Upload
dinamaryamah
View
1.246
Download
2
Tags:
Embed Size (px)
DESCRIPTION
Citation preview
SISTEM RANGKASISTEM RANGKA
Jumailatus Solihah, S.Si.Jumailatus Solihah, S.Si.Biology ProgramBiology Program
State Islamic University Sunan Kalijaga State Islamic University Sunan Kalijaga YogyakartaYogyakarta
BoneBone
inorganic components of bone inorganic components of bone comprise 60% of the dry weight comprise 60% of the dry weight (largely calcium hydroxy-appetite (largely calcium hydroxy-appetite crystals) & provide the compressive crystals) & provide the compressive strength strength
The organic component is primarily The organic component is primarily collagen, which gives bone great collagen, which gives bone great tensile strength. tensile strength.
Function of Function of BoneBone
provides support and movement via provides support and movement via attachments for soft tissue and muscleattachments for soft tissue and muscle
protects vital organsprotects vital organs is a major site for red marrow for is a major site for red marrow for
production of blood cellsproduction of blood cells plays a role in the metabolism of plays a role in the metabolism of
minerals such as calcium and minerals such as calcium and phosphorus. phosphorus.
Bone CellsBone Cells OsteogenicOsteogenic cells respond to traumas, such as cells respond to traumas, such as
fractures, by giving rise to bone-forming cells fractures, by giving rise to bone-forming cells and bone-destroying cellsand bone-destroying cells
OsteoblastsOsteoblasts (bone-forming cells) synthesize and (bone-forming cells) synthesize and secrete unmineralized ground substance and are secrete unmineralized ground substance and are found in areas of high metabolism within the found in areas of high metabolism within the bone. bone.
OsteocytesOsteocytes are mature bone cells made from are mature bone cells made from osteoblasts that have made bone tissue around osteoblasts that have made bone tissue around themselves. themselves.
OsteoclastsOsteoclasts are large cells that break down bone are large cells that break down bone tissue. tissue.
bone-liningbone-lining cells cells are made from osteoblasts are made from osteoblasts along the surface of most bones in an adultalong the surface of most bones in an adult
TTypes of boneypes of bone
Compact bone forms the outer shell of all Compact bone forms the outer shell of all bones and also the shafts in long bones. bones and also the shafts in long bones.
Spongy bone is found at the expanded heads Spongy bone is found at the expanded heads of long bones and fills most irregular bones.of long bones and fills most irregular bones.
Short bones are variable in size and shape. Short bones are variable in size and shape. These bones are generally compact in nature These bones are generally compact in nature and are distributed throughout the skeleton. and are distributed throughout the skeleton. These include the entire vertebral column, These include the entire vertebral column, carpal bones, and tarsal bonescarpal bones, and tarsal bones
IntramembranousIntramembranous ossification ossification
is the process of is the process of membrane bone formationmembrane bone formation. This process give rise to: . This process give rise to: bones of the lower jaw, skull, & pectoral girdle bones of the lower jaw, skull, & pectoral girdle dentin & other bone that develops in the skin dentin & other bone that develops in the skin vertebrae in some vertebrates (teleosts, vertebrae in some vertebrates (teleosts,
urodeles) urodeles)
EndochondralEndochondral ossification ossification
is the process in which is the process in which bone is deposited in pre-existing cartibone is deposited in pre-existing cartilagelage, & such bone is called , & such bone is called REPLACEMENT BONEREPLACEMENT BONE
Dermal skeleton Dermal skeleton
skin of most living vertebrates has no hard skin of most living vertebrates has no hard skeletal parts but dermal bone elements skeletal parts but dermal bone elements are usually present in the head region are usually present in the head region
early vertebrates (ostracoderms) had so early vertebrates (ostracoderms) had so much dermal bone they were called much dermal bone they were called 'armored fishes' 'armored fishes'
after ostracoderms, fish continued to after ostracoderms, fish continued to develop much bone in skin but that bone develop much bone in skin but that bone has become 'thinner' over timehas become 'thinner' over time
Endoskeleton Endoskeleton
Somatic - Somatic - axial & axial & appendicularappendicular skeletons skeletons
Visceral - cartilage or bone Visceral - cartilage or bone associated with gills & skeletal associated with gills & skeletal elements (such as jaw cartilages) elements (such as jaw cartilages) derived from them derived from them
Dermal bone of fishes:Dermal bone of fishes:
Basic structure includes lamellar (compact) Basic structure includes lamellar (compact) bone, spongy bone, dentin, &, often, a bone, spongy bone, dentin, &, often, a surface with a layer of enamel-like material surface with a layer of enamel-like material
Evolutionary 'trend' = large bony plates Evolutionary 'trend' = large bony plates giving way to giving way to smaller, thinner bony scalessmaller, thinner bony scales Ancient armor - not found on living fish Ancient armor - not found on living fish GanoidGanoid scales scales - found only on - found only on LatimeriaLatimeria
(coelocanth) & sturgeons (coelocanth) & sturgeons PlacoidPlacoid scales scales - elasmobranchs (diagram to the - elasmobranchs (diagram to the
right; pulp cavity > dentin layer > enamel) right; pulp cavity > dentin layer > enamel) CtenoidCtenoid & Cycloid scales & Cycloid scales - modern bony fish - modern bony fish
Somatic skeleton = axial Somatic skeleton = axial skeleton (vertebral skeleton (vertebral
column, ribs, sternum, & column, ribs, sternum, & skull) + appendicular skull) + appendicular
skeletonskeleton
Vertebral column:Vertebral column:
VertebraeVertebrae - consist of a centrum (or body), 1 or - consist of a centrum (or body), 1 or 2 arches, plus various processes2 arches, plus various processes
AmphicelousAmphicelous concave at both ends concave at both ends most fish, a few salamanders (most fish, a few salamanders (NecturusNecturus), & caecilians ), & caecilians
Procelous Procelous concave in front & convex in back concave in front & convex in back anurans & present-day reptiles anurans & present-day reptiles
Acelous Acelous flat-ended flat-ended mammals mammals
Vertebral archesVertebral arches
Neural arch - on top of centrum Neural arch - on top of centrum Hemal arch (also called chevrons) - Hemal arch (also called chevrons) -
beneath centrum in caudal vertebrae beneath centrum in caudal vertebrae of fish, salamanders, most reptiles, of fish, salamanders, most reptiles, some birds, & many long-tailed some birds, & many long-tailed mammals mammals
Vertebral processes: Vertebral processes:
projections from arches & centra projections from arches & centra some give rigidity to the column, some give rigidity to the column,
articulate with ribs, or serve as sites articulate with ribs, or serve as sites of muscle attachment of muscle attachment
Vertebral processes:Vertebral processes:
Transverse processesTransverse processes - most common type - most common type of process; extend laterally from the base of a of process; extend laterally from the base of a neural arch or centrum & separate the neural arch or centrum & separate the epaxial & hypaxial muscles epaxial & hypaxial muscles
Diapophyses & parapophysesDiapophyses & parapophyses - articulate - articulate with ribs with ribs
Prezygapophyses (cranial Prezygapophyses (cranial zygapophyses) & postzygapophyses zygapophyses) & postzygapophyses (caudal zygapophyses)(caudal zygapophyses) - articulate with - articulate with one another & limit flexion & torsion of the one another & limit flexion & torsion of the vertebral columnvertebral column
Vertebral columnsVertebral columns of of tetrapodstetrapods
Cervical regionCervical region AmphibiansAmphibians - single cervical vertebra; allows little head movement - single cervical vertebra; allows little head movement Reptiles - increased numbers of cervical vertebrae (usually 7) & Reptiles - increased numbers of cervical vertebrae (usually 7) &
increased flexibility of head increased flexibility of head BirdsBirds - variable number of cervical vertebrae (as many as 25 in - variable number of cervical vertebrae (as many as 25 in
swans) swans) MammalsMammals - - usually 7 cervical vertebraeusually 7 cervical vertebrae Reptiles, birds, & mammals - 1st two cervical vertebrae are Reptiles, birds, & mammals - 1st two cervical vertebrae are
modified & called the modified & called the atlas & axisatlas & axis atlas - 1st cervical vertebra; ring-like (most of centrum gone); provides atlas - 1st cervical vertebra; ring-like (most of centrum gone); provides
'cradle' in which skull can 'rock' (as when nodding 'yes') 'cradle' in which skull can 'rock' (as when nodding 'yes') axis - 2nd cervical vertebra axis - 2nd cervical vertebra
Transverse foramen (#6 in above caudal view of a cervical Transverse foramen (#6 in above caudal view of a cervical vertebra) vertebra) found in cervical vertebrae of birds & mammals found in cervical vertebrae of birds & mammals provides canal for vertebral artery & veinprovides canal for vertebral artery & vein
Vertebral columnsVertebral columns of of tetrapodstetrapods
Dorsal regionDorsal region Dorsals - name given to vertebrae Dorsals - name given to vertebrae
between cervicals & sacrals when all between cervicals & sacrals when all articulate with similar ribs (e.g., fish, articulate with similar ribs (e.g., fish, amphibians, & snakes) amphibians, & snakes)
Crocodilians, lizards, birds, & mammals - Crocodilians, lizards, birds, & mammals - ribs are confined to anterior region of trunk ribs are confined to anterior region of trunk
thoracicthoracic - vertebrae with ribs - vertebrae with ribs lumbarlumbar - vertebrae without ribs - vertebrae without ribs
Vertebral columnsVertebral columns of of tetrapodstetrapods
Sacrum & SynsacrumSacrum & Synsacrum sacral vertebrae - have short transverse processes that brace the sacral vertebrae - have short transverse processes that brace the
pelvic girdle & hindlimbs against the vertebral column pelvic girdle & hindlimbs against the vertebral column Amphibians - 1 sacral vertebra Amphibians - 1 sacral vertebra Living reptiles & most birds - 2 sacral vertebrae Living reptiles & most birds - 2 sacral vertebrae Most mammals - 3 to 5 sacral vertebrae Most mammals - 3 to 5 sacral vertebrae SacrumSacrum - single bony complex consisting of fused sacral - single bony complex consisting of fused sacral
vertebrae; found when there is more than 1 sacral vertebravertebrae; found when there is more than 1 sacral vertebra Synsacrum Synsacrum
found in birds found in birds produced by fusion of last thoracics, all lumbars, all sacrals, & first produced by fusion of last thoracics, all lumbars, all sacrals, & first
few caudals few caudals fused with pelvic girdle fused with pelvic girdle provides rigid support for bipedal locomotion provides rigid support for bipedal locomotion
Vertebral columnsVertebral columns of of tetrapodstetrapods
Caudal regionCaudal region Primitive tetrapods - 50 or more caudal vertebrae Primitive tetrapods - 50 or more caudal vertebrae Present-day tetrapods Present-day tetrapods
number of caudal vertebrae is reduced number of caudal vertebrae is reduced arches & processes get progressively shorter (the last few arches & processes get progressively shorter (the last few
caudals typically consist of just cylindrical centra) caudals typically consist of just cylindrical centra) Anurans - unique terminal segment called the Anurans - unique terminal segment called the urostyleurostyle
(section of unsegmented vertebral column probably (section of unsegmented vertebral column probably derived from separate caudals of early anurans) derived from separate caudals of early anurans)
Birds - last 4 or 5 caudal vertebrae fused to form Birds - last 4 or 5 caudal vertebrae fused to form pygostyle pygostyle
Apes & humans - last 3 to 5 caudal vertebrae fused to Apes & humans - last 3 to 5 caudal vertebrae fused to form form coccygealcoccygeal (or (or tail bonetail bone) )
RibsRibs may be long or short, cartilaginous or bony; articulate medially with may be long or short, cartilaginous or bony; articulate medially with
vertebrae & extend into the body wall vertebrae & extend into the body wall A few teleosts - have 2 pair of ribs for each centrum of trunk (dorsal rib A few teleosts - have 2 pair of ribs for each centrum of trunk (dorsal rib
separates epaxial & hypaxial muscles) separates epaxial & hypaxial muscles) Most teleosts - ventral ribs only Most teleosts - ventral ribs only Sharks - dorsal ribs only Sharks - dorsal ribs only Agnathans - no ribs Agnathans - no ribs Tetrapods - ribs usually articulate with vertebrae in moveable joints Tetrapods - ribs usually articulate with vertebrae in moveable joints
(see above drawing) (see above drawing) Early tetrapods - ribs articulated with every vertebra from the atlas to the Early tetrapods - ribs articulated with every vertebra from the atlas to the
end of the trunk end of the trunk Later tetrapods - long ribs limited to thoracic region Later tetrapods - long ribs limited to thoracic region
Thoracic ribs - most composed of a dorsal element (vertebral rib) & a ventral Thoracic ribs - most composed of a dorsal element (vertebral rib) & a ventral element (sternal rib) element (sternal rib)
Sternal rib - may be ossified (birds) or remain cartilaginous (mammals); usually Sternal rib - may be ossified (birds) or remain cartilaginous (mammals); usually articulate with sternum (except articulate with sternum (except 'floating'floating ribs' ribs') )
Uncinate processes - found in Uncinate processes - found in birdsbirds; provides rib-cage with additional ; provides rib-cage with additional support support
SternumSternum
strictly a tetrapod structure &, primarily, an strictly a tetrapod structure &, primarily, an amniote structureamniote structure
Amphibians - no sternum in early Amphibians - no sternum in early amphibians &, among present-day amphibians &, among present-day amphibians, only anurans have one amphibians, only anurans have one
Amniotes Amniotes sternum is a plate of cartilage & replacement sternum is a plate of cartilage & replacement
bone bone sternum articulates with the pectoral girdle sternum articulates with the pectoral girdle
anteriorly & with a variable number of ribs anteriorly & with a variable number of ribs
The Vertebrate SkullThe Vertebrate Skull
consists of: consists of: 1 - neurocranium (also 1 - neurocranium (also
called endocranium called endocranium or primary braincase) or primary braincase)
2 - dermatocranium 2 - dermatocranium (membrane bones) (membrane bones)
3 - splanchnocranium 3 - splanchnocranium (or visceral skeleton) (or visceral skeleton)
NeurocraniumNeurocranium::
1 - 1 - protects the brainprotects the brain 2 - begins as cartilage that is partly 2 - begins as cartilage that is partly
or entirely replaced by bone (except or entirely replaced by bone (except in cartilaginous fishes) in cartilaginous fishes)
Cartilaginous stage: Cartilaginous stage: neurocranium begins as pair of parachordal & prechordal neurocranium begins as pair of parachordal & prechordal
cartilages below the brain cartilages below the brain parachordal cartilages expand & join; along with the notochord parachordal cartilages expand & join; along with the notochord
from the from the basal platebasal plate prechordal cartilages expand & join to form an prechordal cartilages expand & join to form an ethmoid plateethmoid plate Cartilage also appears in the Cartilage also appears in the
olfactory capsule (partially surrounding the olfactory epithelium) olfactory capsule (partially surrounding the olfactory epithelium) otic capsule (surrounds inner ear & also develops into sclera of the eyeball) otic capsule (surrounds inner ear & also develops into sclera of the eyeball)
Completion of floor, walls, & roof: Completion of floor, walls, & roof: Ethmoid plate - fuses with olfactory capsules Ethmoid plate - fuses with olfactory capsules Basal plate - fuses with otic capsules Basal plate - fuses with otic capsules
Further development of cartilaginous neurocranium = Further development of cartilaginous neurocranium = development of cartilaginous walls (sides of braincase) &, in development of cartilaginous walls (sides of braincase) &, in cartilaginous fishes, a cartilaginous roof over the brain cartilaginous fishes, a cartilaginous roof over the brain
Neurocranial ossification Neurocranial ossification centerscenters
1 - occipital centers 1 - occipital centers cartilage surrounding the foramen magnum cartilage surrounding the foramen magnum
may be replaced by as many as four bones: may be replaced by as many as four bones: basioccipital basioccipital exoccipital (2) exoccipital (2) supraoccipital supraoccipital
Mammals - all 4 occipital elements typically Mammals - all 4 occipital elements typically fuse to form a single occipital bonefuse to form a single occipital bone
Tetrapods - neurocranium articulates with Tetrapods - neurocranium articulates with the 1st vertebra via 1 (reptiles and birds) or the 1st vertebra via 1 (reptiles and birds) or 2 (amphibians and mammals) occipital 2 (amphibians and mammals) occipital condyles condyles
Neurocranial ossification Neurocranial ossification centerscenters
2 - Sphenoid centers form: 2 - Sphenoid centers form: basisphenoid bone basisphenoid bone
(anterior to basioccipital) (anterior to basioccipital) presphenoid bone presphenoid bone side walls above side walls above
basisphenoid & basisphenoid & presphenoid form: presphenoid form: orbitosphenoid orbitosphenoid pleurosphenoid pleurosphenoid alisphenoid alisphenoid
Neurocranial ossification Neurocranial ossification centerscenters
3 - Ethmoid centers tend to remain 3 - Ethmoid centers tend to remain cartilaginous & form cartilaginous & form
anterior to sphenoid anterior to sphenoid cribiform plate of ethmoid & several cribiform plate of ethmoid & several
conchae (or ethmoturbinal bones) conchae (or ethmoturbinal bones)
The ethmoid region is clearly visible within the bisected The ethmoid region is clearly visible within the bisected skull above. In most mammals, the nasal chamber skull above. In most mammals, the nasal chamber iis large s large & filled with ridges from the ethmoid bones called the & filled with ridges from the ethmoid bones called the turbinals or ethmoturbinals. These bones are covered with turbinals or ethmoturbinals. These bones are covered with olfactory epithelium in life and serve to increase the surface olfactory epithelium in life and serve to increase the surface area for olfaction (i.e., a more acute sense of smell). area for olfaction (i.e., a more acute sense of smell). Another ethmoid bone, the cribiform plate, separates the Another ethmoid bone, the cribiform plate, separates the nasal chamber from the brain cavity within the skull. nasal chamber from the brain cavity within the skull.
Neurocranial ossification Neurocranial ossification centerscenters
4 - Otic centers - the cartilaginous otic capsule is 4 - Otic centers - the cartilaginous otic capsule is replaced in lower vertebrates by several bones: replaced in lower vertebrates by several bones:
prootic prootic opisthotic opisthotic epiotic epiotic One or more of these may unite with adjacent One or more of these may unite with adjacent
replacement or membrane bones: replacement or membrane bones: Frogs & most reptiles - opisthotics fuse with exoccipitals Frogs & most reptiles - opisthotics fuse with exoccipitals Birds & mammals - prootic, opisthotic, & epiotic unite to Birds & mammals - prootic, opisthotic, & epiotic unite to
form a single petrosal bone; the petrosal, in turn, form a single petrosal bone; the petrosal, in turn, sometimes fuses with the squamosal to form the sometimes fuses with the squamosal to form the temporal bone temporal bone
DERMATOCRANIUMDERMATOCRANIUM – – lies superficial to neurocranium & lies superficial to neurocranium & forms: forms: 1 - bones that form the roof of the brain 1 - bones that form the roof of the brain
& contribute to the lateral walls of the & contribute to the lateral walls of the skull skull
2 - bones of the upper jaw 2 - bones of the upper jaw
3 - bones of the palate(s) 3 - bones of the palate(s)
4 - opercular bones4 - opercular bones
Appendicular skeletonAppendicular skeleton
consists of pectoral & pelvic girdles consists of pectoral & pelvic girdles plus skeleton of fins & limbs plus skeleton of fins & limbs
Some vertebrates have no Some vertebrates have no appendicular skeleton (e.g., appendicular skeleton (e.g., agnathans, apodans, snakes, & some agnathans, apodans, snakes, & some lizards) & in others it is much lizards) & in others it is much reduced. reduced.
LimbsLimbs Starting with amphibians, vertebrates typically have 4 Starting with amphibians, vertebrates typically have 4
limbs. However, some have lost one or both pairs &, in limbs. However, some have lost one or both pairs &, in others, one pair is modified as arms, wings, or paddles others, one pair is modified as arms, wings, or paddles
typically have 5 segments: typically have 5 segments: Anterior limb Anterior limb
brachium (upper arm) - consists of humerus brachium (upper arm) - consists of humerus antebrachium (forearm) - consists of radius & ulna antebrachium (forearm) - consists of radius & ulna carpus (wrist) - consists of carpals carpus (wrist) - consists of carpals metacarpus (palm) - consists of metacarpals metacarpus (palm) - consists of metacarpals digits - consist of phalanges digits - consist of phalanges
Posterior limb Posterior limb femur (thigh) - consists of femur femur (thigh) - consists of femur crus (shank) - consists of tibia & fibula crus (shank) - consists of tibia & fibula tarsus (ankle) - consists of tarsals tarsus (ankle) - consists of tarsals metatarsus (instep) - consists of metatarsals metatarsus (instep) - consists of metatarsals digits - consist of phalanges digits - consist of phalanges
jointjoint //articulationarticulation
Movable jointsMovable joints (like ball-and- (like ball-and-socket, hinge, gliding and pivot socket, hinge, gliding and pivot joints)joints)
Immovable jointsImmovable joints (like the bones of (like the bones of the skull and pelvis) which allow little the skull and pelvis) which allow little or no movement or no movement