, a normal bone or

tooth should be included for comparison.

4.4.1 Types of Pathological Abnormality The following list summarises the major types of pathological abnormality which should be recorded,

with the most common type first.

Type Description & Examples

Arthropathy (joint diseases) Osteoarthritis (formation of new bone on and around joints) is most

common. In severe cases, the cartilage is totally destroyed and bones

directly abrade each other; this can lead to joint surface polishing

(eburnation).

Dental Disease Wear on teeth can lead loss of teeth.

Gum (periodontal) disease is common and leads to abscesses and to

loosening or loss of teeth.

Trauma Broken bones note whether any healing has occurred (can help to

determine if damage is post-mortem).

Healed fractures.

Trephining or trepanning.

Injury from weapons (for example, an arrow head), tools or

implements.

Scoliosis

Osteophytes

Stress Indicators Horizontal striations on teeth (dental enamel hypoplasia).

Harris lines in long bones (visible only in radiographs).

Cribra orbitalia (pitting in the tops of the orbits, due to anaemia).

Rickets.

Osteoporosis (thinning of walls of long bones and loss of bone mass

difficult to identify).

Infection Generally leaves little evidence on the skeleton.

TB causes centres of vertebrae to collapse, leading to curvature of

spine.

Syphilis causes a gnawed effect on many bones, with rough edges.

Leprosy bone is lost on the palate, front of maxilla, etc., with

smooth edges.

Pagets disease bone assumes a distorted and enlarged character

Osteomyelitis pitting and irregularity of the bone surface and

possibly cavity formation within the bone interior.

Congenital/Developmental Cleft palate.

Hip dislocation due to shallow acetabulum.

Hydrocephalus (indicated by enlarged skull).

Sacralisation of 5th lumbar vertebra.

Supernumerary vertebrae

Unusual formation of teeth.

Cancerous Growths Erosion of normal bones and growth of other bone.

[Roberts and Manchester, 1995] and/or [Waldron, 2009] give a comprehensive description of the most

common diseases and traumas which affect bone.

In exceptional circumstances where the skeleton is of special interest or importance, it may be

necessary to call upon the services of an external expert to carry out a professional examination of the

remains.

It is essential that all basic post-excavation recording and analysis has been completed before any

destructive analysis is performed (such as 14C dating).


5 Disposal Ray Carpenter

Ultimately the remains will be re-interred in a duly authorised burial ground.

Previously we arranged for our human remains to be re-buried at Mount St. Bernard monastery, near

Loughborough in Leicestershire. This is particularly appropriate as this is a Cistercian monastery,

maintaining the link with the chapels past history. However, recently that route has become

unavailable to us. At the time of writing, the terms of our MoJ licence require all the human remains

excavated by the Project to be re-interred during 2015. We plan to apply for an extension of that licence

in due course. However, as precautionary measure, the Trustees have drawn up outline plans to re-inter

all the remains on specially dedicated land at Chapel House Farm, close to the original burial grounds.

The Trustees will decide the exact form and procedure of the re-burial closer to the event.


6 References Anderson, S., 1993 Digging Up People: Guidelines for Excavation and Processing of

Human Skeletal Remains.

http://www.spoilheap.co.uk/pdfs/digbone.pdf. Date accessed 26-

Jan-2013.

Ayoub, F., Rizk, A., Yehya, M.,

Cassia., A, Chartouni, S., Atiyeh, F.

& Maizoub, Z., 2009

Sexual dimorphism of mandibular angle in a Lebanese sample,

Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine 16- 3:121-124.

BABAO Code of Ethics, 2010 2010 BABAO Code of Ethics. British Association for Biological

Anthropology and Osteoarchaeology and

http://www.babao.org.uk/index/ethics-and-standards. Date

accessed 26-Jan-2013.

BABAO Code of Practice, 2010 2010 BABAO Code of Practice. British Association for Biological

Anthropology and Osteoarchaeology and

http://www.babao.org.uk/index/ethics-and-standards. Date

accessed 26-Jan-2013

Bass, W.M., 1995 Human Osteology: A Laboratory and Field Manual (4th ed.). Special

Publication No. 2 of the Missouri Archaeological Society.

Bedford M.E. , Russell K.F. &

Lovejoy C.O., 1989

Poster presented at the 58th Annual Meeting of the American

Association of Physical Anthropologists, San Diego, CA. 7 April

1989

Berrizbeitia, E.L., 1989 Sex determination with the head of the radius. Journal of

Forensic Sciences. 34: 1207-1213.

Brickley, M. and McKinley, J.I.

(eds.), 2004

Guidelines to the Standards for Recording Human Remains. IFA

Paper No. 7, Reading.

Brooks, S. and Suchey, J.M., 1990 Skeletal Age Determination Based on the Os Pubis: A

Comparison of the Acsdi-Nemeskri and Suchey-Brooks

Methods. Human Evolution, 5: 227-238.

Brothwell, D., 1981 Digging Up Bones (3rd ed.). British Museum (Natural History),

London/Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Buikstra, J.E. and Ubelaker, D.H.

(eds.), 1994

Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains.

Arkansas Archaeological Survey Research Series, No. 44.

Burns, K. R. (2007) Forensic Anthropology Training Manual (2nd Eds.) Pearson

Education, Pearson Practice Hall.

Ditch, L. E., and Rose, J. C. (1972). A multivariate dental sexing technique. American Journal of

Physical Anthropology, 37: 61-64

Dunn, G., 2002 Personal Communication

Emery, M., 2005 Poulton Research Project Site Manual (v0.2). Poulton.

EN 60062:2005 BS EN 60062 :2005: Marking codes for resistors and capacitors

http://shop.bsigroup.com/en/ProductDetail/?pid=0000000000301

61717 Date accessed 26-Jan-2013

Iscan, M. Y., Loth, S. R., and Wright,

R. K., 1984.

Age estimation from the ribs by phase analysis: White males.

Journal of Forensic Sciences 29: 1094-1104

Iscan, M. Y., Loth, S. R., and Wright,

R. K., 1985.

Age estimation from the ribs by phase analysis: White females.

Journal of Forensic Sciences 30: 853-863

Karoshah, M., Almadani, O., Ghaleb,

S., Zaki, M. & Fattah, Y., 2010

Sexual dimorphism of the mandible in a modern Egyptian

population, Journal of Forensic and Legal medicine 17- 4: 213-215.

Lovejoy, C.O., Meindl, R.S.,

Pryzbeck, T.R. and Mensforth, R.P.,

1985

Chronological Metamorphosis of the Auricular Surface of the

Ilium: A New Method for the Determination of Adult Skeletal

Age at Death. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 68: 15-

28.

Mays, S., 2010. The Archaeology of Human Bones (2nd ed). Routledge, London.


McKinley, J.I. and Roberts, C., 1993 Excavation and Post-Excavation Treatment of Cremated and

Inhumed Human Remains. IFA Technical Paper No. 13,

Birmingham.

Mishra, S.R., Singh, P.J., Agrawal,

A.K., Gupta, R.N., 2003

Identification Of Sex Of Sacrum Of Agra Region. Journal of

Anatomical Society of India, 52(2): 132-136

MoJ, 2011 Statement on the exhumation of human remains for archaeological

purposes http://www.justice.gov.uk/downloads/burials-and-

coroners/statement-exhumation-human-remains-

archaeological.pdf. Date accessed 26-Jan-2013

Powers, N. (ed.), 2008 Human Osteology Method Statement. Museum of London and

http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/NR/rdonlyres/2D513AFA-

EB45-43C2-AEAC-

30B256245FD6/0/MicrosoftWordOsteologyMethodStatementMar

ch2008.pdf. Date accessed 26-Jan-2013.

Roberts, C. and Manchester, K., 1995 The Archaeology of Disease (2nd ed.). Sutton Publishing, Stroud.

Roberts, C., 1998 Report on Skeletal Remains of One Individual from Poulton Chapel,

Cheshire. http://www.poultonproject.org/skel.shtml. Date

accessed 26-Jan-2013.

Roberts, C.A., 2009 Human Remains in Archaeology: A Handbook (Practical

Handbooks in Archaeology No. 19). Council for British

Archaeology, York.

Rosing, F. M. (1983). Sexing immature skeletons. Journal of Human Evolution, 12: 149-

155.

Schaefer, M., Black, S. & Scheuer, L.,

2009

Juvenile Osteology: A Laboratory and Field Manual. Academic

Press, London.

Stewart, T.D., 1979 Essentials of Forensic Anthropology. Springfield, IL: Charles C.

Thomas.

Stirland, A., 1999 Human Bones in Archaeology. Shire, Princes Risborough.

Sutherland, L.D. and Suchey, J.M.,

1991

Use of the Ventral Arc in Pubic Sex Determination. Journal of

Forensic Sciences, 36(2): 501-511.

Trotter, M. and Gleser, G.C., 1952 Estimation of Stature from Long Bones of American Whites and

Negroes. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 10: 463-514.

Trotter, M. and Gleser, G.C., 1958 A Re-Evaluation of estimation of stature based on measurements

of stature taken during life and of long bones after death.

American Journal of Physical Anthropology 16: 79-123.

Trotter, M. and Gleser, G.C., 1977 Corrigenda to estimation of stature from long limb bones of

American Whites and Negroes. American Journal Physical

Anthropology (1952). American Journal of Physical Anthropology

47: 355-6.

Trotter, M., 1970 Estimation of Stature from Intact Long Bones. In TD Stewart

Personal Identification in Mass Disasters. Washington:

Smithsonian Institution 71-83.

Waldron, T., 2009 Paleopathology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Western, A.G. and Kausmally, T.,

2005

A Field Guide to the Excavation of Inhumated Human Remains.

http://www.ossafreelance.co.uk/PastProjects/FieldGuidetotheE

xcavationofHumanInhumatedRemains.pdf. Date accessed 26-

Jan-2013.

White, T.O. and Folkens, P.A., 2005 The Human Bone Manual. Elsevier, London.


7 Appendices A Bones of the human skeleton

B Inventory: Worked example

C Post-excavation Skeleton Analysis: Worked example

D Descriptions of Pubic Symphyseal Surface phases

E Descriptions of Auricular Surface phases

F Stature Estimation: Worked example

G Notes on the Formulae used to Estimate Stature

Note: The pro-forma sheets are always being revised and those in current use may differ slightly from those

shown in these appendices.


Appendix A Bones of the Adult Human Skeleton


Bones of the Adult Skeleton

from [Mays, 2010: 2-3]

Skull: Including mandible & ossicles 28

Hyoid 1

Spinal column: Vertebrae Cervical 7

Thoracic 12

Lumbar 5

Sacrum 1

Coccyx 1

Thoracic cage: Rib 12 pairs 24

Sternum 1

Pectoral girdle: Clavicle 2

Scapula 2

Pelvic girdle: Pelvic bone 2

Limb bones: Arm bones: Humerus 2

Radius 2

Ulna 2

Wrist/hand: Carpal 16

Metacarpal 10

Phalanx 28

Leg bones: Femur 2

Patella 2

Tibia 2

Fibula 2

Ankle/foot: Tarsal 14

Metatarsal 10

Phalanx 28

Total 206

In addition, there are a variable number of small bones (sesamoids) embedded in the tendons of the

hands and feet.

Although this list shows the standard number of bones in an adult skeleton, extra bones are not

uncommon, for example, 13 rather than 12 thoracic vertebrae, or 6 rather than 5 lumbar vertebrae.

Detailed descriptions and photographs of all the bones can be found in [White & Folkens, 2005].


Appendix B Bones of the Juvenile Human Skeleton


Bones of the Juvenile Skeleton

from [Mays, 2010: 2-3] with additonal data from [Schaefer, Black & Scheuer, 2009]

Skull: Including mandible & ear ossicles 39-28

Hyoid 3-1

Spinal column: Vertebrae Cervical 22-7

Thoracic 36-12

Lumbar 15-5

Sacrum 15-5-1

Coccyx 1-1

Thoracic cage: Rib 12 pairs 24

Sternum 5-2-1

Pectoral girdle: Clavicle 4-2

Scapula 4-2

Pelvic girdle: Pelvic bone 10-2

Limb bones: Arm bones: Humerus 8-2

Radius 6-2

Ulna 6-2

Wrist/hand: Carpal 16-16

Metacarpal 20-10

Phalanx 56-28

Leg bones: Femur 8-2

Patella 2-2

Tibia 6-2

Fibula 6-2

Ankle/foot: Tarsal 16-14

Metatarsal 20-10

Phalanx 56-28

Total 404-206

This shows the total number of elements in the juvenile skeleton against that of an adult. For example,

the mandible can be in 1 or 2 pieces depending on the age of the juvenile.


Appendix C Inventory: Worked example


Appendix D Post-Excavation Skeleton Analysis: Worked Example


Appendix E Descriptions of Pubic Symphyseal Surface Phases The following descriptions are taken from [Brooks & Suchey, 1990], and should be read in conjunction

with the sub-section Pubic Symphysis Degeneration in Section 3.2.1.2

Phase 1: Symphyseal face has a billowing surface (ridges and furrows), which usually extends to

include the pubic tubercle. The horizontal ridges are well-marked, and ventral bevelling may be

commencing. Although ossific nodules may occur on the upper extremity, a key to the recognition of this

phase is the lack of delimitation of either extremity (upper or lower).

Phase 2: The symphyseal face may still show ridge development. The face has commencing delimitation of

lower and/or upper extremities occurring with or without ossific nodules. The ventral rampart may be in

beginning phases as an extension of the bony activity at either or both extremities.

Phase 3: Symphyseal face shows lower extremity and ventral rampart in process of completion. There can

be a continuation of fusing ossific nodules forming the upper extremity and along the ventral border.

Symphyseal face is smooth or can continue to show distinct ridges. Dorsal plateau is complete. Absence

of lipping of symphyseal dorsal margin; no bony ligamentous outgrowths.

Phase 4: Symphyseal face is generally fine grained although remnants of the old ridge and furrow

system may still remain. Usually the oval outline is complete at this stage, but a hiatus can occur in upper

ventral rim. Pubic tubercle is fully separated from the symphyseal face by definition of upper extremity.

The symphyseal face may have a distinct rim. Ventrally, bony ligamentous outgrowths may occur on

inferior portion of pubic bone adjacent to symphyseal face. If any lipping occurs, it will be slight and

located on the dorsal border.

Phase 5: Symphyseal face is completely rimmed with some slight depression of the face itself, relative to the rim.

Moderate lipping is usually found on the dorsal border with more prominent ligamentous outgrowths

on the ventral border. There is little or no rim erosion. Breakdown may occur on superior ventral

border.

Phase 6: Symphyseal face may show ongoing depression as rim erodes. Ventral ligamentous attachments

are marked. In many individuals the pubic tubercle appears as a separate bony knob. The face may be

pitted or porous, giving an appearance of disfigurement with the ongoing process of erratic ossification.

Crenulations may occur. The shape of the face is often irregular at this stage.


Appendix F Descriptions of Auricular Surface Phases The following descriptions are taken from [Buikstra & Ubelaker, 1994: 25], and should be read in

conjunction with the sub-section Auricular Surface Degeneration in Section 3.2.1.2

Phase 1. Transverse billowing and very fine granularity. Articular surface displays fine granular texture

and marked transverse organization. There is no porosity, retroauricular or apical activity. The surface

appears youthful because of broad and well-organized billows, which impart the definitive transverse

organization. Raised transverse billows are well-defined and cover most of the surface. Any subchondral

defects are smooth-edged and rounded. (Age, 20 -24)

Phase 2. Reduction of billowing but retention of youthful appearance. Changes from the previous phase are

not marked and are mostly reflected in slight to moderate loss of billowing, with replacement by striae.

There is no apical activity, porosity, or retroauricular activity. The surface still appears youthful owing

to marked transverse organization. Granulation is slightly more coarse. (Age, 25 -29 )

Phase 3. General loss of billowing, replacement by striae, and distinct coarsening of granularity. Both

demifaces are largely quiescent with some loss of transverse organization. Billowing is much reduced

and replaced by striae. The surface is more coarsely and recognizably granular than in the previous

phase, with no significant changes at apex. Small areas of microporosity may appear. Slight

retroauricular activity may occasionally be present. In general, coarse granulation supersedes and

replaces billowing. Note smoothing of surface by replacement of billows with fine striae, but distinct

retention of slight billowing. Loss of transverse organization and coarsening of granularity is evident.

(Age, 30 -34)

Phase 4. Uniform, coarse granularity. Both faces are coarsely and uniformly granulated, with marked

reduction of both billowing and striae, but striae may still be present. Transverse organization is

present but poorly defined. There is some activity in the retroauricular area, but this is usually slight.

Minimal changes are seen at the apex, microporosity is slight, and there is no macroporosity. (Age, 35 -

39)

Phase 5. Transition from coarse granularity to dense surface. No billowing is seen. Striae may be present

but are very vague. The face is still partially (coarsely) granular and there is a marked loss of transverse

organization. Partial densification of the surface with commensurate loss of granularity. Slight to

moderate activity in the retroauricular area. Occasional macroporosity is seen, but this is not typical.

Slight changes are usually present at the apex. Some increase in macroporosity, depending on degree of

densification. (Age, 40 -44)

Phase 6. Completion of densification with complete loss of granularity. Significant loss of granulation is

seen in most specimens, with replacement by dense bone. No billows or striae are present. Changes at

apex are slight to moderate but are almost always present. There is a distinct tendency for the surface to

become dense. No transverse organization is evident. Most or all of the microporosity is lost to

densification. There is increased irregularity of margins with moderate retroauricular activity and

little or no macroporosity. (Age, 45 -49)

Phase 7. Dense irregular surface of rugged topography and moderate to marked activity in periauricular

areas. This is a further elaboration of the previous morphology, in which marked surface irregularity

becomes the paramount feature. Topography, however, shows no transverse or other form of

organization. Moderate granulation is only occasionally retained. The inferior face generally is lipped at

the inferior terminus. Apical changes are almost invariable and may be marked. Increasing irregularity

of margins is seen. Macroporosity is present in some cases. Retroauricular activity is moderate to

marked in most cases. (Age, 50 -59)

Phase 8. Breakdown with marginal lipping, macroporosity, increased irregularity, and marked activity in

periauricular areas. The paramount feature is a nongranular, irregular surface, with distinct signs of

subchondral destruction. No transverse organization is seen and there is a distinct absence of any

youthful criteria. Macroporosity is present in about one-third of all cases. Apical activity is usually

marked but it is not requisite. Margins become dramatically irregular and lipped, with typical

degenerative joint change. Rctroauricular area becomes well defined with profuse osteophytes of low to

moderate relief. There is clear destruction of subchondral bone, absence of transverse organization, and

increased irregularity. (Age, 60+)


The following is from [Bedford, Russell. & Lovejoy, 1989]

Age Transverse 1 Organisation

Texture Retroauricular Activity

Apical Activity

Porosity

20

21

22 billowing fine

23 (20-24) granularity

24

25

26

27 decr. billowing slight coarse

28 incr. striae granularity

29 (25-29) (25-29)

30

31

32 decr. transv incr. coarse slight retro. micropor.

33 striae evident granularity possible possible

34 (30-34) (30-34) (30-34) (30-34)

35

36

37 last striae uniform coarse slight retro. minimal apical micropor.

38 (35-39) granularity activity change often slight

39 (35-3.9) (35-39) (35-39) (35-39)

40

41

42 vague transv. coarse granularity slight/moder. slight apical micropor.

43 (40-44) to dense (Islands) retro. activity changes occas.

macropor. 44 (40-44) (40-44) (40-44) (40-44)

45

46

47 no transv. decr. granularity moderate retro. apical change micropor. to

48 (45-49) incr. density activity irreg. margins densification

49 (45-49) (45-49) (45-49) possib.

macropor. 50 (45--49)

51

52

53

54

55 irregular

surface

dense mod/severe more apical possib.

macropor. 56 (50-60) possib. residual retro. activity change (50-60)

57 granularity (50-60) irreg. margins

58 (50-60) (50-60)

59

60 irregular

surface

dense, with severe retro. more apical macropor.

61 (60+) subchondral activity change (60+)

62 destruction (60+) margin lipping

63 (60+) osteophytes

64 (60+)

65

1 Terms used here are defined in Lovejoy et al. (1985) Chronological Metamorphosis of the Auricular Surface of the

Ilium: A New Method for the Determination of Adult Skeletal Age at Death. Amer. J. Phys. Anth. 68:15-28.


Appendix G Stature Estimation: Worked example


Appendix H Notes on the Formulae used to Estimate Stature The process used to calculate stature for the Poulton skeletons is as defined in [Brickley and McKinley,

2004: 33]. That document includes both the formulae (which are quoted in full, including the

corresponding standard error estimates) and their method of application, for example the use of the

single formula with the lowest standard error. We only use the sets of formulae for white males and

white females, and ignore those for black males and females as unapplicable for the medieval population

of Poulton.

Source Papers

The formulae are taken from four well-known sources: [Trotter & Gleser, 1952], [Trotter & Gleser, 1958],

[Trotter, 1970] and [Trotter & Gleser, 1977]. However, the way in which formulae have been selected from

the source papers is not straightforward, and is certainly not explained. This Appendix attempts to

clarify the origin of the sets of formulae we use.

The four source papers can be briefly summarised as follows, in chronological order:

[Trotter & Gleser, 1952] male formulae based on WW II data, female formulae based on the

Terry skeletal collection (at that time located at the Washington University Medical School, St.

Louis).

[Trotter & Gleser, 1958] male formulae revised, based on Korean War data.

[Trotter, 1970] just repeats some (but not all) of the formulae from the 1952 paper. It prefers

these to the formulae from the 1958 paper, on the grounds that the differences are of not

statistical significance and that the 1952 set have slightly smaller standard errors.

[Trotter & Gleser, 1977] corrections to some of the black female formulae. These are not

relevant for Poulton.

Males

The white male formulae recommended by [Brickley & McKinley, 2004:33] are listed in the table below:

Formula (in cm) Std Error Source

1.30 (XLF + LCT) + 63.29 2.99 1952

2.38 XLF + 61.41 3.27 1952

2.68 XLG + 71.78 3.29 1952

2.52 LCT + 78.62 3.37 1952

1.31 (XLF + XLG) + 63.05 3.62 1958

3.08 XLH + 70.45 4.05 1952

1.82 (XLH + XLR) + 67.97 4.31 1958

3.70 XLU + 74.05 4.32 1952

3.78 XLR + 79.01 4.32 1952

These are taken primarily from the 1952 paper, with the exception of two formulae from the 1958 paper

(highlighted in the Source column). The logic behind the selection is not clear.


Females

The white female formulae recommended by [Brickley & McKinley, 2004:33] are listed in the table below:

Formula (in cm) Std Error Source

0.68 XLH + 1.17 XLF + 1.15 LCT + 50.12 3.51 1952

1.48 XLF + 1.28 LCT + 53.07 3.55 1952

1.39 (XLF + LCT) + 53.20 3.55 1952

2.93 XLG + 59.61 3.57 1952

2.90 LCT + 61.53 3.66 1952

1.35 XLH + 1.95 LCT + 52.77 3.67 1952

2.47 XLF + 54.10 3.72 1952

4.74 XLR + 54.93 4.24 1952

4.27 XLU + 57.76 4.30 1952

3.36 XLH + 57.97 4.45 1952

This is the full set of formulae from the 1952 paper. In this case the logic is clear, as there are no other

formulae for white females in the source documents.

Documents

Skeleton Excavation Manual Part 2