Similipal Biosphere : Genesis of Historicitymagazines.odisha.gov.in/Orissareview/2008/June-2008/...Kotta, the present Khiching. These two ruling families had close social and cultural

Orissa Review * June - 2008

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The countless interferences and thereby itsconsequent infringement on nature have been ahabitual trend with the man, and this phenomenonknew no bounds during the last one and halfcenturies of the Darbar Administration inMayurbhanj. The Similipal hill reserve 2,750sqkms. compact patch of broad leaved tropicalnatural forest classified by Champion and Sethas type-3/C North Indian Tropical MoistDecidious forests with its sub-types at differentelevations, clads the massif with varied flora andfauna with species of Temperate forests also. Itsunique geological formation, typical ecosystemscontrols and regulates the ecology of the North-east region. The imbalanced ecology, could berestored with the help of scientific forestmanagement and by devoted knowledgeableforesters, improving the level required. Theprotected area, 50% of the massif, under TigerProject came under Sl. No.1 - ConservationForestry, classified in 1976 by NationalCommission on Agriculture and balance areaunder production forestry, ranking 3rd in the list,2nd being social forestry. This protected area withV.H.F. and telephone connections all over theproject area keeps the staff alert and encouraged.The offenders and intruders are scared and keepaway. The declaration of Similipal as Biospheregot international status and provided more security

and protection to the core, the national park, andthe buffer, the sanctuary, as there shall betransitional zone around these two existingconcentric pro tected areas with moreconservational activities for conservation of thetypical ecosystem in its natural form for good.

From the hoary past till the present, throughout the annals of history of Mayurbhanj, many achronicle and document referred to Similipalextensively at its various forms. At the rise andfall of Mayurbhanj in its glories and glooms,Similipal always remained as epicenter of activities.It witnessed as a mute spectator to the politicaldevelopment of Mayurbhanj; it shaped andgroomed the economy and the culture of thepeople. Similipal at its fullest version is no lessthan an organic whole. For common man ofMayurbhanj; Similipal is a symbol of reverenceand awe to them. It has the appeal of the religioussanctity, a coherent bend of cultural assimilationand a perinnial source of livilihood. Hence,Similipal, is not only hills and valleys, streams andrivers, ravines and waterfalls, but a bewilderingpanaroma of many hundreds of millions of trees,depicting a huge and mammoth canopy bloomedin green veils; it is more than a wordly endeavour,as it represents the heart throb and the emotionsof the people of Mayurbhanj.

Similipal Biosphere : Genesis of Historicity

Samarendu DasBalabhadra Prasad Das


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History of Mayurbhanj

Mayurbhanj is a small spot on the surfaceof the earth where the man has lived over fiftythousand years. The stone axe(hewn) and left overhearth to melt iron for arrow-heads andploughshares are the evidences, speak of the earlyman living in the area. The tribal people of thearea namely : - the Santals, the Kols, the Mundasand the Savaras speak Austro-Asiatic language.From the discovery of Kusan coins in Mayurbhanjand in other districts of Orissa, Dr. A.S. Altekarbelieved that one Indo-Scythian tribe calledMurandas were ruling over the area during 2nd.and 3rd century A.D. But a tribe called "Bhanna"who were the probable ancestors of the Bhunjatribes, inhabiting this region during 6th centuryA.D. Two ruling families i.e. Mayuras and Bhanjasruled over Bonai and Khijinga Mandalsrespectively. The capital of the later was KhijingaKotta, the present Khiching. These two rulingfamilies had close social and cultural relations.During 1361 A.D. the capital, Khijinga Kotta wasdestroyed by Sultan Firoz Saha Toghluq. So itwas shifted to Haripur on the bank of riverSubernarekha during 1400 A.D. and the nameof the kingdom was changed to Mayurbhanj incommemoration of the traditional relation ofMayuras and Bhanja families.

The Bhanja dynasty ruled the statecontinuously since 9th century A.D. in succession

which was then known as Khijinga Mandalacovering the present area of Mayurbhanj andKeonjhar Districts as well as parts of Singhbhumand Midinapur districts now in Bihar and WestBengal states. During the Moghul period, theBhanjas extended their teritory as far as the seawith capital at Haripur. During the reign ofMaharani Sumitra Devi the capital was shifted toBaripada during the last part of 18th century andon 25th November 1803, it came under Britishoccupation.

The history of Mayurbhanj, part-I,compiled by late Ramprasad Chand basing onrecords of British regime, gives an early accountof the extensive deep jungle of Mayurbhanj,describing the expedition of Aliverdi Khan againstRaja Jagardhar Bhanj in 1741. The writer quotesthe following from the contemporary history Raiz-us-Saltin.

"The latter (Raja of Mayurbhanj) was atHaripur which contained his mansion and was atthat time plunged in pleasures and amusements.His knowledge of the denseness of the forest thatsurrounded him coupled with his command ofnumerous hordes of Chawars and Khandaitsmade him feel insolent ... Raja seeing thesuperiority of the Aliverdi Khan's army, with hiseffects, followers and dependants fled to the topof the hill and hide himself in a secret fastness,beyond the keen of discovery. Similarly, cessationof Orissa by Marahattas in 1751 and during theirstruggle for independence, the Raja ofMayurbhanj had occasion to flee into the hillsbefore the depredation of the Marahatta army.The author, therefore, records in his introductionto the above history. Thanks to the hills and junglesthat spread across it and the indomitable spiritand political vision of the chief, it managed tosurvive the greed of either (British andMarahattas) powers. Later on, after the


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annexation of Orissa in 1803 at the conclusion ofthe 2nd. Marahatta war, conditions continued tobe the same and Mr. W.W. Hunter, the 1st.British Commissioner in his history of Orissa Vol.-II, page 113 writes :-

"Herds of elephants still roam throughforests and mountains of Mayurbhanj and theEnglish Officer in charge of the operation forcatching them lately bagged upward a hundredfine animals during two seasons." (Senapati &Sahu-67).

Situation

The Similipal massif lies between 200-17'and 220-34' North latitudes and 850-40' and 870-40' and 870-10' Eastlongitude comprising ofnearly 2,750 Sqkms ofcompact forest, perhaps thelargest single mass of naturalforests, still left in this partof the country, This massif,not part of the Eastern Ghatsor Gadjat hills, stands out inthe north east corner of theDecan Plateau with its gloryof varied tropical flora andfauna. The entire massif isseparated from the BengalBay by a narrow strip ofcoastal plain. The monsoonand moisture laiden Baywind have definite influenceon the vegetation pattern. Nature has epitomisedall her living resources in this massif.

Topography

The hills rising very precipitiously from theplains of Baripada and Udala extend as far asJashipur in North and Bisoi in the East andThakurmunda in the West covering a total area

of 2750 sqkms. with their innumerable crests andvalleys and perinnial streams. Sir William Hunterdescribes Similipal Hills during 1872 as - "Thehitherto almost unexplored mountains ofMayurbhanj heaped upon each other in noblemasses of rock from 3,300 ft to 4,000 ft. high ....The peaks are densely wooded to the sumit, andexcept the regular passes, are inaccessable tothe beasts of burden."

The Khairiburu, in south Similipal, amidstthe group of hills is 1178 mtrs. whereas Meghasaniis 1,165 mtrs. high. The elevation in the centralregion at Dhudurchampa is 1000.8 mtrs, that inthe North at Chahala is 774.5 meters.

Drainage

The Similipal hills aredrained eastward by a largenumber of perinnial streamsand nalas flowing in alldirections. They ultimatelyjoin with one of the mainriver systems such as - theBudhabalang, Baitarani andSubernarekha. The Khairi,Bhandan, Birol, West-Deo,Salandi, Khadkai and itstributaries flow intoSubernarekha while theBudhabalang forms itself ariver.

Geology, Rock, Soil

The sequence of rock of Similipal basinbeginning with a well developed dark carbonphyllite as base and followed by a quartzite bandwhich is conglomorate at places. Overlying thisthere is lower layer of spilitic lava with volcanicbroceia. The three concentric cups ofmetamorphic rocks inter-beded with sub-metamorphic layer helps to increase the water

Fully - Grown Tusks Capital & Bold


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holding capacity. This geological formation isunique in the world. Out-crops of metamorphicsand stone and quartzites are to be found all overSimilipal hills. They produce a redish and sandysoil in which Sal appears to be doing well. Mostof the areas in Similipal have rich spread of redloam. Extensive pockets of laterite soil also comeacross on the plateau. Heavy clay is also found inthe wide flat basin.

Climate

The climate of the massifis warm and humid. Summeris tolerable as the temperaturehardly goes above 400C.Three distinct seasons are feltduring the year. Rainy seasonstarts from middle of June tillOctober with rain fall of about1250 mm in the monsonicleeward valleys, over 2000mm is the general spread ofthe rainfall in the plateau.Frequent annual receiptal of2500 mm is exprienced insome pockets and more in higher elevations insideSimilipal. Winter creeps in gradually fromOctober mid and becomes severe in Decemberlowering temperature to 50C in many parts of thehill, with forest in valleys and open grass lands.The spring is pleasant. The southern and westernaspects are cooler and north eastern aspects arewarmer in Similipal is uncommon deviation dueto its stategic situation. This geophysical conditioninfluences floral and faunal distribution formicroclimatic condition prevailing in this locality.

Similipal Forest during British Rule

What really has happened to the extensiveand dense forests of Mayurbhanj between 1803to the close of the last century is a matter ofspeculation and guess. With the advent of peace

and settled conditions, agriculture flourished andnew settlements came to exist. In this process lotsof forest areas vanished, giving rise to new villagesand cultivation. Mr. C.C. Hart at the time of hisvisit about the year 1895-1896 describes theforest of the state as follows :-

"The plain and accessable parts havealready been denuded of mature Sal, except in

one place in the plains of southwest, where there is a little,which is three parts ruined by"Jhum" cultivation. The greaterpart of the mature Sal is to befound in the south westernportions of the reserve forestsand also in the central group ofthe hill forests. At a place calledBaraipani for instance, there isas magnificent a Sal forest as itis possible to imagine, thoughcertain areas which are situatedin the more accessablelocalities have been partlydenuded of their mature Sal."

Mr. Hart further describes that "All maturesal from the plain forests, which later comprisedparts of Banahari, Muruda, Deoli and Udalaranges (of present Baripada Division) havedisappeared by over exploitation except in theplains of south west i.e. in the present Panchpirand Thakurmunda ranges (of present KaranjiaDivision) where three quarter of the forests havebeen 'Jhumed'. About Similipal Hills he describesthat except the accessable parts which was at thetime very much limited, rest of the hill forests quitewell preserved." (Mishra & Bose - 1975-74)

Forest Management during DarbarAdministration

Beside the above, the annual administrationreport for 1885-86 of Mayurbhanj state gives an


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idea of the forests of the state. The timber leaseswere granted to the contractors and traders fromoutside at nominal rates till 1885. The damagecaused by the lessees of the forests wasconsiderable as against the revenue realised. Sothe forests were worked departmentally till 1904including Similipal and some other forests. Thequantity exploited departmentally was less whichused to be floated in shape of round logs in theriver Budhabalang or by cart to Balasore depotfor sale. In the year 1888 one Forest Ranger anda peon were oppointed for management of forests.The reserve forests of Mayurbhanj were underthe management and control of the ForestDepartment whereas protected forests were underthe charge of Revenue Department. The reserveforests were more or less stable and parmanentin nature but the protected forests maintained tomeet the requirement of the royats and residentsand were also subject to clearance for cultivation.The forest area being given under 'Amalanama'lease by the revenue authorities and leases forreclamation of reserve forests were being givenunder the special sanction of the ruling chief. Thusthe extent of reserve forests and protected forestsdecreased.

In 1907 a State Forest Department wascreated with Mr. J.A. Martin, State Engineer ashead of the Department. As the forestmanagement intensified, the protective staff cameunder the jurisdiction of Mayurbhanj to manage :

1. Reserve Forests 1,152 sqml.

2. Protected Forests 675.5 sqml.

3. Cultivated area 1,944.5 sqml.

4. Waste Lands 471 sqml.

About 43% of the area of the state was coveredby forests. The state followed the Indian ForestAct 1927 and had own Forest Manual. The forestsettlement, survey and demarcation etc. used to

be done in accordance with the Mannual andoffences were punishable as provided under theAct. In 1906 a survey party demarcated theboundery line from Talabandh to Similipal Garhto form another working circle for giving lease toM/s B. Borooah & Co.

The history of long term leases for forestworking to earn revenue for development of thestate, is the past History of Mayurbhanj StateForests. The developmental activities like layingof roads, construction of buildings, rest houseswere mainly confined to the Similipal only,besides, regular exploitation and intensification ofthe organisational set up for removal of contractualquantity of timber per annum. The terms andconditions for working Similipal forest under leaseby several contractors shall speak how the forestbecame commercially less valuable, loosing treesbelow approach class. (Senapati & Sahu'86).

In 1904, the Mayurbhanj narrow guage linewas built upto Baripada. This line was of immenseuse in transportation of timber in huge quantityextracted from plain forests, mainly reserves. Forextension of the light railway line upto Bangiriposiand then to Talabandh M/s B. Borooah & Co.agreed to finance as a partner with condition thathe should be given 30 (thirty) years monopolylease of Similipal Reserve Forests on the existingterms and conditions of the 10 (ten) years leasegranted to him during 1906. Further he wantedguarantee for a minimum of 5 to 7 lakh cft. ofsawn timber annually under the proposed leaseso as to make running of the railway profitable.He further wanted 30 (thirty) years lease ofMyrobalans for collection and export and forother minor forest produces also. The followingcorrespondances between the lessee and lessorshows the rigidity of each party to safe guardinterest.

Mr. Borooah wanted 30 (thirty) years leasefor Myroblans for collection and export and for


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other forest produce of the state and prospectinglicence for three years convertable to 30 (thirty)years mining lease for minerals of everydescription except those given to Tatas. The rulerin replay, wrote - "in the event of yourguaranteeing goods trafic which will yeild a netprofit of 3½% per annum on the capitalexpenditure on the railway, I shall have noobjection to grant you lease of entire Similipalforests (subject to the limitation of the existingleases and termination) for timber operation for aperiod of 30 (thirty) years under similar termsand conditions as those attached to the one, youalready hold, subject to such alternations as theBritish Government may propose. As regards tothe additional clause you propose to add to theeffect that the state will find sufficient trees topermit you being able to cut at least 5 to 7 lakhcft. of timber annually for 30 (thirty) years, I haveto say that I can not accept the clause. I will alterthe additional clause to the effect that in the eventof your not being to secure 5 lakh cft. of timber inany year during 30 years, from timber of 6ft girth,the state will grant you permission to cut timberof any girth not below 5 ft. in girth for that year tomake up the deficit. Excepting the monopoly ofMohua flowers and export of Lac, all otherconcessions including the prospecting licence areagreed to." To this the company wrote - "Webeg to submit that it is only in anticipation of gettingsuch guarantee from your Highness, that weaccepted the undertaking (construction of railwayand 3½ of annual profit on capital cost) we havetherefore the honour to accept the alternative youhave pleased to propose subject to the conditionto the effect that if in any year we can not turn 5lakh cft. of timber even by cutting trees upto 5 ft.in girth, our guarantee to your Highness to theextent of such deficit would stand cancelled."Although the company so writing wriggled out ofthe original undertaking regarding the construction

of the railway the Chief in his letter 2nd. November1907 accepted the modified proposal for 30(thirty) years monopoly of Similipal forests. Theproposed lease could not be executedimmediately as 13 (thirteen) other contractors'leases were current in Similipal. The Maharajadied in 1912. The lease was finally executedduring the Court of Wards management on 7th.February 1916, after further verificationguaranteeing sufficient sal trees of 6 ft. and abovegirth to ensure a certain minimum return of sawntimber. This lease with further modification in1936, guaranteeing a lower exploitable girth limit(4½ ft. girth) and permiting 8(eight) lakh cft.annually remained in force with all advantage tothe lessee till February 1945.

In 1920-21 Mr. R.C. Ramsay, PolticalAgent of Orissa Feudatory States, during his visitobserved that -" The forests contain many finetrees and there is a vast quantity of Sal timberavailable, at the same time, it is patent of any onethat the state will sooner rather than later, be facedwith a very long period when there will be no salof merchantile size. The forests also containnumerous number of stag headed hallow, badlygrown and dry rot is common. The younger treeswhich should form the drop 10 to 15 years hence,are exceptionally bad in this way and are utterly


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valueless and only encumber the ground. True,we are in the 'Long period' referred to by thethen political agent." Further wasteful conversion,recorded by Mr. Gagliardi (Additional ForestOfficer) in his report in April 1929 is quoted here- "As the company do not extrect planks andscantlings, although according to lease, they weresupposed to convert to the maximum, the wastagefrom log to sawn sleeper is 75%. I personallymade a few measurements and found that thisfigure was correct. If the careful measurementwere taken of a few thousand trees, the wastageI am convinced, would be over 80%". So thequantum of wastage was not given importancethen. (Senapati & Sahu - 1967).

Worst of all, the sleeper conversion fromround logs in Similipal by the lessee was done byportable sawmills, six in number, used to be shiftedfrom place to place, depending on the number oflogs stacked at the site. The sawers were recruitedfrom Ranchi, Kolhan and Midinapur, of Bihar andWest Bengal, mainly Santals, Kols and Mundas.These labourers were staying in temporary hutsin camps in close proximity to work site. In northSimilipal, Chahala, was one of the main activecenters for execution and supervision of workwith hundreds of recruited camp labourers.Sleepers used to be transported by wet slidesfrom Baraghati to Talabandh. In transportationof timber, tractors were in use. The Eucallyptusvilla, at Chahala near Forest Rest House, wasconstructed on the old plinth of the camp officeof M/s B.B.T.T.Co. The Eucallyptus trees aroundthe villa were planted by the company, which havewitnessed all the ravages done to the flora andfauna of the massif and clearance of forests tobegin the settlement and cultivation by the recruitedcamp labourers who were required to stay incamps round the year for extension of lease for30 more years. So they resorted to stay in groupsmaking clearances which paved path for gradual

growth of villages inside Similipal from 1906.Added to this, Maharaja of Mayurbhanj gave 250Acres. of Salami free 'Sardari-Jagiri to Sri PeterDubraj, a labour contractor to establishpermanent labour camp to facilitate sleeperoperation. So he brought more Kols from Ranchiand settled them at Garh- Similipal, during 1922.

The major portion of Similipal massif wasdense vergin natural forests infested with highdensity of wildlife. With the advancement of fellingfor sleeper conversion and clearance of forestgrowth for settlement at Garh-Similipal, Nawanaetc. associated with indiscreminate hunting ofherbivours, the tiger of Similipal started killinghuman-beings - the newly introduced timberworkers to the valley. To stop the human killingsand control the tigers, the timber contractorrecruited one professional tiger killer from Ranchi.It is said, within one year this sikari eleminatedmore than 400 tigers to provide protection to thetimber operators. The desendant of this tiger killer,one Sri Bhim Gunj alia Bhima Baghua and anotherBaghua are still practising the same methodologyof killing tigers with poisoned bow-trap which isthe full proof method to eleminate. The 30 yearlease of Bholanath Borooah & Co. expired during1946. There was no systematic working of theforests for which Similipal reserve during 36 years(1910-1946) lease, was worked twice and northSimilipal three times. East Similipal which waswithdrawn from the lease in the year 1922 wasworked like the rest of the Similipal forests throughseveral contractors. For this annual plans weredrawn up fixing different areas to be exploited tokeep engaged the recruited camp labourers ofthe contractor in timber operation round the year.Sri B.M. Dasgupta prepared the first working planfor whole of Similipal reserve forests for 20 yearsfor working under Selection-cum-Improvementsystem. But after about six years Mr. Dasgupta'splan was replaced by the working plan of reserve


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forest of Mayurbhanj district written by Mr. SripalJee during 1953-54, after integration ofMayurbhanj state to the Union of India on 6thNovember 1948 and became part of Orissa as adistrict on 1st January 1949 only. (Mishra &Bose' 75)

Introduction of Silviculture ManagementSystems

Similipal reserve and other forests of thedistrict are being administered by Baripada andKaranjia Forest Divisions with the riverBudhabalang as the natural boundary between theDivisions. In Similipal R.F. the scientific silviculturalmanagement aimed at sustained yeild commencedfrom 1953-1954, on introduction of Jee's Planwhich for the first time divided the Similipal reserveinto felling series, Blocks and Compartments forworking under selection-cum-improvementsystem with 20 years felling cycle and regulartending operations. Marking rule fixing exploitablegirth area and species-wise with retaintion in 3 ofexploitable size was prescribed only for Sal and12" (30 cm.) dia was for improvement felling inSimilipal R.F. But these prescriptions of theworking plan were not followed properly and themarking done by un-trained staff was revenueoriented. The plan did not prescribe for retaintionof the non-sal species which resulted in removalof valuable spp. lime Pia-sal, Champa, Gambhari,Kurum, Sissoo, Bandhan etc., yeilding higherrevenue but the Sal of exploitable size andapproach class and below were of less quantityfor removal during Darbar rule. The annual yeildis regulated by area. So annual coupes aremarked and formed into lots notified in Gazetteefor auction sale. The highest bidder takes thecoupe on contract for specific time. After expiryof Jee's Plan it was revised during 1973-74 andseparate plan for Baripada and Karanjia Divisionswere compiled by Sri S.Bose and Sri R. Mishra,

IFS respectively. The sample stock enumerationfor first time was done and exploitable girth limitfor different marketable spp. was fixed. TheSelection-cum-Improvement system of workingwas prescribed with retaintion per cent calculatedto prescribe yeild by Smythies' formula using thesample enumeration figures, was observed bythe I.G. forest to be at higher side as the value of't' the time taken by the approach class to attainexploitable size, was incorrect as a result morenumber of stems of exploitable were removed.The C.C.F., Orissa ordered for upward revisionof the exploitable were removed. The C.C.F.,Orissa ordered for upward revision of theexploitable girths of different species. Theavailability of non-sal exploitable size tree inSimilipal R.F. Like the one mentioned hereincreased the revenue with low percent of salattracted attention of many. That the then D.F.O.Sri, Trilochan Rath, I.F.S., Karanjia Divisionrecorded -" Tree No.152, species - Champa(Michelia champaca), girth - 540 cm, markedduring 1974-75 in coupe No.III, lot No.1 ofKendumundi Felling Series, Jamua Block, TelsimCompartment No.9 yeilded 33.4008 cum. oftimber from 54 logs. Such trees still exist, thoughrare. The removal of such mature over size treesfrom top story created lasting gap in the canopy.The endemic species invaded the area and filledup the gap for favourable conditionals. Thusmaking good to replanish the volume of lostbiomass and rebuild the lost/dislinked ecologicalsystems of the massif's house hold.

Vegetation is the parameter of ecology. Thevegetative cover of Similipal is of muchimportance as it contains rich tropical broadleaved forest types broadly classified byC.H.Champion and S.K. Seth as "3C- NorthIndian Tropical Moist Decidious", covers a largechunk of area in the massif. This forest comprisinga compact block contains Semi-Evergreen forest,


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Sal sheds leaf and becomes leafless for 10 to 15days during summer. It gets preference over otherspecies as the principal species in forestrymanagement. Further it is a very good coppicer,drought resistant, tolarant to frost, fire and grazing.Though sal is common in Similipal valley, is ableto servive with a few other frost resistant speciesfound in Tinadhia, Jamua, Nawana, Similipal-Garh, Meghasani areas. (Mishra & Bose-1973).

Ecology of Similipal Hill Forest

The biodiversity of Similipal reserve forestswith its typical ecosystems, is the benevolent giftof nature to living beings. The regulatory andfunctionary role of the massif in maintaining theecological balance and regulating the ecosystemssuffer from temporary set back and dislinkscaused by the biotic factors specially by fire,grazing, poaching, clearfelling and frost. The neftymassif covered by forest growth stands as abarrier on the tropic of cancer on the north easternedge of the Decan Plateau. The south westmonsoon wind passing over the Bay of Bengal innothernly direction hits the hill range and getsdeflected inducing rain in coastal areas and ininteriors of south west Orissa. The low pressurecyclonic storms created in the Bay of Bengal whenpasses over the sea coast near Balasore getobstruction from the massif causing heavy rain.The vegetative cover influence and regulate therainfall, modulate atmospheric temperature,checks the velocity of wind flow, holds up waterby rootsystem at high altitudes, provides shed,shelter and food to birds and animals, enrichesatmosphere with moisture by transpiration. Thepurification of air by plant photosynthesis madeby assimilation of Carbon Di-oxide from theatmospheric air and in the process Oxygen isreleased to the air for use by animal kingdom -the great inter dependant relation of plant andanimal. Thus the quantum of Oxygen, so released

to the atmosphere by the plant kingdom, is veryhuge and its correct estimation is difficult.

Hence, the availability of pure Oxygen tothe organisms under the zone of influence of thehill reserve, shall reap the benefit of utilisation ofOxygen, till existance of the forest cover in theSimilipal massif with the living ecosystems.Further, aspectual deviation is noticed only forthe strategic situation of the massif, southern andwestern aspects being cooler. So the differencein vegetation pattern with forest types is met.

Besides the above, the forest cover of theSimilipal hill reduces the velocity of the rain drops,speed of the run-off, prevent erosion of land fromwater and wind, reduces flood intensity, chargesthe ground water reserve by uptimum percolationof rain water which later serve as perinnial watersupply source of nallas and streams throughoutthe year. The mode of perinnial water flow is thepart of typical ecosystems of the Similipal-hill-forests which is sending down the following river-systems in all directions which poet Radha-nathRay describes as under.

Salmali Sainlu tini sthane tini tatini jhare,Langhi nana bane janapade mishe banga sagare.

Uttare balangi madhye gangahara shona dakshine,Jala beni barne kurangi nayana nilima jine.


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From different parts of the Similipal hillsthree rivers rise and flow through wooded andinhabited regions and fall into the Bay of Bengalin the east. The Budhabalang which forms itselfinto a river, flows in the north, Gangadhar in themiddle and the Sone flows in the south. But theKharkai, the Salandi and numerous othertributaries rising from the Similipal hills fall intoBaitarani and Subernarekha. Other rivers originatefrom Similipal are - Deo, Khairi, Bhandan andJamira. These water ways meet the requirementof the plains encircling the massif and centralplains. The storms and cyclones cause immencedamage to the forest cover, besides, occuranceof dust storm in summer. It is stongly presumedby the ecologists that due to heavy storm in thepast the vast stretches of forest cover weredamaged and such patches have given rise to grasslands in higher altitudes, slopes and valleys of themassif, embracing a typical ecosystem with variedflora and fauna of Savanna forest. The Similipalgets good precepitation from dews, frost, mistetc., over and above, it receives from rains. Theedaphi conditions are favourable to the soilorganism namely - soil bactrias, fungii,actinomycetes, protozoas, soil arthopoda etc. formoist and humid condition suitable for them togrow and act. Thus the condition has cataliticaction to accelarate the process of conversion leaflitters to soil by these soil organisms, with otherspresent, to complete the process. The healthycondition of the soil is apparent from the fact thatthe biomas, of about 12 (twelve) tonnes / hacter/ annum, is actively decomposed by the organismsto prepare the top soil layer and supplimentingthe nutrients to maintain the fertility gradient. Thisecosystem is more rapid and juvenile in the moistvalleys of the Similipal hill forest. The moist andhumid condition enables the Similipal to proudlyembrace the leaches as the ecological parameterof Tropical Ever-Green Forest. In this ecosystem,

about 90 species of epiphytic and teresterrialorchid flora with several colour and fragrance isfound on stems, branches of trees and also onforest floor. This ecosystem provide healthycondition for growth of several variety of ediblefungii inside the valley which is collected by thepeople and suppliment their protin requirement.Similipal produces tonnes of edible variety whichhas much demand as it is delicious and nutrient.Further this ecosystem bear the major honeyproduction area in Similipal. The inhabitants atand around the massif depend very much on thishill reserve to collect several kinds of roots andtubers, flowers and fruits, leaves and barks, gumsand resins, honey and ax lac and cucoons etc. toearn livilihood, which the ecosystem providesfrom time immemorial. The tender structer andfunction of natural systems are very fine anddelicate which gets interupted if the interactionamong the living and non-living organisims isdisturbed which takes time for restoration.

Forest Types in Similipal

During 1958, the Botanical Survey of Indiamade survey of vegetation and flora of the Districtof Mayurbhanj besides the floral survey of Dr.Mooney and Haines during 1950 and 1924respectively. But the standard classification of thebroad leaved tropical forest types and sub-typesin the single compact block of Similipal has beenmade by Mr. C.H. Champion and S.K. Seth as"3C-North Indian Tropical Moist Decidious". Thisforest covers prominently a large area in themassif. (The types and sub-types met in Similipalhill range with crop composition are as follows :

Floral Diversity

The vegetation of Similipal comprises ofNorthern tropical semi-evergreen forest,Northern tropical moist deciduous forest, Drydeciduous hill forest, High level Sal forest, andgrassland and Savannah. It is the abode of 94


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species of orchids and 1076 species of otherplants. These include 3 species of orchids, whichare endemic, 8 plants which are endangered, 8plants species whose status is vulnerable and thereare 34 other rare species of plants. Endemism ishigh among tree ferns, orchids and medicinalplants. The endemic orchids are Eriameghasaniensis, tyna hookeriena andBulbophyllum panigrahianum. The endemicpaddy plants are Oryta officianalis and O.granulata. Similarly there is an endemic aquaticgrass namely Coix aquatica.

Story Ranjan (Oougenia), Amla (Emblicaofficinalis; Sunari (Cassia fistula), Chara(Buchnania lanjan). Shurbs met are Carissaspinarum, Holarrhena antidysenterica, etc.Bamboo is absent. Climbers are - Eauhinia vahli,Butea superba, smilax zylanica,

(iii). Moist Peninsular Sal

Sub-type 3C/2e (iii)

This sub-type is found all over the area inSimilipal hills up to an elevation of 800 metersabove M.S.L.Sal comes up very well in fertiginousloams and loamy clays. The quality of Sal is good(QII/III) and natural regeneration is adequate.This sub-type constitute the major forest crop andis of economic value. The associates of Sal are :-Terminalia alata, (Asan), Terminalia belerica(Bahada), Adina cordifolia (Koima/Kuruma),Pterocarpus marsupium (Piasal/Bija), Schleicheraoleosa (Kusum), Bombax malbarica, (Simul),Michelia champaca (champa), Alstonia scholaris(Chhatina) etc. The middle storey is representedby - Syzygium cumini (Jamu), Gugeinia cojeinesis(Panjan/Bandhan), Miliusa velutina (Dosal/Com-sal), Trema orientalis (Kakara, Rukuni), Emblicaofficinalis (Aonala), Cassia fistula (Sunari),Helicteres isora (Murmundi, Modimodika) etc.The shrub and under growth are -

Indigofrapulchella (Gibri, Gira), Moghniachapper, Ardisia solanacea, Flemingia chappar,Strobilanthes species, Clerodendron viscosumetc. and Wendlandia excerta (Zilam), Imperataarundinacea (Joon Grass) is very common.Cymbopogon martini (Rusa Grass), Eulaliopsisbinata (Sabai Grass), Anthistiria gigantia are alsofound. Thysandelaenea (Phulajhadu/FlowerBroom) occurs in small quantity near watercourses. Among rhizomatous plants - Curcumaaromatica (Palua) are found more commonly nearnalas. In very moist places orchids and farns arefound. The common climbers are Bauhinia Valhi(Siali climber), Milletia auriculata (Gora), Smilaxmacrophylla (Muturi/Juchuri /Ram Dantan)Combretum decandrum (Atundi) on moist red soiland laterite and Dioscora bulbifera (Pita alu),Asparagus spp. is found.

(iv). Moist Sal Savannah

Type - 3c/DSI.

This type occurs in hill tops, dry hill slopesand high valleys above 800 meter elevation insideSimilipal hills. The cause of these vast openingsare presumed to be either the old village clearancesor the cyclones in the past, frost and fire. Insuitable river bank graziers set fire to the dry grassevery year and maintain those in their own interest.These grass lands are excellent grazing grounds,devoid of tree cover, the frost and annual fire havecompleted the retrogation. Frost is problematicfor sal to regenerate and establish. Factors likedying - back, frost lifting and blisters kill Salsapling/poles up to 8 meters height. But it occursscattered in the grassy land with species likeEugenia uperculata, Phoenix sylvestris, Simplocosracemosa and Dilliena pentagyna. In patches overthese areas dense bushy seedlings of Sal withstunted growth, growth restricted by annual frostsare found around Nawana, Jamu, Tinadhia andupper Budhabalang basin.The common grasses


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found are Imperata Arundinacea, Anthes tiriagigantea and Sacharum spontaneum. Fragmiteskarka are near water courses only.

(v). Orissa Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forest

Type - 2 B / 3C.

This type is confined to deep and dampvalleys of the perennial streams and nalas foundin small pockets inside Similipal hills having anumber of decidious trees in the top storey. Theyare leafless for a short period, but the secondstorey is evergreen. The ground storey is coveredwith evergreen shrubs. Sal is absent/rare. Nograss for the shade of the closed canopy. Thespecies in the top canopy found are - MicheliaChampaca, Artocarpas lacoocha (Jeota), Cedrelaciliata (Toon), Mangifera indica (Amba)Allanthaus excelsa (Magaki/Mahanim), Brideliaretusa (Kasi), Mesua ferrea (Nageswar), XyliaXylocarpa (Bakhira/Kangada), Polyaltheacerasioides (Champati), Macaranga peltata(Manda), Litvala nitida, Anthocepalus indica,Amoora dohituka Bischophia javanica, Syziziumcuminii etc. Under storey is mainly with Leeacrispa, Curcuma aromatica, Salix tetrasperma andTrewia nudiflora which are found on streambanks.

(vi). Very Moist Peninsular Sal

Type - 2 B / 3 C

This type occupies pockets in the deep anddamp valleys like (2B/3C) type with differencethat Sal is absent. According to Champion andSeth, much of the area occupied by this type is astable Sub-Climax to Semi-Evergreen (2B/3C)conditioned by burning. On introduction of fireprotection, progression rapidly starts withestablishment of a dense evergreen under growthincluding tree species. This fact indicates that partsof Sal forest may be of secondary origin, anedaphic climax occurring only on well drained

ridges and slopes. It gradually merges with theMoist Peninsular type.

The main associates of Sal in the top storeyare :- Dillenia pentagy, Terminalla alata, Brideliaretusa, Adina cordifolia (Kaim/Kurum), Bombaxceiba (Simul), Alstonia scholaris (Chhatiana),Anthocephalus Indicus (Kadamba),Lagerstroemia parviflora (Sidha), Polyalthia spp.,Litsea nitida, etc. Bamboo is absent. The commonshrubs found are - Webera corymbosa, Ardisiasolanacea, Leea spp, Macaranga peltata andStrobilanthes spp.. Grass such as Panicum andImperata and climbers like - Bauhinia vahlii, andButea superba. This type is of greater importancethan the Semi-evergreen type because it containsrich percentage of good quality Sal.

(Vii). Moist Mixed Decidious Forests.

Type - 3C / 3C

This type is found in patches all over thehills having favourable edaphic conditions mainlydrainage and moisture congenial for sustainanceand growth of Sal. The deep damp valley withmoisture and inadequate drainage is not suitablefor Sal. Such tracks are occupied by the tropicalsemi-evergreen species whereas in moist mixeddeciduous forests, Sal is rare or absent, appearto be seral with favourable condition can comeup with dominance and characterize the climaxformation. It is noteworthy that although south andeast Similipal hills gets maximum rain, being firstto intercept the monsoon winds, it supports a verydry mixed type of forests with many of its species,tending to be xerophytes due to poor waterretaining capacity of the soil making stuntedgrowth of Sal in vast stretch as it is not suitablefor Sal. This type occuring in portions of severalcompartment of the massif namely - Khairi,Balang West, Khadkei, contains low per centageof Sal. The top canopy of the type is representedby - Xylia xylocarpa, pentagyna, Bridelia retusa,


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Terminelia alata, Hymenodictyon excelsum,michelia champaca, etc. The middle storey isrepresented by kydia calycina, Anogeissuslatifolia, Alangium lamerkii, Polyalthia Spp. Theunder storey comprises species like Nyctanthesarbortrut is, Helcteres isora, Colebrookiaoppositifolia, etc., and common climbers are -Bauhinia vahlii, Millettia auriculata, Dioscorea spp.etc.

(viii). Dry Peninsular Sal Forests

Type - 5 B/ Cic.

This type of forest is confined to parts ofhill blocks outside the Similipal reserves, wherethough the rainfall is high, the condition is notfavourable for development of moist Sal due toedaphic factors. Blocks like Satakosia, Jari,Kanapat, Tunguru, Sarali, etc. receives goodrainfall but the soil is shallow with laterite strataor is calcareous. It bears Sal in good proportionbut of poor quality (QIV) and unsoundness iscommon even in low age. The steep slopes andridges of the hills where the drainage and moisturecondition becomes acute Sal give room toassociate species.)

Scientific Management of Wildlife

The flora and fauna are inter-connected,inter-related and inter-dependant. Healthy forestcover embraces verieties of fauna depending onit, subject to limitation of its carrying capacity.Extinction of one species of plant kingdom causeselimination of 30 (thirty) faunal Spp. Governmentvisualizing the trend of Biological depletion startedthe systematic and scientific management, to lookafter the wildlife of the Similipal reserve forestsby creating a National Park during 1957 withHead quarters at Jashipur. A handful of staffheaded by one Asst. Conservator of Forest weredeployed to look after the protection of SimilipalForest and simultaneously engaged in collection

of arrowroot, honey, wax, resin etc. During 5thPlan period the Similipal Tiger Reserve wascreated in 1973 under the scheme Project Tiger,launched by Government of India, with full centralfinance. But the central finance was reduced to50 % and the rest of 50 % became the Stateshare from 6th Plan period. On creation of thetiger reserve the national park Division with itsinfrastructure merged with tiger project, as thewildlife management remained with the SimilipalTiger Reserve.

Tiger Project

The Tiger Project had two demarcatedzones namely- Core and Buffer. The managementof wild life of the whole project and protection ofthe core area remained with the Director of TigerProject. The habitat study and preparation ofmanagement plan was prepared by LateS.R.Chaudhury, I.F.S., the first Field Director ofSimilipal Tiger Project. The model of advancedstrategy of management was coined for growthof wild life and improvement of the ecosystem ofthe Similipal Hill Reserve. The protective staff ofthe Project Tiger effectively controlled thepoaching and improved the habitat by developingpasture grounds, salt licks and water bonds. TheV.H.F. and net work of telephone connectionsto staff head-quarters all over the project area,to communicate the incident of poaching or illicit


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cutting could be curbed down the forest to theminimum. The supply of weapons to the staff forself-protection from wildlife and poachers/offenders gives enough moral confidence tocombat with the offenders and poachers. Theroads developed over 360 kms out of 947 kmsby the S.F.D.C. Ltd. facilitated for protection andpatrolling in the interior areas of the massif roundthe year.

Similipal soon became familiar in and outside the country for the tigress reared and broughtup by Late Saroj Raj Choudhury, the FieldDirector, The cub presented to him by the Khariasof Similipal was maintained for study ofbehaviour, habit and instinct as well as aspects ofreproductive biology, senses and inter- specificintractions of the free-living tigress.

The conservative eco-conservation strategyaugmented by the managers of the tiger project,resulted in the increase of the number of the highestpredator of the biological pyramid, the Tiger, from17 in 1973 to 99 in 2002. The increase in thepopulation of Royal Bengal Tigers (Panthera tigris)amply speaks of the revived healthy ecologicalcondition where the tiger and other carnivour andherbivour live. Any change in the ecosystem willadversely influence the biodiversity, causing lossor even extinction of the epecies. To reduce theman-animal conflict, proposal was mooted to evictand resettle the 62 villagers outside the projectarea as about 95% of the inhabitants are Adivasis.Most of the plain forests have been encroachedfor agriculture thus shrinking the wildlife habitate.When the animals stray in to their crop field, theykill those and even the elephants with poisonedarrow or bullet shots. More disappointing is thatthese villagers being directed or accompanied byShikaries/poachers kill the male elephant for ivory,the tusk. The tusk hunting racket is operating allover the country. During crop season of October

- November, the elephants are shot with poisonedarrows in the temple and under the ears as a resultof which is grounded after a month or two andsuccumb to the injury. Till then the gang membersof the arrow hitter keep track of the animal whoin right moment extract the tusks and hand overthose to the trader to get the balance dues. One70 year old elephant, who met his last on 30th.December 1983 in Gorumahisani R.F. ofRairangpur Sub-division after being hit by thepoachers. The Forest Officials were moniteringthe movement of the animal. After his death theD.F.O. and his staff salvaged the tusks measuring6ft. 2" (R) and 5 ft. 8" (L) weighing 38.600 kg.

Project Elephant

The elephant is an Schedule - I animal underthe Wildlife (Protection) Act. 1972. The ProjectElephant was launched in February 1992 byGovernment of India for Conservation ofElephants. Since 1991 the ivory trade is completlybanned. The impact of conservation and thesecurity of their habitat is the primary necessityfor survival of the elephants in our country. Theirmigration paths and the corridors need to beprotected and poaching for tusks is to beprevented. The impact of conservation was onSimilipal and 700 sq.kms. was covered under theProject Elephants. Initially the Project Tiger in


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Similipal extended over only 330 sq.kms whichwas latter extended to 2750 sq.kms with corezone of 845 sqkms and buffer zone of 1905sqkms being overlapped by tourism zone. Theelephant population in Similipal is an increasingtrend because of the healthy ecologicalbiodiversity. There are more than 512 elephants.the carrying capacity of the area under theprevailing ecosystem keeps the elephants andother fauna in healthy condition.

National Park, Sanctuary - ProtectedArea - The Indian Board of Wildlife definedNational Park as "an area dedicated by the statutefor all time to conserve scenery, national andhistorical objects of national significance andwildlife and where provision is made for enjoymentof the same by public." The project core areahas been notified as National Park by Govt. on6.8.80 and buffer as sanctuary, both under theWildlife (Protection) Act. 1972 dated 13.12.79.The Indian Board of Wildlife had also definedSanctuary as "an area where killing or capturingof any animal species of bird or animal isprohibitated except under orders of competentauthority and whose boundaries and charactershould be sacrosant as far as possible." The Boardhas further clarified the position by stating thatwhile the management of sanctuary does notinvolve suspension or restriction of normal forestryoperation it is desirable to set aside a completelysacrosant area within a sanctuary to be known as"Abhayaranya." It is also indicated that thesanctuaries should be made accessible to thepublic ... (Stracey-63)

Thus the protected area of 2,750 kms. ofSimilipal Reserve Forests is the conglomerationof National Park, Project Tiger and Sanctuary.In wildlife management national parks are givenhigh level of protection and, prohibitions andrestrictions have been made under Clause (6 &7) of Section 35 and provisions of Section 27,

28 and 30, 31 and 32 and Clause a, b, c, ofSection 33 and 34 of Wildlife (Protection) Act1972 is being applied in the protected area -Similipal, as required in the best interest of themanagement of the park.

Akhand Sikar

The tribal hunt on the day following PanaSankranti in Mayurbhanj district is widely knownas Akhanda Sikar which is in vogue since DarbarRule and is observed for one day. But theAkandaSikar now-a-days spreads over more than onemonth, with indiscriminate killings of all types ofgame without discrimination, followed by picnicsand merry-makings. To resist and combat the masskilling operation of Adivasis the governmentmechinary remain very busy and alert even afterdeployment of Forest, Police and A.P.R. forcesin large number all armed, to save the animals butlittle effect. Of course some offenders are usedto be booked during this preventive operation.The killing and poaching inside protected area ofSimilipal has not been stopped completely forreasons earlier mentioned. The history of the Statedescribes about the engagement and involvementof the local people in Akhanda Paridhi, Hakaand Kheda operation besides Sikar which wassports for royal family and their guests. Elephantcapturing though costly was also practised inMayurbhanj. Such methods have been imprintedin the minds of the people of the area who usuallynever hesitate to eleminate even the species likeelephants without fear. Such incidents are alsonot very uncommon in the other Protected areas.Such people are still in operation in the protectedareas.

Similipal Development Corporation

During seventies, Similipal forest wasconsidered suitable by the National Commissionon Agriculture for aggressive man-made forestry


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with tropical pine and other first growing hardwood species, for plantation project. It wassuggested that the lower slopes of Similipal upto300 meter elevation should be clearfelled andplanted with teak which has high value anddemand inside and outside the country and toplant up the upper slope with tropical pine. Theyeild per hector was estimated as 10 cum. perhector per annum with annual yeild of more than20 lakh of cubic meter as against the recordedannual yeild of about 50,000 cum. This proposalwas strongly protested by Sri Sripal Jee, IFS,the Chief Conservator of Forests who put forthhis views that the clearfelling of the natural forestand planting up with other species shall badlyaffect the ecosystem and environment. So, it wassuggested to fully exploit the sal seed potential ofSimilipal forests by improving the infrastructuralfacility and to attract the institutional finance forall round development of Similipal. The SimilipalDevelopment Corporation was registered on14.12.1979 with authorised capital of rupees twocrores. Accordingly, production orientedmanagement plan for the natural forests wasprepared for saving Similipal from ecologicaldisaster. The S.F.D.C. started its ecofriendlyoperation from 1st April 1980 for environmentalupgradation and improvement of the ecology ofthe area as well as socio-economic condition ofthe people. For all round development of Similipal2228 sqkms area, excluding protected area, wasgiven on lease for 20 years. The S.F.D.C.undertook stock mapping and enumeration of thestanding crop. According to enumeration figurethere were as many as 3.41 crores of trees above30 cm girth out of which 2.83 crores were soundand 0.58 crores were unsound. Of these, treesof 150 cm and up in girth were 14.77 lakh soundand 4.85 lakh unsound. Trees above 150 cm andabove girth 73000 sound and 24000 unsoundwere available for exploitation with 20 years felling

cycle, without affecting the future yeild.(Kanungo'85).

The objective of the corporation was toincrease the timber and firewood production,maximisation of M.F.P. collection from theSimilipal forests to develop and improve the roadlinks inside the massif for all-weathercommunication and other need-basedinfrastructural developments. The Corporationaimed to improve the growing stock by silviculturaloperations and compensatory planting, besidesgiving protection to forests from illegal felling,poaching and fire. As such the management andprotection of Similipal Reserve Forest, except thecore area of the Project Tiger, which covers thesanctuary, became the responsibility of theS.F.D.C. Ltd. For effective management ofwildlife, the Project Managers of the S.F.D.C.were declared as Wildlife Wardens in theirrespective jurisdictions. Further, the DeputyManagers were also delegated with concurrantpowers of forest officers under the Wildlife(protection) Act 1972. The road length insideSimilipal is 947 kms out of which about 360 kmswere developed by S.F.D.C. under the processof infrastructure development which facilitatedamply for protection and patrolling. In persuanceto the objectives, the corporation continued tomaximise the collection of M.F.P., timberextraction, setting up M.F.P. processing, packing,bottling units, construction of culverts and bridgeswith widening and improvement of roads forextraction of forest produce and facilitatedevelopment of tourism. Necessary programmeand plan was prepared by the corporation foreconomic development of the local people whoare mainly Adivasis. To reduce pressure on theforest, schemes were made to provide alternative,to earn livilihood. During its working for threeyears only, generated 10, 18 and 23 lakh mandays during 1980-81 to 1982-83, respectively


17

benefiting the local tribals and Adivasis, livingbelow the proverty line. The eco-friendly and eco-development measures of the corporation withphased programme of socio-economicdevelopment of the local people to keep awayfrom forest and gain support of the public forprotection and conservation of the forests ofSimilipal could not be materilalised, as the treefelling in Similipal was stopped by Government,by issue of ban order from April 1982, basing onthe recommendation of the House Committee ofthe State Assembly and at least it was mergedwith its libility and assets with the ForestDevelopment Corporation Ltd. and functions asan unit only.

People in Similipal

The bulk of the people inside and in theperiphery of Similipal are of aboriginal status.Some of them are in their authocathonalprimitiveness as in the case of Eranga Kharias,the Mankidias and the Sabharas who mainly livein the forests. The Eranga Kharias considerSimilipal as their primordial home and they live inthe forest and depend entirely on it. Most of theminor forest produce like - honey, wax, resin,arrowroot etc. are collected by Kharias. Bhagatas,Bhumija, Dals, Desua Bhumija, Dharuas, Kisans,Kondhs, Matyas, Omantyas, Orangs, Parajas,Prengas, Rajuars and Saharas are not many anddo not have any influance on Similipal. The Santalswho constitute more than half the population oftribals of the district are the most advanced amongthe tribals. They are hard working, cleanly dressedagriculturists - with high sensitivity to environmentalaesthetics. The Bhumijas, Bhuiyans, Hos andGonds are major groups, who are settledagriculturists and are advanced. The PauriBhuiyans live near the forests and collects foodfrom forest. The Mahalis are basket makers andthe Sounties are mostly landless labourers who

live on wage earning. Mankidias lead nomadiclife, collect siali fiber, make ropes and keepmonkey as pets, hence called Mankidias. TheSaharas collect fire wood, herbal plants, roots,fruits, leaves, gums, resin and flowers and sellthose in the local market to earn living. (Mishra& Bose'76).

Similipal Biosphere

After prolong deleberation and sincereefforts over the years, Similipal was declared asBiosphere, a concept of bigger protected area,on 22nd June 1992 by Government. TheBiosphere is an international concept conceivedby UNESCO and aims at conserving samples ofecosystems with genetic diversity for promotionof research and to ensure management of livingresources, imparing knowledge for sustainabledevelopment and to promote international relation.The Man and Biosphere Committee examinedand considered the following requisites to approveSimilipal to function as Biosphere.

1. Presence of genetic diversity and potentialfor conservation of ecosystem in its totality.

2. Effectiveness as conservation unit -availability of legal protection, freedom fromhuman interference.

3. Representativeness.

4. Naturalness (least modified by man).

5. Importance - Unique richness in geneticresources; areas which need immediate attentiondue to continuing threat to species containedtherein; preservation of accumulated knowledgeby specific ethnic groups.

The level of management and managementobjectives of the biosphere shall be like otherprotected areas under the Wildlife (Protection)Act 1972, till it is covered under the Act. Unlikeother protective areas, Biosphere is comprised


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of three distinct zones namely - (a) core, (b) bufferand (c) manipulation / transition Zones, all withdemarcated boundaries. These zones are set asidefor specific function, such as : Core - the sacrosantarea - fully protected. The Buffer - for research,environmental education and training, tourisim andrecreation. The Transition zone should haveresearch facility, sustainable eco-developmentand peoples participation, silvicultural operation,management of settlements etc.

The Similipal hillmass has status of'Protected Area' since last four decades with welldemarcated lines of Core and Buffer Zones ofthe Tiger Project (National Park & Sanctuary).For effective protection V.H.F. links are providedall over the massif. This helps in communicatinginformation to check illegal entry for poaching ortree felling, thereby facilitating the project staff totake early action. Immediate attention oncontinuing threat of illicit felling, poaching, huntingand encroachment is needed. This instant problemcan be met by deploying well trained protectivepersonnels and motivators for interaction with thepeople in and around the biosphere limit. As theconcept of protection of Biosphere is differentfrom national park / sanctuaries, peoples'participation in protection is most essential as thearea of 2750 sq.kms of Similipal Hill Reserve has

legal protection by Forest Acts. The people ofthe core villages need to be taken out of the coreearly.

Fauna and its Natural Habitat

Animals guided by instinct, are territorial inhabit, inhabit different altitudes of forest typeshaving different kinds of habitat which sustainfloras as under :

Dense Wood Land : It accomodates defusedSambar (Cervus unicolor), Kutra (MuntiacusMuntjack), wild boar (Sus scrofa cristatus), gaur(Bos gaurus), elephant (Elephas maximus),gurandi (Tragulus memina).

Open Wood Land : Though defused, but denserin this habitat, animals met are - Sambar, cheetal(Axix axis), kutra, wild boar, porcupine (Hystrixindica), refus tailed hare (Lepus nilgricollies) andalong the long valleys to south, four-hornedantelope (Tetraceros quadricornis), elephants arefound in more nocturnal occupancy of these areas.Sloth bear (Melursus ursinus), hyena (Hyaenahyaena), ratel (Mellivora capensis) and the Indianpangolin (Manis crassicaudata) are also foundhere.

The Srubs : - These are diurnal grazing ground ofSambars. Wild boar is also found here during daytime lying on grass.

Open Ground and Field : - This type coversthe annual frost bitten grass lands of extensivepatches bordering the woodlands, grass lands onnala and stream banks. Grass lands above 1000meter and higher valleys are most suitable for allthe gregarious successional species of deer andantilopes. Cheetal in small groups found nearvillages like Bakua, Garh-Similipal, Barheipani,Nawana and Chahala. Repeated tribal hunt andpoaching have cleaned off the Cheetal from thearea which had high density of the spp. earlierover the area. Four-horned antelope is found in


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the grassy openings. Sambar and Kutura makeuse of the fringe at night. Elephant occasionallyvisits. Hares and porcupines are found here inhigh density. This is a good habitat for Wild Buffalo(Bubalus bubalis). Black buck (Antilopecervicapra) and blue bull (Boselaphustragocamelus) are to be transplanted as are absentin the national park.

In general over lap on the terrestrialformation types are found in the primates likeRhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) and thecommon langur (Presbytis entellus). The Indianpangolin (Manis crassicaudata) is dispersed inpockets all over the hills. The Indian giant squirrel(Ratufa indica) is found all over. The commongiant flying squirrel (Petanrista petanrista) is alsofound in some areas.

Avifauna - Similipal has varied avifaunaof peninsular and also of Himalayan region. Thepeafowl (Pavocristatus), red jungle fowl (Gallusgallus), red spurfowl (Galloperdix spadicea),

painted spurfowl (G. iunulata) the black patridge(France linua francolinus), grey patridge (F.pondicerianus) and quails of all types. The famousmimic bird, Hill Mayna (Gracula religiosa) isplentiful.

Similipal forest covers and terrain and idealhabitat for tiger (Panthara tigris) and panther (P.paradus) with ample prey animals. This area iswell dispersed having good ambush cover and isthe ideal abode of big cats as stated earlier withdens over the area. Some dens are in use now.

Hyena (Hyeana hyeana) - are found in all theterrestrial types.

Wild Dogs occur in small groups.

Reptiles - the species met are - Python (Pythonmolurus), Ring Cobra (Bungarus faciatus), Cobra(naja naja), Rat snake (Ptyas mucosus), CommonKrait (Bungarus caerules), Russel's viper (Viperarusselli) etc.

Mugger (Crocodilus plugtris) is found in Khairiand Budhabalang rivers. (Chaudhury-'74)

Fish : A special type fish called 'Trout' locallycalled Khajara, is found only in the rivers namely- Deo, Khairi and Bhandan of Similipal HillReserve. It is tasty but can not be kept long aftercatch as it gets decomposed soon.

Conclusion

There is one distasteful aspect that thisdevelopmental process has its appelling arroganceboth towards nature as well as traditional culture.The main point is to be considered here is to findout the means of integral yoga of economicadvancement together with environmentalprotection. With the development of civilisation,Justice as social goal has been fundamentallyrecognised.

To-day's society's interaction with natureis so intensive that the environmental question has


20

assumed proportions, affecting all humanity.Industrialisation, urbanisation, depletion oftraditional resources of energy and raw-materials,the disruption of natural ecological balances, thespecies for economic reasons and sometimes forno good reason at all are factors which havecontributed to the environmental deterioration.While the scientific and technological progress ofman has invested him with immense power overnature, it has also resulted in the unthinking use ofthe power, encroaching endlessly on nature. Ifman is able to transform desert into oasis, he isalso leaving behind the deserts in place of oasis.

What is needed is the general awarenessand social consciousness to consider the problemat once. Environmental literacy on the part of thegeneral masses is an imperative. This is the goalof to-day. Development is good, but it should notbe at the cost of ravishing our natural resources.When water is pollutated air is obnoxious, foodstuff are poisoned, what is the use of economicprosperity.

When every thing was in disarry, theshrinking of the forest cover in Similipal was in anincreasing pace making its rare ecosystem injeopardy. With the unfatigued effort of more thanforty years, with sufficient caution and foresightsvarious Governmental organisations like - Project

Tiger, National Park, S.F.D.C. Ltd. and theconcerned Forest Department have jointlyundertaken the rescue operation and revival ofthe disturbed links of the ecology by ensuringeffect protection. The timely declaration of theBiosphere Reserve comes as a harbinger ofblessed hope. It is attributed to the nature's bountya water-shed mark in the centuries old history ofSimilipal. History says the reality and the reality isalways a shadeless sow. Can we save it; the onousis upon us, it needs a solemn pledge - "Live andLet Live".

References :Senapati N. & Sahu. N.K., 1967, Orissa District GazetteersMayurbhanj, Orissa Government Press, Cuttack.

Champion H.G. & Seth. S.K., 1968, General Silviculturefor India, Government of India, Publication Branch,Department of Printing & Stationary, Delhi-6.

Stracey, P.D., 1963, Wildlife in India, its Conservationand Control, Ministry of Food and Agriculture,Department of Agriculture, Government of India, NewDelhi.

Mishra.R., 1973-74, Revised Working Plan of KaranjiaDivision, FFAH Department, Government of Orissa,Bhubaneswar.

Bose. S., 1973-74, Revised Working Plan of BaripadaDivision, FFAH Dept. Government of Orissa.

Kanungo. B.C., 1975, Conserve Similipal in itsWilderness, Orissa Environment Society, 1975.

Choudhury. S.R., 1974, Management Plan of SimilipalTiger Reserve.

Sri Samarendu Das and Sri Balabhadra Prasad Das areliving at Surya Vihar, Link Road, Cuttack and Sri B.P.Das is the Ex-DFO-cum-Wild Life Warden, KaranjiaDivision.


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Chilika : A Ramsar Site

Orissa is proud of three lakes such asChilika, Ansupa and Sara. Of these three,practically Chilika is a lagoon and, in fact, it is thelargest brackish water lagoon of Asia situated oneast coast of India. It is one of the important hotspots of biodiversity in India. Some rare,vulnerable and endangered animal species listedin the IUCN (International Union of Conservationof Nature and Natural Resources) Red list ofthreatened animals inhabit the lagoon area for thewhole or at least part of their life cycle. Based onits highly productive ecosystem, rich biodiversityand socio-economic importance, Chilika wasdesignated as a Ramsar site in 1981, under theconvention of wetlands of internationalimportance. It is also included in the list ofwetlands selected for intensive conservation andmanagement by the Ministry of Environment andForests (MOEF), Government of India. Thelagoon is also identified as a priority site forconservation and management by the NationalWetlands, Mangrove, and Coral ReefsCommittee of Ministry of Environment andForest, Government of India.

The water spread area of the lagoon variesbetween 1165 sqkm and 906 sqkm during

monsoon and summer respectively. The NalabanIsland within the lagoon is notified as a "birdsanctuary" under Wild Life (protection) Act in1987. Chilika is situated between 19028' and 190

54' North latitude and 850 05' and 850 38' Eastlongitude (Table1). It supports the largestcongregation of aquatic birds in the country,particularly during the winter. Flocks of migratorywater - fowl arrive from as far as the Caspiansea, Lake Baikal, Aral sea, remote parts ofRussia, Kirghiz steppes of Mangolia, central andsouth east Asia, Ladakh and the Himalayas tofeed and breed in its fertile water. Satapada is aplace of Chilika which hosts famous dolphins. Thelagoon is of great value in preserving geneticdiversity because of the variety of habitats, floraand fauna. It qualifies as a wetland of internationalimportance and was included in the MontreuxRecord in 1993. To address research anddevelopment, Chilika Development Authority(CDA) was created in 1992.

Dolphins : The Unique Animal of Chilika

Dolphins are aquatic mammals like whalesand porpoises seen in water bodies. They lookexactly like big fishes. They are mammals likecows, tigers, lions, monkeys and human beingsas they give birth to young ones and young ones

Dolphins of Chilika

Prof. Prafulla Kumar MohantyDr. Sanjaya Narayan Otta


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Table-1 Chilika at a glance

Sl. Parameter FactNo.1. Location 190 28' 190 54' North Latitude

850 05' 850 38' East Longitude2. Boundaries East - Bay of Bengal

West - Rocky hills of EasternghatsNorth - Alluvial plain Mahanadi DeltaSouth - Rocky hills of Eastern Ghats

3. District coverage Puri, Khurda and Ganjam4. Length and breadth Maximum length - 64.30 km

Maximum breadth - 18.00 kmMinimum breadth - 5.00 km

5. Water Spread area Maximum - 1165 km2

Minimum - 740 km2

6. No. of rivers and rivulets draining into it 357. Total area of island 223 km2

8. Depth 0.38m - 4.2m9. Annual rainfall 1160 mm10. Lagoon mouth One (near Moto village, previously nearArakhakuda)11. Catchment area 3560 km2

12. Fishermen village 13213. Area of Nalaban wildlife sanctuary 15.53 sqkm14. Declared as Ramsar site First October, 198115. Creation of CDA 1992after birth suckle milk from the mother. They arevery popular and have attracted the attention ofpeople because of their graceful structure,harmless nature and playful feature. Dolphins,Whales and Porpoises are collectively known ascetaceans (order - cetacea). Dolphins are veryfamiliar and animals of great discussion owing totheir sociable nature and high intelligence. Dolphinsare small gregarious toothed mammals whichtypically have a beak-like snout and a curved fin

on the back. They come in variety of shapes andsizes, ranging from tiny dolphins just over 1 metrelong to the large one of about 2.5m long. Whalesand dolphins offer an excellent instance ofconvergent adaptations resulting from a similarmode of life. Chilika of Orissa, Asia's largestbrackish water lagoon, now houses more numberof endangered Irrawaddy dolphins than any otherlagoons of the world. But lagoon population inother places are falling, including in the


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Ayeyarwady river in Myanmar, which gave thespecies its name. That makes preserving theChilika group especially important. In Chilika,Irrawaddy dolphin is locally known as BhuasuniMagar. The Chilika lagoon spreads over Puri,Khurda and Ganjam districts of Orissa and alsohouses the largest congregation of migratory birdsin the country. It was declared as one of the sixwet lands of international importance at theRamsar convention on migratory species of Arcticand central Asian water fowl. Lakes and riversof Myanmar, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand,Australia and cambodia are home to Irrawaddydolphins but none of these places have more than100 of them. Population census of dolphin ofChilika lagoon indicates, Chilika lagoon is an idealhabitat for the species, which prefers to the salinityof Chilika water. The scientific name ofIrrawaddy dolphin is Orcaella brevirostris whichis the flagship cetacean. In 2004, the conventionon international trade of endangered speciesvoted to prohibit commercial trade of Irrawaddydolphin and placed it on Appendix-I where itjoined big cats and great apes. It is highly anendangered species and the total population inthe world is estimated to be less than 1000. Inclose cooperation with the wildlife wing, anenforcement team has been constituted for theprotection of the dolphins under Wildlife(Protection) Act, 1972. As this mammal is a highlyendangered mammalian species, it is importantto study, conserve and protect in Chilika lagoonof Orissa.

Irrawaddy Dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris)

Dolphin is a group of small toothed whaleswith a pronounced beak. The best knowndolphins are the common dolphin and the bottle -nosed dolphin. The common dolphin grows toabout 2.5 metres in length. It is black above andwhite underneath. The common dolphins roam

the oceans in schools travelling at speeds up to40 kilometre per hour. But the irrawaddy dolphinsare somehow different in colour. In fact, basingon the colour and structure different types ofdolphins are distributed in the world and mostlyin seas (Table 2). The light grey colouredmammals, Irrawaddy dolphins (Fig.1) which growto just over 2 metre length rarely show themselvesfully above the water a fin, flipper and nose allthat usually emerges. Adult Irrawaddy dolphinsare thought to reach sexual maturity at the age ofthree or four years. Adult females probably haveonly one calf in every two to three years. Therange of length of male dolphin of adult size goesup to 2.5 meters and that to female is 2.3 meters.It is difficult to differentiate between a male and afemale. They move in groups and are more activeat night and do not sleep. They are modified fish-like mammals with a dorsal, a candal and a pairof pectoral fins. The fore-limbs are modified intoflippers and help in swimming. The hind-limbs areabsent.

Table-2 Different Types of DolphinsSl. Common Name Scientific NameNo.

1. Common dolphin Delphinus delphis2. Bottle nose dolphin Tursiops truncatus3. White-nosed dolphin Lagenorhynchus

albirostris4. White-scaled dolphin L. acutus5. Striped dolphin Stenella dubia6. Rough-toothed dolphin Steno rostratus7. Risso's dolphin Grampus griseus8. Irrawaddy dolphin Orcaella brevirostris9. Plumbeous dolphin Sotalia plumbea10. Indian broad beaked Lagenorhynchus electra

dolphin11. Gangetic dolphin Platanista gangetica12. Indus dolphin Platanista indi13. Amazonian dolphin Inia geoffroyensis14. China lake dolphin Lipotes vexillifer15. La plata dolphin Pontoporia blainville


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Nostrils are vulvular aperatures. The tail is with atail fluke or tail fin, which acts as a steering organduring swimming. External ears or pinnal areabsent although these are characteristics of allmammals. The skin is without hairs and glandsbut with thick layer of subcutaneous fat or blubber.

Population of Irrawaddy Dolphin in ChilikaLagoon

Irrawaddy dolphins were first recorded inChilika lagoon in 1915. But their numbers,movements between coastal and lagoon watersand mortality rates have remained non-documented. A marine assessment in 1992 found,around 20 dolphins in the lake, but the firstsystematic survey conducted in 2002 showed apopulation of 98. In 2006, the lake had 131Irrawaddy dolphins, in 2007 it had 135 and nowit has 138. The annual dolphin census-2008conducted by Chilika Development Authority

(CDA) revealed that there are 115 adults, 17 sub-adults and six calves in the lagoon. While totalpopulation of this highly endangered mammal isestimated to be around 1,000 in the world, theChilika lagoon, alone has 138 Irawaddy dolphins,making it the world's largest habitat, among thelagoons for the highly endangered mammals(Table 3). This indicates that the number of theIrrawaddy dolphins in Chilika lagoon is steadilyincreasing.

Table 3 Irrawaddy dolphin population ofthe world

Place Population Mortality(%)Myanmar 72 8Indonesia 70 6-8Cambodia- 95 15(Vietnam)Philippines 77 6Thailand 24 8Australia less than -

100

A special method of dolphin count wasconducted for the first time in the world at Chilikathis year using electronic sensors and globalpositioning system (GPS) along with visualcounting method (Fig.2). The acoustic study,conducted by CDA in association with theuniversity of Tokeyo and Indian Institute ofTechnology (IIT), Delhi, made use of a speciallydesigned hydrophone array to monitor underwatermovements and behaviour of dolphins byobserving echo-location clicks.

Certain factors have been observed to beresponsible for affecting the life of Irrawaddydolphins. These are as follows :

1. Mechanised fishing trawlers and touristboats with large propellers often affect thismammals.

Fig.1 Irrawaddy dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris) inChilika lagoon of Orissa.


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2. Sometimes fishing nets become a threat tothe life of dolphins by entangling in the fishing nets.

3. Widespread commercial shrimp farmingalong the lake shores promoted by the world bankin the 1960s is disrupting water flows,encouraging siltation and taking up valuable fishhatching sites and ultimately disturbing the habitatof dolphins.

4. Polythene bags, plastic bottles and snackswhich are thrown to the water by the tourists tosee the dolphins by enticing them towards thesematter are becoming a threat to their survival.

5. Gradual accumulation of garbage at thebottom of the lake causes their habitat disturbed.

Conservation MeasuresThe conservation of the dolphins is essential

for following reasons such as (i) restoration ofbiodiversity, (ii) ensuring ecological balance,(iii) to attract tourist (ecotourism) and generategovernment revenue, (iv) the sake of dailylivelihood of local people, (v) to analyse and studythe behaviour, reproduction, development,determination of sex and gene pool of the dolphinsand (vi) to enjoy this natural beauty by the people.Following measures are suggested to conserve,restore and enhance the population of this species.1. Promoting alternative income generatingactivities for the local people to reduce pressureof over-fishing.

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2. Fishermen communities and boat operatorsare to be made aware of their own activities whichis affecting life of this endangered species. Theboat operators should attach propeller guards toprevent injury to dolphins.

3. Massive awareness programmes for thetourists as well as villagers regarding the protectionand conservation of dolphins is to be created.

4. There should be plantation programmesnear the lake to check erosion of soil which willcause sedimentation and gradual shrinkage of lake.

5. Awareness programme on environmentalfriendly disposal of polythenes is highly essentialin and around aquatic habitats of Orissa andparticularly in Chilika lagoon where tourist inflowis high.

6. Visiting the lagoon by the tourists duringbreeding period of dolphins must be restricted.

7. Continuous and regular fishing by the localfishermen must be checked at least duringbreeding period of fishes.

Conclusion

People should not ignore the commonawareness for the protection and conservation ofdolphins in Chilika lagoon. Human beings shouldbe careful to avoid even a single death of dolphinsince their population is very low. The marginalincrease in the dolphin population has beenpossible due to various activities of ChilikaDevelopment Authority, close cooperation of localfishermen community and tourist boat operators.Now we are hopeful of extinction of suchendangered species can be prevented, checked,saved and conserved in India by active

participation and cooperation of local inhabitantsand the state government in particular.

References :Arora, D. (2003) Dictionary of Biology. AITBS

Publishers and Distributors, Delhi.

Buston, M. and Buston, R. (1990) The MarshallCavendish International Wildlife Encyclopaedia,Vol.4,6,8,12,17. Marshall Cavendish Corporation,New York.

Kardang, K.V. (2002) Vertebrates (comparative anatomy,Function, Evolution). Tata McGraw Hillpublishing company limited, New Delhi.

Mohanty, P.K. (2000) Illustrated Dictionary of Biology,Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana.

Mohanty, P.K. (2001) Extinction (Edt. Catharine E.Bell).Encyclopaedia of the World's Zoos. FitzroyDearborn Publishers, Chicago and London.

Mohanty, S.C., Kar C.S.; Kar S.K. and Singh, L.A.K.(2004) Eco Tourism Destinations in Orissa.Wildlife Organisation, Forest Department, Govt.of Orissa, Bhubaneswar.

Mohanty, S.C.; Kar C.S.; Kar S.K. and Singh, L.A.K.(2004) Wild Orissa. Wild Life Organisation,Forest Department, Govt. of Orissa,Bhubaneswar.

Prater, S.H. (1981) The Book of Indian Mammals.Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS),Mumbai.

Prof. Prafulla Kumar Mohanty is Professor, Post-Graduate Department of Zoology, Utkal University, VaniVihar, Bhubaneswar-751004

Dr. Sanjaya Narayan Otta is Lecturer, Department ofZoology, Biju Patnaik College of Science and Education,Jayadev Vihar, Bhubaneswar-751013.


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The 'Chhow', 'Chho' or 'Chhau' is a type of danceform performed by the people living in acontiguous area of Saraikela, (Jharkhand),Mayurbhanj (Orissa) and Purulia (West Bengal).In Orissa, the evolution and growth of the Chhaudance of Mayurbhanj has gone through a lot ofups and downs. The different kings of Bhanjadynasty were great patrons of art and culture. TheChhau dance was flourished into a better formunder the sponsorship of the Bhanja rulers ofMayurbhanj state. Prior to the rule of MaharajaJadunath Bhanja (1823-1 863) the Chhau dancein Mayurbhanj was not popular as it is today. Atthe time of Maharaja Jadunath Bhanja, the RamaLeela dance was performed for the first timeduring the Rama Navami festival in the month ofChaitra. After few years later Madan Singh Babucame to Baripada from Dhalbhum who addedChhau music in this Rama Leela dance. In thisway the Mayurbhanj Chhau Dance startedgrowing under the royal patronage. The musicalinstruments of Chhau dance came into existenceaccordingly. Most probably in this way the RamaLeela dance was changed into the Chhau danceduring that period. At that time the performers ofRama Leela dance were covering their faces withvarious types of masks related to the character.Although now a days the artists of MayurbhanjChhau dance are giving much more emphasis on

the facial expression but initially the masks wereused for various characters.

The Mayurbhanj Chhau dance became verypopular during the reign of Maharaja KrushnaChandra Bhanja Deo (1868-1882). Mr.Ramahari Bebarta Babu, a faithful aid of Maharajawitnessed the Chhau dance of Saraikela andrequested to Maharaja Krushna Chandra Bhanjafor the development of Mayurbhanj Chhau danceaccordingly. Then Maharaja Krushna ChandraBhanja brought Mr. Upendra Biswal, a ChhauUstad from Saraikela and appointed him to teachthe Chhau dancers of Uttarsahi. After two or threeyears Mr. Banamali Das, another Chhau Ustadfrom Saraikela was appointed to train the Chhaudancers of Dakshinsahi. For that Maharaja gavethem a rent free (Lakharaj) land grant. TheseLakharaj lands are still being enjoyed by thesuccessors of these two Ustads and they claimedthemselves as successors of the Adi Gurus (firstpreceptors) of the Mayurbhanj Chhau dance. Atthat time Mr. Brundaban Chandra Bhanj Deo,the then Chhotrai Saheb and Mr. Gokul ChandraBhanj Deo, the then Routrai Saheb were in-chargeof Uttarsahi and Dakshinsahi Chhau dance partiesrespectively. In this way the Mayurbhanj Chhaudance was developed to some extent during thereign of Krushna Chandra Bhanja Deo. He laidthe foundation on which his son Maharaja Sriram

Growth and Developmentof Chhau Dance in Orissa

Basanta Kumar Mohanta


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Chandra Bhanja Deo raised the Chhau edifice ofthe State. After the death of Maharaj KrushnaChandra Bhanja Deo in 1882 the Chhau dancewas performed in the palace at the time of ChaitraParva for two days only to keep the festival alive.Maharaja Sriram Chandra Bhanj Deo took overthe charge of the administration of the State in1892. The annual performance of Chhau dancewas presented inside the Palace of the Maharajaof Mayurbhanj for three days prior to the ChaitraSankranti i.e. roughly from 11th April to 13thApril. At that time these two prominent partieswere competing with each other and the winningparty was being awarded a running cup knownas Talcher Cup. At that time Chhotrai SahebShyam Chandra Bhanja, the younger brother ofMaharaja Sriram Chandra Bhanja Deo andRoutrai Saheb Sreedam Chandra Bhanja tookcharge of the training and performance of theUttarsahi and Dakshinsahi Chhau dancesrespectively, with an annual grant of Rs.2, 000/-for each Sahi. Apart from this amount, eachbrother was to spend as much as Rs.15, 000/-every year for the training and development ofthe Chhau dance. Both of these brothers werenot only personally participating in the actual danceperformances but also supervising the daily foodof the Chhau dancers. The training and practiceof Chhau dance was going on all over the yearand at that time many new artists were introduced.At that time the Uphuli, Basipaiti, Dhana Pachuda,Jhuntiamaja, Govara Gala, Bidya Sundara,Tamulia Krishna, Hindustani, etc. were practicedby the Uttarsahi and Dakshinsahi Chhau danceparties. In this way the Chhau dance wasdeveloped and occupied an unique place amongthe people of Mayurbhanj during the period ofMaharaja Sriram Chandra Bhanja Deo.

In 1912 the Maharaja took specialattention for development of the Chhau dance.With the help of his brother Routrai, Maharaja

introduced a new dance form, which was famousas 'War Dance'. Maharaja had spent a lot ofmoney for the creation of this special dance. Thedance was for the first time performed at Calcuttato welcome the British Emperor George-V andQueen Mary in 1912. This 'War Dance' isessentially a mock-fight between two oppositegroups holding swords and spears in their hands.The dancers are dressed in red or blue dhotis,turbans along with feather-garlands round the armsand waists. They painted their faces and bodieswith ochre or red colour. The beautifulpresentation of the Chhau artists was very muchappreciated by the Emperor George-V andQueen Mary. Maharaja Sriram Chandra Bhanjadied in 1912. The appreciation of Chhau danceby the Emperor George-V and Queen Mary wasreflected in his condolence letter, which he hadsent after the death of the Maharaja SriramChandra Bhanja Deo. In this appreciation letterhe wrote,

"The Queen and I are grieved to hear thedeath of Maharaja of Mayurbhanj. Please conveyto Maharani our sincere condolences in hersorrow. We remember of course the importantpart taken by the Maharaja in connection withthe pageant on the maidan and our pleasure inseeing him on that occasion".

After the death of Maharaja SriramChandra Bhanja the Chhau dance faced differenttypes of problems. During that period MaharajaPurna Chandra Bhanja Deo had given only anannual grant of Rs.250/- to each Sahi for thepurpose of keeping up the ceremony. Becauseof the financial scarcity the artists reduced theduration of practice. They practiced only one ortwo months in place of practicing the whole year.Because of that reason Maharaja Purna ChandraBhanja gave special attention to revive the Chhaudance. But as a result of some internal conflictwith the dance teachers the dance was stopped


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practicing. Maharaja Purna Chandra Bhanja Deohad no offspring. He died in 1928. After his deathhis younger brother Pratapa Chandra Bhanja Deobecame Maharaja of Mayurbhanj. He was verymuch interested in the Chhau dance and gavespecial attention to develop the Chhau dance ofMayurbhanj. He increased the annual grant toRs.5, 000/- for each Sahi.

He formed a committee for each Sahi anda manager was appointed to look in to theactivities. The committee was taking specialattention for the training of the artists and theirpresentation at the time of the Chaitra Parva.Number of new dance themes were composedand introduced in the Chhau dance. During thisperiod a new era of Chhau dance was started.The dance teachers were sent to different partsof the country to see the performances of the topexponents of Indian dances like, Udayasankar,Amalanandi, Simike etc. Several features fromsuch dances were included in the Chhau danceto improve its range and quality. Because of thesethe Chhau dance of Mayurbhanj became moreattractive than the Chhau dance of Saraikela.

The dance performance at the time of theChaitra Parva restarted. During this time theclassical Hindustani music was introduced in theChhau dance. Maharaja Pratap Chandra BhanjaDeo appointed Sri Keshab Das, the Kathakalidance teacher, to train the Chhau dancers.Foreign musical instruments were also added withthe traditional musical instruments to develop thequality of music in Chhau dance. But the Englishstyle of dance and music was not last for a longtime and was abolished from the Chhau dance ofMayurbhanj. (Senapati 1967; Mohapatra1993:13-15; Lenka 2001; Mohanty n.d.).

During this period some selected elementsof Talas, music and dances of the Oddisi orGotipua School of dance were also taken and

included in the Chhau dance. Inclusion of Jhumarmusic in the Chhau dance helps to popularize thedance. Maharaja also instructed the Ustads tocompose the dance items in Desi form andemphasized the music in the style of the localinhabitants like, the Kolha, Mahanta, Santal,Bengali, and Oriya etc. Maharaja Pratap ChandraBhanja Deo was directly involved with thesedance parties for their development and becauseof that the Mayurbhanj Chhau dance flourishedand attained high standard during his period.Under the direct supervision of Maharaja numberof new group dance themes were introduced andsome were developed by both Uttarsahi andDakshinsahi Chhau parties. At that time theUttarsahi Chhau team composed these followingdances like; Kaliya Dalan, Matru Puja, Premika-Premika, Megha Duta, Samudra Manthan, KelaKeluni, Garuda Vahana, Nataraja, etc. In thesame way the Dakshinsahi Chhau team composedthese below mentioned dances like; GiriGobardhan, Maya Sabari, Holi, Niladree Bije,Bastra Chori, Ras Leela, Kirat Arjuna and BanshiChori, etc. That was the glorious era of theMayurbhanj Chhau dance, when that reached itspeak.

After the merger of Mayurbhanj in Orissain 1949 the Mayurbhanj Chhau dance starteddecreasing its quality and it was Sri BhabaniKumar Das, a former member of the DakshinsahiChhau dance group, formed the 'MayurbhanjChhau Dance Organisation' with the help of someold Ustads and artists. This organisation couldsomehow manage to alive the Mayurbhanj Chhaudance till the official patronage and grants madeit possible to be revived to its present shape. Theypresented special shows of Mayurbhanj Chhaudance before Sri Rajgopalachari, the firstGovernor General of India and Pandit JawaharlalNehru, the first Prime Minister of India. Dr. H.K.Mahatab became the Chief Minister of Orissa


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gave special attention for the development ofMayurbhanj Chhau dance. He extended thesupport of State Government in 1951-52, andgave an annual grant of Rs.5,000/- to reorganisethe Chhau dance. Later in 1954-55 the grant wasincreased to Rs.10,000/- to support the variousChhau parties of the district. To encourage theChhau dancers of rural area a competition of ruralChhau dance was started in 1955 by theMayurbhanj Chhau Dance Organisation wherethe Chhau dance parties from Kuliana, Kosthaand Chitroda participated.

The 'Mayurbhanj Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan',an organized body, was established in 1960 andit was registered under the Societies Act in 1961.This Mayurbhanj Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan wasmade for the growth and proper function of thedance. It consists an Ex-Officio President, Vice-president, Secretary and other important personsfrom both of the Chhau dance parties. TheMayurbhanj District Collector, A.D.M., and anO.A.S. officer are appointed as the Ex-OfficioPresident, Vice-President and Secretaryrespectively of this organized body. The Pratisthanis getting financial support both from the CentralGovernment and the Sangeet Natak Academyand celebrates the Chaitra Parva for three dayseach year at Baripada where the Chhau dance isperformed. Both the Eastern Zone CulturalCentre of India and the Cultural Department ofOrissa are now encouraging to the Chhau dancersto improve the quality of the dance. Now a daythe financial assistance is given through the SangeetNatak Academy of Orissa to 'Mayurbhanj ChhauNrutya Pratisthan', an organised body to bringup the art. Some of the important achievementsof this Mayurbhanj Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan, are(1) Construction of a building (Chhau Bhawan)at Baripada, (2) Sub-divisional level Chhau dancecompetition to meet the growing number of Chhaudance organizations in rural area, (3) Celebrating

'Chaitra Parva' for three days, (4) Giving awardand certificates to Chhau Guru and artists,(5) Publishing a journal on Chhau Dance everyyear at the time of "Chaitra Parva', (6) Anorganized Syllabus to be published very soon, and(7) Performing Chhau dance both inside thecountry and abroad.

In 1980 the Chhau Dance-Training Centrewas established at Baripada by Orissa SangeetNatak Academy to train the interested youngartists. There are seven staff appointed in thisorganization, which includes Mr. Ramesh ChandraMohapatra, an Administrative Officer, SangeetNatak adored Sri Ananta Charan Sai, SriLalmohan Patra, two musicians, a peon and a nightwatchman. There were 10 young artists takingadmission in that institution in six-year course.They were getting Rs. 60/- as a monthly stipend.Initially this Training Centre was started atMayurbhanj Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan Bhawanand later shifted it to a rented house near thepresent Baripada Municipality office. Because ofsome unavoidable circumstance this institution wasclosed after three years i.e. in 1983. Then it wasrestarted in 1989 with two years course.The monthly stipend was initially increased toRs.125/- and then to Rs.250/- in 1994. TheDistrict Cultural Officer, Mayurbhanj is lookingthe work of the Administrative Officer. Presentlythe dance and music (Dhol, Mahuri) is taught tothe students by these faculty members like, SriAjoy Baitha- a young dance Guru, Sri BighnorajDhoda and Bideshi Baitha. The role of theseTraining Centre and Pratisthan is quite significantfor the growth and development of theMayurbhanj Chhau Dance (Biswal 1995:109-112).

There are almost 200 Chhau NrutyaPratisthan present in different parts of theMayurbhanj district. Some of the importantPratisthans are as follows :


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1. Arun Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan, Sansimala,Rairangpur

2. Arun Rashmi Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan,Kantabani, Rairangpur

3. Badara Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan, Badara,Rairangpur

4. Badjamboni Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan,Badjamboni

5. Bamanghaty Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan,Rairangpur

6. Bharmargola Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan,Bharmargola

7. Chachinapoda Dakshinsahi Chhau NrutyaPratisthan, Chachinapoda, Muktapur

8. Chandrachuda Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan,Nehrusahi, Sirakud

9. Dakshinsahi Chatrapati Chhau NrutyaPratisthan, Raghabpur, Totapoda

10. Dakshinsahi Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan,Baripada

11. Dakshinsahi Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan,Bhurukundi, Purinda

12. Dakshinsahi Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan,Chitrada

13. Dakshinsahi Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan,Sarda, Aunla

14. Deuleswar Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan,Badsole, Pothania

15. Dhenkia Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan,Dhenkia, Baddhenkia

16. Gokul Chandra Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan,Darudihi, Singoda

17. Janta Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan, Singoda18. Jitendra Pattnaik Memorial Chhau Nrutya

Pratisthan, Deolasahi, Rairangpur

19. Kapoi Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan, Kapoi

20. Kedar Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan, Bhurusa,Gambharia

21. Maa Bhairabi Chhau Nrutya SamojsobhyaPratisthan, Bhalia

22. Maa Binapani Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan,Hatimundi

23. Maa Kichakeswari Chhau NrutyaPratisthan, Kiapanposhi, Bola

24. Mayurbhanj Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan,Baripada

25. Mundalia Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan,Mundalia, Baddhenkia

26. Musamari Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan,Musamari, Bisoi

27. Pallipuspa Chhau Nrutya Kolaparishad,Charupani, Sanpurunapani

28. Panchameswar Mahadev Chhau NrutyaPratisthan, Bola

29. Panchbhaiya Dakshinsahi Chhau NrutyaPratisthan, Panchbhaiya

30. Panchbhaya Uttarsahi Chhau NrutyaPratisthan, Panchbhaya

31. Pareswar Chhaukola Vikash Pratisthan,Mundhakota, Baddhenkia

32. Paromanu Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan,Sanpakhana

33. Phulbadia Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan,Phulbadia, Gadigaon

34. Pinaki Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan, Singoda

35. Purunapani Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan,Purunapani, Kuradhika

36. Radhakrushna Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan,Gadigaon


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37. Rengalbeda Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan,Rengalbeda, Rairangpur

38. Rudanga Uttarsahi Chhau Nrutya Parisada,Rudanga, Kuliposhi

39. SidhuKanhu Dildar Chhau Nrutya Club,Bhaleipur, Joshi

40. Tikarbati Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan,Tikarbati, Betnoti

41. Uttarsahi Chhau Dance Organisation,Chitrada

42. Uttarsahi Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan,Baripada

43. Uttarsahi Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan,Chachinapoda, Muktapur

44. Uttarsahi Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan,Mugusiria, Kuradhika

45. Uttarsahi Maa Bhairabi Samajsebi ChhauNrutya Parisoda, Polasbandha, Moroda

Bibliogr aphyBiswal, Kanhu Charan 1995 Mayurbhanj Chhauro

Sambrudhhire Chhau Sangathan

Totha Chhau Talim Kendrara Bhumika (in Oriya). InRanga Bhumi , (7 issue) edited by Dr(Smt) SudhaMishra, Bhubaneswar; Orissa Sangeet NatakAkademi. Pp.-108-113.

Biswal, Kanhu Charan 2003 Future Prospect ofMayurbhanj Chhau. Chaitra Parva, Souvenir2003, Mayurbhanj Chhau Nrutya Pratisthan,Baripada, Mayurbhanj.

Citaristi, Ileana 1993 Mayurbhanj Chhau and its widerAdaptability. In Chhau Dance of Mayurbhanj,pp.92-95, edited by Mohapatra S.,Cuttack:Vidyapuri.

Kuanr, Durga Charan 1995 Mayurbhanj Chhau Nrutya(in Oriya). In Ranga Bhumi , (7 issue) edited by

Dr (Smt) Sudha Mishra, Bhubaneswar; OrissaSangeet Natak Akademi. Pp.-48-57.

Lenka, Bhagbat Prasad 2001 Chhau, The ShiningOrnaments of Eastern Art and Culture, Baripada;Rajashree Prakashani.

Lowen, Sharon 1993 Perspectives on Chhau by aperforming Artist. In Chhau

Mohanty, Radha Mohan (n.d.) Mayurbhanj ChhauDance: Origin, Growth, Grammar.

Bhubaneswar: Smt. Basanti Das.

Mohapatra Sitakant 1993 Chhau Dance of Mayurbhanj-The Tasks Ahead. In Chhau Dance ofMayurbhanj, pp.l-l6, edited by Mohapatra S.,Cuttack: Vidyapuri

Mohapatra, Nagendra Nath 1995c Mayurbhanj ChhauNrutya (in Oriya).(First published in 1982). OdiyaLokosahitya. Biswabharati Odiya SahityaParisad, Grantha Mandir.

Ota, A.B. 1989 Odisare Chhau (in Oriya). Bhubaneswar;Satabdi Publications.

Pani, Jiwan 1993 A comparative study of the Threestyles of Chhau. In Chhau Dance ofMayurbhanj, pp.30-40, edited by Mohapatra S.,Cuttack: Vidyapuri.

Senapati, Nilamani, 1967 Orissa District Gazetteers;Mayurbhanj, Cuttack.

Vatsyayan, Kapila 1993 Chhou Dances of Mayurbhanj:Problems of Classification. In Chhau Dance ofMayurbhanj, pp.17-29, edited by MohapatraS.,Cuttack: Vidyapuri.

Dr. Basanta Kumar Mohanta, Indira Gandhi RastriyaManav Sangrahalaya, Shamla Hills, Post Bag No-2,Bhopal (MP), Pin-462013.


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The Command Area Development and WaterManagement (CADWM) Programme, aCentrally Sponsored Plan Scheme, aims ateffective utilization of available irrigation potentialthrough execution of on-farm development worklike construction of field channel, field drain andenforcement of rotational water supply systemwith adoption of diversified cropping system foraugmentation of agricultural production andproductivity. The programme has been launchedin Orissa since the year 1976-77 and is inoperation in the commands of the 8 major and 5medium irrigation projects covering a CCA of7,86,449 ha. of 94 blocks in 19 districts of theState.

Construction of field channel is the mainitem under CADWM Programme. The fieldchannels facilitate in carrying water from outletsof minors. distributaries or main canals upto thetail end at very short time, preventing loss ofseepage in agricultural land. Water reachesconveniently to each plot independently byavoiding flooding at the head reach and scarcityat the tail end. This also helps in rotational watersupply in judicious manner to each field to achievehigher production. The Field Drains is a small drainexecuted along the valley linking to the existinglink drain or trunk drain which removes excesswater from the crop field providing a situation for

intermittent submergence and drying which in turnhelps the farmers to go for diversification

Process of Construction

The Topographical Survey is carried outin the entire gross command area (GCA) of therelated canal system to determine the contour forproviding proper alignment of the Field Channelsto be constructed in the agricultural landmaintaining the contour interval at 150 mm (6inches). The field channel alignment is usually givenon the ridges, whereas the field drain is laid at thevalley line, depending upon the topography. Thealignment plan is superimposed on the villagecadastral map and is placed before the villagecommittee for possible modification andacceptance by the farmers. Final plan, preparedas per the discussion with the farmers duringreconnaissance survey in the field is submitted tothe appropriate authority to reserve land forconstruction.

The Field Channel network starts belowthe outlet, leading to the tail end of the outletcommand consisting of earthen field channels,laterals, lined channels and required hydraulicstructures like turn out, drop structures, deliveryand distribution tanks, road crossing, divisionboxes etc. Construction of Field Channels to thelast field / each holding is to be ensured under the

On-Farm Water Management in Orissa

D. PanigrahiS. K. Mishra


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programme. The next priority is to provide liningat least 20 per cent of the main field channels,where irrigation water flows for longer duration.Wherever possible, more lining is provided as perfield requirement.

It is the prerequisite that the outlets are inposition before any field channels are constructed.As far as possible, field channels are so designedto run on full supply discharge to ensure lowerseepage losses. The Section of the Field Channelsare designed on the basis of designed dischargeof feeding outlet, normally between 1 to 1.5Cusec to irrigate about 40 ha. of land. The fieldchannels network is designed in such a way thatalmost all the field channels drain water into thefield drain Mostly field drains in Orissa are surfacedrains with carrying capacity varying from 10 to12 Cusec.

Case Study of Field Channel Work

A case study was taken up to find out theimpacts of the construction of field channels inAchutpur village of Raghunathpur Block in thedistrict of Jagatsinghpur (Orissa). The village issituated at 38 kilometres east from Cuttack onthe Cuttack Paradeep road. The village gets waterfrom outlet No 2R of Taladanda Main Canal andtail of Distributary 9C and 10 of Taladanda MainCanal under the command of Mahanadi DeltaStage I. The total cultivable area of the village is44 hectares of 206 beneficiaries. Field channelnetwork was constructed in the village during1993-94 with a cost of Rs.1315/- per hectare.

Pre-Project Problems

The Distributary 9C of Taladanda MainCanal was non-functional and practically no flowwas there, whereas distributary 10 of TaladandaMain Canal had optimum flow. The commandunder Distributary 9C is faced with waterconstraints and the area under the command of

distributary 10 are waterlogged. In total 25hectares of land was under water constraints,patch of 7 hectares was under partial irrigationand 12 hectares of land was under conditions ofwater logging.

Solutions

It was decided to link Distributary 9C withDistributary 10 of Taladanda Main Canal to getsufficient water for quick and easy distribution andalso to remove water congestion at outlet 2R 'U'shaped R.C.C channel for a length of 199 metreswas constructed over brick masonry pillars. Thenhume pipes of 250 mm dia were laid down for alength of 78 metres. 'U' shaped lined channel wasconstructed for 39 metres. Earthen channel for940 mtr length was constructed at tail end.Required numbers of hydraulic structures wereprovided in between the channels to stabilize thegrade.

Benefits derived

After completion of field channel works inthe village, water is distributed uniformly in theentire cultivable command area of 44 hectares.Drainage congestion has been removed from anarea of 12 hectares and irrigation constraints havebeen removed from an area of 32 hectares. Thecropping pattern and cropping intensity has alsoundergone drastic changes in the command areadue to assured irrigation in desired quantity. Thecropping intensity was increased from 111 percent to 218 per cent. The productivity of riceincreased to 3 tonnes per hectare in Kharif andproductivity of green gram was increased to 6tonnes per hectare in rabi. Vegetables wereintroduced in 10 hectares of land in both rabi andsummer seasons.

Case Study of Field Drain Work

A case study was taken up to find out theimpacts of the construction of field drains in


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Nadhana and Panchumali villages of NimaparaBlock in the district of Puri, situated at 5kilometres from Nimapara on the Nimapara-Kakatpur road. Excess water from villages ofVilligram'. 'Nadhana' and Panchumali and seepagefrom Khadirpur Sub-Minor was the main causeof water stagnation in the area. The project wasconstructed during 2003-04 benefiting 116.34hectares of 237 beneficiaries at the cost estimateof Rs 1000 per hectare.

Pre-Project Problems

The area was affected with drainagecongestion in 116.34 hectares out of which 39.50hectares was under severely waterloggedconditions. No crop was possible in the severelywaterlogged area because of standing water.

Solutions

It was decided to construct a Main FieldDrain along with a lateral Drain in the affectedareas connecting to the existing natural drain "SailoJora. A main Drainage Channel for 2170 m anda lateral drain for 640 m were constructed foreasy release of arrested water. 25 mts of Drainwas protected with lining-cum-guardwall and 4hydraulic structures were provided for stabilisationof grade.

Benefits derived

After completion of field drain works in thearea, drainage congestion has been removed froman area of 116.34 ha and supplementary irrigationduring Rabi has been generated for 46 Ha. Thecropping intensity was increased from 100 percent to 190 per cent. The productivity of rice

increased to 3.5 tonnes per hectare in Kharif andproductivity of green gram was increased to 6tonnes per hectare in rabi. Vegetables wereintroduced in 15 hectares of land in both rabi andsummer seasons.

Conclusion

The Field Channel networks constructedin the farmers' field below the canal outlet haveimmensely benefited the farmers to provideavailable irrigation water uniformly throughout thecommand area of the outlet. During droughtsituation, the presence of Field Channels hashelped the farmers to a great extent to avoid croploss at the tail end. The social disputes arising outof non-uniform distribution of available waterduring peak period and also during the period ofscarcity have been reduced to a great extent. Theimpact of the Field Drain by the farmers is alsovery much encouraging. It has been observed thatdue to construction of Field Drains, the prevalentwater logging condition has been substantiallyremoved and the average yield of the affectedarea has been encouragingly increased. The needof Field Channels and field drains are so felt bythe farmers that they are now coming forward fordonating the required land from their own fieldfor construction of Field Channel and Field Drains.

D. Panigrahi, Asst. Agricultural Engineer and S. K.Mishra, Joint Director (Engineering) are working in theDepartment of Water Resources (CAD), Orissa,Bhubaneswar.


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Since time immemorial the elephant has been anintegral part of Indian culture and heritage. TheVedic 'King of Gods' (Indra) assumed a distinctlyIndian character after localization in the land ofthe 'Five Rivers'. He ultimately stepped from hischariot, drawn by the steeds of the Aryan horsetamers and mounted an elephant. Sen (1972)states that it is indeed curious that Indra who wasconceived as being borne on a golden chariotdrawn by two or many tawny steeds, abandonedhis old vehicle and preferred an elephant as hisvahana or carrier. Craven (1976) observes thathymns in Rigveda, the first and chief book of theVedas compiled sometime between 1500 and500 BC, were especially directed towards Indra,the God of the heavens and the warrior king, whorode a white elephant and used the thunder bolt,Vajra, as his principal weapon.

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

The Indus Valley Civilization (c.2500 to1500 BC) of which impressive remains have beendiscovered at Mahenjodaro in Sindh and Harappain Western Punjab (Pakistan) provides the earliestpicture that we have of India's past. Excavationsat these places have revolutionised the knowledgeof lndia's historical beginnings. A very carefulrepresentation of elephant on seals and on copper

plates makes us believe that the living species ofthe mastodon either attracted the admiration ofthe people of the valley for its gigantic structureand strength or where depictions of elephantsappear on amulets they were propitiatory in nature(Sen, 1972). An outstanding icon in Indian artappears in the Harappan culture for the first timeon a famous seal from Mahenjodaro. The sealshows a central figure seated on a low throne in ayogic position, along with which appear theelephant, tiger, rhinoceros, buffalo and deer andtwo exceedingly stylized human figures (Craven,1976).

ASHOKA AND THE KALINGA WAR

The history of Indian Art and Architectureis obscure between the Indus Valley period andthe 5th century BC i.e., between the period ofAryan conquest (c. 1500 BC) and the advent ofthe historical Buddha (c. 566-486 BC). TheGreek diplomat Meghasthenes (4th Century BC)has left an account of the architectural design ofthe city of Pataliputra, the capital of the MauryanEmpire. The architecture of the Ashokan period(c. 273-237 BC) gains in magnificence, as forthe first time stone was used instead of wood(Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, 1969).Little is known of the early part of Ashoka's reign,

Elephants in Art, Architecture andHistory of Orissa

Debabrata Swain


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Plate-1Elephant motif half hewn from a huge stone nearDhauli, Bhubaneswar-- the earliest sculpture of Orissa,3rd century B.C.

Plate-2 Infuriated wild elephants attacking a party ofone man and ten women (partly shown in the picture)in a lotus lake in Rani gumpha- Udayagiri caves,Bhubaneswar, Orissa, 1st century B.C.

Plate-3The Story of Udayana and Vasandatta in theGanesh gumpha Udayagiri caves, Bhubaneswar,Orissa, 1st century B.C.

Plate-7 Free standing elephant in the northerncourtyard of the Sun temple, Konarka, Orissa, 13thCentury A.D.

Plate-4 Two elephant guards in front of Ganeshgumpha-Udayagiri caves, Bhubaneswar, Orissa.

Plate-6Elephant and giraffe in the royal court Suntemple, Konarka, Orissa, 13th century AD.


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Plate-8 Sexual union of elephants Sun temple,Konarka, Orissa, 13th century AD.

Plate-11 Folded movement of elephant legs Suntemple,Konarka, Orissa, 13th century AD.

Plate-12 Warriors on an elephant Daksha Prajapatitemple, Banapur, Orissa, 13th century AD.

Plate-13 An elephant caught in Kheda in Mayurbhanjex-state, Orissa.

Plate-10 An elephant in the stockade Sun temple,Konarka, Orissa, 13th century AD.

Plate-9 Elephants being driven into stockade forelephant catching Sun temple, Konarka, Orissa, 13thcentury AD.


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except that of the eighth year, which was theturning point. In one of his edicts it is said: 'Kalingawas conquered by his Sacred and GraciousMajesty when he had been consecrated eightyears. One hundred and fifty thousand personswere thence carried away as captive, one hundredthousand were there slain, and many times thatnumber died' (Nehru, 1946). The horrors of theKalinga war changed the course of human historyand the message of Buddhism reverberated in theears of the emperor who gave up his ambition ofDigvijaya in favour of Dharma Vijaya andbecame Dharmashoka from Chandashoka.

EARLIEST SCULPTURAL ART OFORISSA

There is a sculpture of an elephant half hewnfrom a huge stone near which Ashoka wrote hisFourteenth Rock Edict at Dhauli nearBhubaneswar (the present Capital city of Orissa),the site of the great Kalinga War (Plate-I). This isthe earliest specimen of sculptural art in Orissa(4th century B.C). One edict there (3rd centuryBC) documents not only Ashoka's conversion,but also his missionary zeal for the nonviolence ofBuddhism. The bell capital discovered atAshokajhara (Bhubaneswar) has a wingedelephant along with other decorative figures onthe frieze. Panigrahi (1986) argues the bell capitalto be of Ashoka's period (c. 273- 237 BC).

ELEPHANT SYMBOL

There are several myths relating toelephants in Indian literature. The most popularbelief indicating the sign of conception inwomanhood by the visit of a snake in her dream(traceable not only in India but also in differentparts of the world with slight variations) wasdirectly transferred to the elephant (Zimmer,1962). Thus, in the Buddhist legend the futureBuddha is said to have left Tusita heaven and wasconceived by his mother Maya or Mahamaya in

a dream who saw him descending from the heavenin the form of a white elephant. Sen (1972)observes that a similar type of legend is alsoconnected with the birth of Mahavira whosemother, Trisala, is reported to have had a dreamof a four-tusked elephant when she conceivedthe said saviour. But, as the elephant ultimatelybecame the symbol of Buddha who is said to havedescended to the earth in the form of an elephant-a saddanta according to tradition, it ceased to bea sign of conception for the common womanalthough it still remained the symbol of fecundationfor the divine female. The elephant figures at Dhauliand Ashokajhara were intended to remind thepeople of the birth story of Gautama Buddha. Infact, the great stupa built at Dhauli by Buddhistmonks from Japan in the early nineteen seventiesdepicts on its wall the dream of Mayadevi andthe birth of Gautama Buddha.

Thus, the elephant has been representedas raining clouds, the Vahana of Indra, fertility ofcrops, the conception of womanhood, the sign offecundation of mother goddess and her Vahana,the guardian of quarters, the symbol of the Sunand also of the Buddha and Mahavira.

KHANDAGIRI AND UDAYAGIRI CAVES

It is in the caves of Khandagiri andUdayagiri (near Bhubaneswar), that the rock-cutmode found its supreme expression. As knownfrom the Hatigumpha (a cave named after theelephant; Hati elephant and Gumpha = cave)inscription (Udayagiri), most of these caves belongto the 1st century BC and were excavated duringthe reign of Emperor Kharavela, the greatest rulerof ancient Kalinga. All the caves, locally calledGumphas, were intended as dwelling apartmentsfor Jaina monks. In keeping with the rigorousasceticism of the Jaina faith, these dwelling cellsare quite simple. In some caves the ceiling is solow that one can hardly stand erect and the


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entrances are so small that one has to crawl toenter the cave. The rear end of the floor insidethe cell is slightly raised to serve the purpose of apillow.

Out of about eighteen excavations in theUdayagiri and fifteen excavations in theKhandagiri, important elephant friezes are seenin Rani Gumpha, Manchapuri Gumpha andGanesh Gumpha in the Udayagiri series andAnanta Gumpha in the Khandagiri series. Thefacade of the Rani Gumpha, the most beautiful ofthe caves, depicts infuriated wild elephantsattacking a party of one man and ten women in alotus lake. The relief delineates with remarkablesuccess (Plate-2) the feelings and action of thepanic-stricken group.

An interesting panel in the Manchapuri cavedepicts a royal procession towards an object ofworship. The king, as evident from his turretedcrown, is on an elephant. He is proceeding withfolded hands along with three other persons. Twoflying Gandharvas above provide heavenly musicand a flying Vidyadhara is seen carrying a tray offlowers in his left hand. It is possible that the scenerepresents the worship of Kalinga-Jina byKharavela (Behera. 1991) who, as per theHatigumpha Inscription, brought back Kalinga-Jina after defeating King Bruhasatimitra ofMagadha.

The story of Udayana and Vasandatta isdepicted in the Ganesh Gumpha (Plate-3). Theartist has chosen the crucial moment of thedramatic flight of King Udayana with princessVasandatta on an elephant. A party of soldiers ischasing the elephant from behind. On the back ofthe elephant are three persons of whom one is awoman, perhaps Vasandatta. The central figureis shooting arrows at the soldiers while the figurebehind him is throwing coins from a bag todissuade the soldiers from pursuing. A soldier is

seen prostrate on the ground apparently to collectcoins. The next sequence shows the personsalighting from a kneeling elephant. Thereafter, theyare proceeding to the right. Finally, the chief manwith folded hands seems to be consoling thewoman who is shown in a half-reclining posture.The entrance of the Ganesh Gumpha is flankedby two elephants placed in a later period (Behera,supra) (Plate-4).

The Ananta Gumpha, the most beautifulcave of Khandagiri, depicts auspicious motifs suchas a four-tusked elephant (Chaturdanta Gaja) andShri anointed by elephants (Sabhisekha Shri), allrelated to the dreams of Trisala before giving birthto Mahavira, the famous Jain-Tirthankara(Behera, supra).

All these motifs of elephants carved on thetympana of the caves indicate the possible use ofelephants by the royalties in wars, processionsetc., and the religious significance attached to theelephant and the elephant symbol. Thepreponderance of elephant motifs indicates theavailability of quite a large number of elephants inthe wild as well as in captivity. The sporting ofelephants in the lotus lake is indicative of people-elephant conflict that existed even in the 1stcentury BC of Orissa's history.

MOTIFS IN THE 7TH TO 13THCENTURY AD

It is difficult to give a coherent history ofsculpture after Kharavela till about the 7th centuryAD. It seems that during this periodBhuabaneswar retained its role as an artisticcentre. A few railing posts were discovered nearthe Bhaskareswar temple in Bhubaneswar andare kept in the Orissa State Museum,Bhubaneswar and the Ashutosh Museum,Kolkata. The sculpture on these railings is limitedto decorative male or female figures. Between the7th and 13th centuries AD, innumerable temples


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were erected in Orissa. The sculptures of theearliest group of extant temples, such as,Satrughneswar, Parsurameswar andSwarnajaleswar, all in Bhubaneswar and the Shivatemple in Badgaon, Ganjam, are quite simple andbeing done in low relief seem encrusted on thetemple surface. A few elephant figures depictedon these temples are important from the naturalhistory point of view. An elephant frieze on therelief of the Parsurameswar temple (650 AD)depicts the catching of an elephant possibly bynoosing and its training. In the 11th century theart of sculpture was highly developed. Some ofthe finest temple sculptures of Orissa are found inthe Rajarani, Brahmeswar and Lingaraj templesof Bhubaneswar.

Large numbers of elephants are depictedon the walls of these temples, the most importantbeing that of the Lingaraj temple (c. 1000 AD).The elephant figures commonly denote royalprocessions while sculptures of elephants in singlesand twos are occasional. In the 12th and 13thcenturies, the standard decorative details becamemagnificently more luxurious which is evident froman analysis of the details of the temple culture ofBhubaneswar and of the other parts of Orissastate. The decoration of the outer walls of theJagannath temple (12th century AD) of Puriclosely follows that of the Lingaraj temple(Behera, supra). It is also true in the case ofelephant motifs on the Jagannath temple. A seriesof elephant processions are seen on its outer wall.

KONARKA TEMPLE OF THE 13THCENTURY AD

It is the sculptures of the 13th century onthe Sun temple (Plate-5) at Konarka (40 km fromBhubaneswar) on the coast of the Bay of Bengal)that represent the epitome of Orissan sculpturalart. The temple is lavishly ornamented from thebottom to the top. Percy Brown (Behera, 1991;

1996) aptly remarked: "Few buildings can boastof such an unrestrained abundance of plasticdecoration as this vast structure, every portion ofthe exterior being moulded and chiselled either inthe form of abstract geometrical ornament,conventional foliage, mythical animals, fabulousbeings - half human and half serpent coils, figuressatanic and figures divine, of every conceivablemotif and subject known to the Indian mind andin a technique which ranges from pattern cut withminute precision of cameo to powerfully modelledgroups of colossal size".

The richness and exuberance of animalcarvings that we notice at Konarka represent anextraordinary achievement. All types of animalshave been depicted both known and unknowne.g., horse, lion, snake, bull, camel, deer,crocodile, monkey, varieties of birds, elephantsand their various combinations. Even a giraffe hasbeen shown in the royal courts (Plate-6) probablythat of King Narasingha Deva I (AD 1238-1264),the builder of this great monument. Though thisanimal was not known to have existed in India, itmight have been imported from Africa, showingthe trading links of Orissa far and wide. However,out of all the animal motifs, that of the elephantrequires special mention in this context. Of course,it will not be out of place to mention here that thenumber of elephants shown on friezes surpassesall other animals. Hence, the elephant motifs bothfrom the religious and artistic point with specialreference to its natural history need to bediscussed.

The selection of a symbol to represent aparticular theme in art depends on the taste andknowledge of the artist and its relevancy to thesubject matter (Sen 1972). Of all the implicationsof the elephant symbol, the animal as the Vahanaof Indra took a distinctive role in the religio-mythical tales of India and also in art, making its


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role as carrier of the mother-goddess a secondaryone. That is why, Sen (supra) states that artistspreferred to associate the elephant with themother goddess, not primarily as her Vahana,but as the symbolic source of fecundation byrepresenting two or more elephants flanked oneither side of the mother- goddess and bathingher with the waters of life. This is exemplified inthe Gajalakshmi motif seen in different temples,the earliest in Orissa being in the Parshurameswartemple (7th century AD), Bhubaneswar. But thecommon Gajalakshmi motif is found to have beenaltered in a decorative panel of the Sun Temple(13th century AD) at Konarka into that of a sittingfemale figure with legs wide apart accompaniedby an elephant pouring waters of life' into her sexorgan with its trunk- a highly suggestive symbolof the fecundation of womanhood by an elephantthough a rather unconventional one (Behera, 1996;Sen, 1972). Neither does this woman look like agoddess, nor is the elephant represented equal insize to her.

The Gaja-Simha or the "Lion standing onelephant" motif is another interesting device, whichis notably alike for its symbolic significance andimaginative handling. The gigantic pair in front ofthe Natamandira of the Sun temple shows thismotif at its best. The rampant lion, with openmouth, lolling tongue, flamboyant manes,protruding eyes, stands over the recumbentelephant that in turn keeps a human beneath itstrunk. The majesty and vigour of the lion incontrast to the attitude of helplessness of theelephant are well expressed by the sculpture. Themotif symbolizes the pious human being fightingfor liberation from the bonds of Nature. Suchmotifs in different forms are common in differenttemples of Orissa.

The great sculptors of Orissa had observedthe gait, movements and the anatomical features

of animals very minutely and producedinnumerable superb animal figures. The free-standing elephants in the northern courtyard ofthe Sun temple are distinguished by the dignifiedbearing and large volume (Plate-7). Elephantsappear in a number of situations, e.g., they movein military processions, carry their masters, trot inthe jungle, their sexual union and being driven intothe stockade for elephant catching (Plates-8 to10). In all these situations they have been copiedfrom nature. It is interesting to note here thatelephant behaviour was so minutely observed bythe artists that in depictions of elephantprocessions one can easily mark lefty and righty(like left handed and right handed human beings)from the folded movement of the legs (Plate-11).

OTHER TEMPLES OF THE 13THCENTURY AD

The richness and exuberance of carvingsthat we notice at Konarka are also seen in othertemples of the 13th century, e.g., Dakshaprajapati(Plate-12). The important elephant motif of theDakshaprajapati temple of Banapur (Khurdadistrict, Orissa) from the natural history point ofview is the exchange of greetings between themembers of a pair of elephants. There is thepopular Simha-Vyala figure standing over arecumbent elephant. It appears that the artiststook fancy in combining features of large cats withother animals (locally called vyala or vidala).Various types of vyalas occur in the Jangha ofthe temples of later periods. The popular devicesinclude Simha-vyala, Gaja-vyala, Aswa-vyala etc.The Gaja-vyala is an imaginative combination oflion and elephant. The body, tail and paws are ofthe lion but the face is that of an elephant.

One interesting sculpture, now preservedin the Ashutosh Museum of the KolkataUniversity and another discovered by Dr. K.C.Panigrahi (Panigrahi, 1986) and now exhibited


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in the Orissa State Museum, Bhubaneswar,belonging to the medieval temples of Orissa,depicts a series of boats in which elephants arebeing carried apparently to a distant land. Only apart of this frieze has been preserved. Zigzag lineswith half-shown fishes, crabs and crocodilesindicate the waves of the sea.

SYMBOL 'GANESHA'

The motif of Vighna Binashaka, Ganeshaor Ganapati, is an ingenious composition inconjoining the head of an elephant with the bodyof a human and it occupies the foremost positionamong all the hybrid representations, not only inIndian art but in the art of the whole world. Sen(1972) suggests that the worship of Ganesha wasoriginally a practice of worshipping the elephant,which probably arose in regions populated withmany wild elephants. But when due todeforestation, climatic changes and other factors,such danger was no more, devotees had toattribute other qualities to the deity for retentionin their pantheon. The earliest representation ofGanesha seems to be that of the Amaravati coping(Maharashtra) and it is, therefore, highly probablethat sometime about the 1st century AD the figureof Ganesha was improvised by some artist in thesouth (Sen, supra).

The extant reliefs and single sculptures ofGanesha give us an idea about the iconographyand typical Orissan mode of representation(Behera, 1983). Ganesha usually appears as aParswadevata in Siva temples and his depictionwithout the carrier- mouse seems to be an earlierconvention. Panigrahi (1961) states that the mouseas the distinctive feature of Ganesha first occurredin the Mukteswara temple of Bhubaneswar,which was probably, constructed not later thanthe first half of the 11th century AD. But mousehad not been associated with the South Indian

images of Ganesha before the 12th century AD(Sen, 1972).

ORISSAN HISTORY

Kharavela, the mighty ruler of Kalinga (1stcentury BC), had a large army, consisting ofcavalry and elephants. With his mighty forces,Kharavela could extend the territory of Kalingafrom the River Ganga to River Godavari as evidentfrom the Hatigumpha (elephant cave) inscriptionin the Udaygiri hill near Bhubaneswar. Themonarchs of Kalinga, on account of their largeelephant army, were styled in their inscriptions as'Gajapati' or Lord of Elephants'. Das (1986) statesthat Chodaganga Deva (1078-1150 AD), thefounder father of the imperial Ganga dynasty ofKalinga, is styled as Nava navati sahasrakunjaradhiswara (Lord of ninety nine thousandelephants) and Kapilendra Deva (1435-1467AD), the founder of the Gajapati dynasty, inheritedtwo hundred thousand elephants at the time ofhis accession to the throne.

In the Arthashastra of Kautilya (c. 300 BC)the elephants of Kalinga are admired as the bestof the type in India. For at least seven centuriesafter Kharavela there is no account of the historicalevents of Orissa. Yuan Chwang, the Chinesepilgrim, visited Orissa and the neighbouringcountries in AD 639. It appears from his accountthat Kalinga produced large dark elephants,which were prized in the neighbouring countries(Panigrahi, 1986). The Muslim geographers ofthe ninth and tenth century AD also testify thatlarge elephants were one of the chief commoditiesof trade in Orissa of the Bhauma period (AD 736-940). The geographical work of Ibn Khurdahbih(9th century AD) mentions that elephants werecarried in fresh water (evidently the rivers) to theSamudra or sea from places 15 - 20 days distantfrom the latter. Ibn Rusta, another Arabgeographer who completed his geography in AD


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920, also speaks of Orissan elephants as thetallest elephants of the region. The latest Muslimgeographer, the anonymous writer of Hudud-al-alam, who began his work in AD 982-983 forAbul Harith Muhamad Iban Ahmad, prince of theprovince Guzgan or Guzganan which lies in theNorth - Western part of present day Afghanistan,mentions about Orissa, "Extremely large elephantsare found there, such as in no other place of India"(Panigrahi, supra).

Elephants of Orissa were so much prizedthat in AD 1353 Shamsud'-din llyas Shah invadedOrissa and he retreated only after obtaining a fewelephants. In AD 1361 Sultan Firuz Shah Tughluqinvaded the Ganga Kingdom during the reign ofBhanudeva III. The Sultan concluded hisvictorious campaign by an elephant hunt atPadmatola in old Baramba State. Bhanudeva IIImade a treaty with the Sultan by offering twentybig elephants and agreeing to supply annually tothe Sultan a number of elephants as an annualtribute (Panigrahi, supra). During the reign ofBhanudeva IV (AD 1414-1434), the son ofBhanudeva III, Orissa was raided many times byoutsiders to obtain elephants. Citing Muslimchronicles Panigrahi (supra) states that HushangShah, the Sultan of Malwa, was in need ofelephants for his war with Gujarat and since Orissawas the fabled country of the best elephants, heled an expedition to it in the guise of a dealer inhorses. The Sultan brought with him horses ofdifferent colours which the king of Orissa prizedmost. When Bhanudeva IV with a small band offollowers wanted to examine the horses broughtby Hushang Shah, the King of Orissa wastreacherously seized and made captive and wasnot released till he promised to give the Sultansome of his best elephants.

A rough survey indicates that about 50%of the people of Orissa still bear military titles.The title 'Sahani was given to the commander of

the elephant force and is in vogue to this day(Panigrahi, supra). Another interesting fact we findfrom history (Trautmann, 1982) is that Orissa wasimporting elephants from Sri Lanka during theMauryan period (3rd century BC). At the sametime, we learn from the records of varioushistorical events that elephants were beingexported from Orissa. The import of elephants inthe third century BC can be explained by the factthat the demand of elephants by the Orissan armywas so large that it could not be met from localsources.

ELEPHANTRY AND ELEPHANTOLOGY

There are two war literatures in Orissa, oneof Sarala Dasa and the other of Godavara Mishra,which furnish information on the military systemof the Gajapati kings. Sarala Dasa, acontemporary of Kapilendra Deva (AD 1435-1467), has sincerely attempted to depict the roleof elephantry and other wings of the military in hisOriya war literature named the 'Mahabharata'.The 'Harihara Chaturanga' of Godavara Mishrais more explicit and systematic than the earliertext of Sarala Dasa. The author was a ministerunder Prataprudra Deva (AD 1497-1540). In thefirst chapter the author stresses the importanceof elephants in a battle. The poet writes inSanskrit:"Sahi raja yasya chambah sa tamuryatra hastinah,Tasmattam vibhriydraja yuddhyogya guna vatah."

(He is verily the king who has an army and thatindeed the army which comprises elephants.Hence the King with qualitative disposition shouldpossess an army capable of encounter.)

"Rastriyatha sasankena youvanena yatha striyah,Tatha sena gajendrana taya raja cha sobhate."

(A king shines forth with the army, comprisingelephants, as the night is pleasant with the moonand as the women in youth.)


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The poet also went further to prescribe themethods of capturing, taming and maintainingelephants for the purpose of war. The entirechapter containing 813 hymns is devoteddiscussing elephants and their use in the army.

Brundabana Nathasharma, a renownedwriter of Deogarh in Western Orissa, wrote aseries of essays on elephants and elephantologyin a weekly 'Sambalpur Hitaisini' published from1889 to 1923. Nathasharma's article onHastitatwa (Elephantology) was published indifferent issues of the above weekly in 1908. Hehas cited lucidly in Oriya about the names givento the elephant in Indian literature, the categoriesof war elephants, elephant riding techniques, whiteelephants, foreign names of elephants, size ofelephants, musth in elephants etc. He also saidthat twice the circumference of a front foot givesthe height of an elephant (Nathasharma,1908a,b,c; 1909a,b,c).

KHEDA

Sanskrit literature describes five methodsof capturing elephants in the following order ofdesirability from most to least (Stracey, 1963):

(i) Stockades or kheda;

(ii) by means of female decoys;

(iii) mela-shikars or noosing from the back ofa trained elephant;

(iv) by nooses concealed on the ground; and

(v) by the pit method.

These methods were developed over aperiod of time and became peculiar to particulargeographical regions of the country.

All forms of capturing elephants werepractised in Orissa, as per available records. Thestockade or kheda used to be the most widelyused method to capture elephants. Stracey

(Supra) reports that Meghasthenes (400 BC) wasthe first to record a clear account of the khedamethod of capturing elephants as practised innorthern India in those days, probably in what isnow South Bihar(Jharkhand) and neighbouringOrissa. Capturing elephants in a kheda was oncea royal sport in India and this ancient game of thekings is mentioned in the Ramayana andMahabharata. Kheda scenes are graphicallydepicted in the carvings on the walls of theKonarka temple. In one scene men mounted onhorses and tame elephants and on foot are drivinga herd of wild elephants by beating drums,blowing trumpets and shouting. The herd consistsmostly of elephant female with calves. The herdhas been driven into a large enclosure. This showsKing Narasingha Deva, the Ganga ruler of Orissa,who built the temple of Konarka, used to havekhedas conducted in the 13th century AD.

The kheda method of capturing wildelephants was practised in different parts of theIndian subcontinent to avoid heavy expenditureon hiring or keeping tame elephants. This led tothe method of tying the legs of the captive elephantto the walls of the stockade and the use of trainingdevices, like the Karen stocks, the Upper Assam,hal of the Morans and the South Indian Kraal.Stracey (supra) observes that the Karen methodof tying elephants' legs to the walls of the stockadesuggests connections with the systems of Orissaand Chittagong (Bangladesh). In both of theseareas they also used vertically dropping or 'flap'gates, a feature which was introduced in Mysoreby Sanderson too (Sanderson, 1878). The smallroping stockade is also a common feature ofOrissa and Mysore, but it is absent in Assam andMyanmar (Burma). A peculiar feature of theOrissa, Chittagong and Mysore stockades is thenature of the walls, which are openworked affairsof very heavy timber, whereas in Assam andMyanmar (Burma) these are close-knit structures


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of much lighter posts. So many resemblances incapturing and training methods in countriesseparated widely by seas and mountains cannotbe explained as a mere coincidence. The ancientKalinga waves of colonization of the eastern lands,which spread from the shores of modern Orissa,could have been responsible for the Chittagong(Bangladesh) - Tenasserim (Myanmar) coastsreceiving the basic Aryan methods developed innorthern India. Bihar was apparently the centreof early elephant trade and certainly a key areafor the exchange of information. Migration routesfrom Myanmar (Burma) must have brought boththe Karen and the Shan techniques into Assam.

Kheda operations (Plate-13) were such aregular part of the activities of Mayurbhanj, thelargest of the feudatory states of Orissa that thereused to be a paragraph on it in the annual report,even though for consecutive years the paragraphmay have remained blank. Remnants of oldstockades can still be found in different parts ofSimilipal and its neighbourhood. Till 1932 ruinsof large stockades existed at Arpata Chilma andSimilipal and small stockades existed at PurunaBaripada, Orachandabila and Ban. These areolder than a century. Maharaja Krushna ChandraBhanja Deo (1867-1882) caught elephants in theAhari jungle in Banahari Pragana and hissuccessor Maharaja Srirama Chandra (1890-1912) of Mayurbhanj caught a large number inthe Denga-amba, Jaypur, Pithabata, Chekamaraand Mangargh jungles. The next in succession,Maharaja Puma Chandra (1920-1928), caughtelephants at Dukura (Senapati and Sahu, 1967).In 1932, Maharaja Pratap Chandra caughtelephants at Champagarh. Out of 18 elephantscaught, one old cow elephant was left free. Onelarge tusker and one makhna (tusk less male) died.Out of the remaining 15 elephants, five weretuskers, one a Ganesh (single tusked) and nine

cow elephants (Das, 1932). The speciality of thiskheda operation of 1932 was that no tamedelephants were used to tie the elephants like earlierkhedas. Rather tying of elephants wasaccomplished by two trained 'mahunts' withoutany difficulty. Das (supra) describes themethodology of such operations. Khedaoperations used to be in the nature of festivitiesto which dignitaries were invited (Plate-14). Inthe 1932 kheda there were dignitaries like thePrince of Bikaneer, Maharaja of Puri andMaharaja of Nilgiri. The last kheda of Mayurbhanjwas held in 1938 (Senapati and Sahu, 1967).

Das (1932) points out that in Mayurbhanjstate elephants used to be caught by means ofKheda, by nooses concealed on the ground, bythe pit method and by female decoys. Later, allmethods except catching elephants by Khedawere banned in the state as it was found difficultto catch elephants both by female decoys andnoosing, and elephants were severely injured andsometimes died when captured by the pit method.However, the last elephant caught in the Statewas in 1943, when a single elephant walked intoa trap. Strong ropes were laid and a man sat ontop of a tree. As the elephant touched the trap alight went up and the man pulled the ropes. Theelephant was caught and since then there has beenno catching of elephants as the operations weretoo expensive and there was no market for theelephants (Senapati and Sahu, 1967).

Cobden Ramsay (1910) reports that in theSouth - East of the Athmallik feudatory state, atract of forest was reserved for elephant catchingoperations. The chief of the state conductedelephant catching operations generally about everythird year. The catches did not usually averagemore than ten to fifteen animals. The tract is stillcalled the Hatidhara (meaning elephant catching)reserved forest, which adjoins the Satkosia -


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Baisipalli wildlife sanctuary and still harbours afew elephants.

IVORY

In Africa, both bulls and cows bear tusk,the source of ivory. The females of the Asianelephant do not have tusks; sometimes old-onesbear short spikes or tushes, projecting a fewinches from the lips-line. The proportion of Asianbull elephants with tusks varies from country tocountry. In Orissa over 90% of the bulls aretuskers.

A group of rings and combs worked inEgypt about six thousand years ago is usuallyconsidered the earliest confirmed use of elephantivory in carvings (Lawley, 1994). Specimens ofivory work discovered at Harappa andMahenjodaro show that ivory craftwork wasalready well developed in India as early as fivethousand years ago (Bedi, 1969). Two ivorycarvings discovered outside India are a mirrorhandle, recovered from the volcanic ash ofPompeii, Italy, and a plaque, discovered in a cacheat Begram, Afghanisthan (Craven, 1976). Boththese carvings are traced to the Andhran sculptureof the 1st century BC to 1st century AD. Thesediscoveries indicate a sea trade route flowing fromIndia through Alexandria in Egypt and ultimatelyto Rome on the one hand and on the other to aland based trade route to Central Asia, whichjoined the Chinese Silk Road with Indian tradecentres and seaports in the Deccan.

Orissan art had reached a very high levelof excellence in its ivory work and according toSukumar (1989) the best quality of ivory isreported to have come from the elephants ofOrissa. It is said that the Kalinga (Orissa) Kinghad presented a large quantity of high quality ivoryto the Pandavas (Acharya, 1925). In 1953, thethen ruler of Talcher killed a rogue elephant in the

Dhenkanal forest, which measured 3.3m (11 feet)in height at the shoulder (Behura, 1990; Stracey,1963). Each of its tusks weighed 41.73 kg andmeasured 2.59m in length outside the curve. In1903, the then ruler of Kaptipada had presentedtwo pieces of tusks to his lawyer at Cuttack, RayHariballabh Bose, weighing 111 kg (3 maunds),one being 2.4m (8') and the other 2.36m (7'9")outside the curve, the girth at the base being 45.72cm (18") for both. It was estimated to be worth40 to 50 thousand rupees in England at that timewhen gold per Tola (11 gm) was Rs.24.69 (Rs.24and eleven annas) and the rate of rice was 13seers (12 kg) per rupee (Anonymous, 1903). Inancient times craftsmen working in ivory wereemployed in royal palaces to inlay thrones,couches and other furniture with ivory. In the firstyear of his reign emperor Purusottam Deva (AD1467-1497) of Orissa had presented ivorycouches along with other articles of luxury to thetemple of Lord Jagannath (Panigrahi, 1986).Cobden Ramsay (1910) observes that one or twofamilies in Dhenkanal and Nayagarh made ivorywork of high quality. They manufactured chains,buttons, sticks and statues of fine-workmanship-all of ivory.

EPILOGUE

Orissa was also earlier named Utkal,besides being variously known as Kalinga, Tosali,Koshala etc, and was a place where art andarchitecture had reached the epitome of its glory.In dealing with the aesthetic side of visual art, ithas been noticed that the finer quality of plasticor pictorial representations of any period solelydepends on the inborn faculties of a genius or agroup of talented people concerned, who mightnot have come in contact with other culturaldevelopments. Sen (1972) opines that thesurprising representations of animals in the cavepaintings of Europe and other parts of the world


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belonging to the prehistoric age testify to thisstatement. The minute observations of, and lovefor nature are the essential qualities of an artist,which guide his creative faculties. The greatsculptors of Orissa, the then Kalinga, hadobserved animals in nature and applied theirtechnical knowledge achieved through thecenturies to the animal motifs depicted on the wallsof caves and temples.

The preponderance of elephant motifs onthe railings of caves and temples shows a culturalassociation of people with the animal and theiravailability in plenty both in the wild and incaptivity. It is really surprising that whileKapilendra Deva (15th century AD) had twohundred thousand tamed elephants, the presentwild elephant population of Orissa has come downto less than two thousand only. According to anelephant census of 2002, 1841 elephants of Orissaare now confined to the rugged hilly terrain of theMayurbhanj, Baleswar, Kendujhar, Jajpur,Sundargarh, Deogarh, Sambalpur, Angul,Nayagarh, Boudh, Cuttack, Dhenkanal, Khurda,Kalahandi, Kandhamala, Rayagada, Gajapati andGanjam districts where human land developmentis slow and tardy. The elephant habitats aresubject to human pressure, monocultureplantations, annual fires, mining, encroachments,shifting cultivations, poaching and processes ofdevelopmental activities (Swain, 2004). Becauseof the gap in demand and supply of forestresources and suitability of elephant lands forshifting cultivation, mining and other developmentalactivities we are destined to lose the elephants ina few years' time if no tangible actions are takennow to save the elephant habitats. Reserves arebeing created and developed for these majesticcreatures, which have played such an importantrole in the art, architecture and history of India.

References :Acharya, P.M. (1925). Odisha Itihasa (History

of Orissa) (In Oriya), Utkal Sahitya Press,Cuttack, India.

Anonymous (1903). Masta bada hati danta (Ahuge elephant tusk) (In Oriya), Utkal Dipika,38/20, dated 16.05.1903.

Bedi, R. (1969). Elephant: Lord of the Jungle.National Book Trust, India, New Delhi, India.

Behera, K.S. (1983). Traditions in sculpture. InArt tradition of Orissa, Orissa SahityaAcademy, Bhubaneswar, India: 28-54.

Behera, K.S. (1991). Architecture. In Orissa StateGazetteer, (ed.N.C.Behuria), Governmentof Orissa, Bhubaneswar, India (2):99-1 13.

Behera, K.S. (1996). Konark: the Heritage ofMankind. Vols.I and II, Aryan BooksInternational, New Delhi, India.

Behura, B.K. (1990). Fauna. In Orissa StateGazetteer, (ed. N.C.Behuria), Governmentof Orissa, Bhubaneswar, India (1):103-1 04.

Cobden Ramsay, L.E.B. (1910). Feudatory Statesof Orissa. Firma K L M Private Ltd.,Calcutta, India: Reprint 1982.

Craven, Roy C. (1976). A Concise History ofIndian Art. Praeger Publishers. Inc. NewYork, U.S.A.

Das, G.C. (1932). Mayurbhanjare hatidhara(Elephant capture in Mayurbhanj) (InOriya). Mayurbhanj Gazette, July, 1932issue, 5-7.

Das, H.C. (1986). Military History of Kalinga,Punthi Pustak, Calcutta, India

Lawley, L. (1994). The World of Elephants.Friedman/Fairfax Publishers, New York,U.S.A.

Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (1969).5000 years of Indian Architecture.Government of India, New Delhi, India.


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Nathasharma, B. (1908a). Hastitatwa (In Oriya).Sambalpur Hitaisinee, Sambalpur, India,dated 05.12.1908.

Nathasharma, B. (1908b). Hastitatwa (In Oriya).Sambalpur Hitaisinee, Sambalpur, India,dated 19.12.1908.

Nathasharma, B. (1908c). Hastitatwa (in Oriya).Sambalpur Hitaisinee, Sambalpur, India,dated 26.12.1908.

Nathasharma, B. (1909a). Hastitatwa (in Oriya).Sambalpur Hitaisinee, Sambalpur, India,dated 02.01.1909.

Nathasharma, B. (1909b). Hastitatwa (in Oriya).Sambalpur Hitaisinee, Sambalpur, India,dated 09.01.1909.

Nathasharma, B. (1909c). Hastitatwa (in Oriya).Sambalpur Hitaisinee, Sambalpur, India,dated 16.01.1909.

Nehru, J. (1946). The discovery of India. TheSignet Press, Calcutta, India.

Panigrahi, K.C. (1961). Archaeological remainsat Bhubaneswar, Oriental Longmans,Calcutta, India.

Panigrahi, K.C. (1986). History of Orissa, (HinduPeriod). Kitab Mahal, Cuttack, India.

Sanderson, G.P. (1878). Thirteen years amongthe wild beasts of India - with an accountof the modes of capturing and tamingelephants. W.H.Allen and Co., London, 2ndedn.

Sen, A. (1972). Animal Motifs in Ancient IndianArt. Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay, Calcutta,India.

Senapati, N. and Sahu, N.K. (eds.) (1967). OrissaDistrict Gazetteers, Mayurbhanj, printedby the Superintendent, Orissa GovernmentPress, Cuttack, India.

Stracey, P.D. (1963). Elephant Gold. 1st IndianPubl.1991, Nataraj Publishers, Dehradun,India.

Sukumar, R. (1989). The Asian Elephant :Ecology and Management. CambridgeUniversity Press, Cambridge.

Swain, D. (2004). Asian elephants : Past, Presentand Future. International Book Distributors,Dehradun, India.

Trautmann, T.R. (1982). Elephants and Mauryas.In India : History and thought (ed. S.N.Mukherjee), Calcutta : Subarnarekha, 254-281.

Zimmer, H. (1962). Myths and Symbols in IndianArt and Civilization (ed. Joseph Campbell),First Harper Torchbook edn., Harper andRow, New York, USA.

Debabrata Swain is Conservator of Forests, BerhampurCircle, Berhampur - 760004.


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Pabitra Mohan Pradhan was an uncommon manwho emerged like a lotus from a cow-dungcompost-pit with fragrance of Godly qualities on8th February 1908. His native village Poipal,mostly a village of farmers in Talcher Sub-divisionin the erstwhile Dhenkanal (now in Angul district)has been glorified for having such a great leaderon its lap.

Poipal, a nondescript village away fromroads and communication was neglected duringthe Rule of the then Garhajata Rule of Talcher.Now it is remarkably known for Pabitra MohanPradhan's signal contribution to the Freedommovement. Pabitra Babu has left behind his footprints on the sands of time. He has become alegend for his formidable agitation against therepressive regime of the then ruler of Talcher.

That was Wednesday, Bharat Pradhan, hisfather and Shanti Devi the affectionate motherwere very happy having such a good lookingbaby on their lap. Unfortunately his father BharatPradhan died of Cholera when the little boy wasonly three months and 15 days. Adversity nevercomes alone. To his bad luck his mother ShantiDevi breathed her last. From his very tender agethe orphan child was brought up with muchhardships.

Pathetic were his child-hood days. Hestarted his lower primary education under aPathasala teacher as there was no govt. school inhis village. A lower primary school has been setup in his village but the school was closed in 1918due to severe drought in the village. He had to gofor High School Education to Talcher Govt.School which was 26 miles away from his village.After completing Entrance Examination he got himadmitted in Ravenshaw College, Cuttack andpassed Intermediate Examination obtaining ascholarship. He graduated amid financial hardshipearning only RS.7.00 per month from privatetuition.

After graduation he was appointed as anAsst. teacher in Govt. High School, Talcher andafter one year he was admitted in D. Ed. Trainingcourse and qualified as a trained graduate. Hewas an efficient and ideal teacher for which hewas admired by all. Even the then ruler of Talcherengaged him as his home tutor.

Not only orphan Pabitramohan strived hadto earn his livelihood, but also his other twobrothers two brothers and two sisters wentthrough poverty and passed a miserable periodwith no one to fall back upon in their dark days.The ample landed property they had of little useto them. Hence the brothers and sisters had to be

A Lotus Blossomed in a Compost Pit

Ishwar Chandra Mohapatra


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victimized with frequent fasting. In spite of poorliving and clothing Pabitramohan did not loseheart. He did not care for it, rather diverted hisattention for the upliftment of others.

Pabitramohan, a sweet name to all,remained a life-long bacheror. His BrahmacharyaBrata affirmed a strong will power to fight againstinjustice. Though his paternal occupation waspeasantry, his forefather would join warfrequently. Perseverance was in his blood. He wasendowed with a style of living catering to Hinduculture and tradition. He was a Khandayat bybirth but a rushi (saint) in living. He was mostly aworshipper of humanity.

He was one of the very few freedomfighters who dedicated their lives for themotherland. Nobody had instigated him to fightagainst the autocracy of the native rules, nor hehimself had been wretchedly ill treated to reactagainst the oppressive ruler, but his sensitive soulurged him to protest and fight against the tyrannyof the king. Fired by a patriotic fervour he resolvedto fight unto the last against exploitation of thepoor villagers.

The outrageous behaviour, scandalous andnefarious activities of the ruler were pinching andunbearable to the innocent public. PabitramohanPradhan felt it was his responsibility to unite thevictimized people to raise the banner of revoltagainst the ruler. Thousands of people respondedto the clarion call of Pabitramohan Pradhan. Toknow more about the agitational works ofPabitramohan Pradhan we have to go through abrief account of the monarchical administrationof Talcher, Orissa came under the British Rule in1803. At that time there were 26 feudatory Statesin Orissa which were called Tributary States. Thekings were controlled by the British Government.The rulers paid annual taxes to the British and

enjoyed immense power. The British Officerswere utterly callous to the tyranny of the localrulers, as a result of which the rulers imposedexorbitant taxes and tormented the subjects withimpunity.

The political Agents, in charge of thetributary states, were living luxuriously in the townsand hence did not take the risk by coming to theheadquarters of the Garhjatas which wereneglected in roads and communication facilities.Taking the advantages of long absence of thedignified British officers the local rulers becameautocrat and exploited the innocent people byimposing heavy taxes, Bethi, Begary, Magan andRasad. They were involved in raping the virginbeautiful ladies. Likewise the ruler of Talchertormented and exploited the people.

The atrocious activities of the king ofTalcher reached its peak. Pabitra Mohan Pradhanwas shocked by the inhuman torture of the king.His conscience galvanized a sense of patriotismin him for which he came forward to protestagainst the nefarious and devil's administration ofthe king. The tremulous people got heart to joinin hands with Pabitra Babu. The men of samespirit were congregated under the stern leadershipof Pabitra Babu. Pabitra Babu quitting teachershipfrom a Govt. High School started agitation againstthe totalitarian state policy of the king. He madehim an example in accentuating the Andolan in1938-39. Near about 1400 revolutionaries joinedthe Praja Andolan under the stern leadership ofPabitramohan Pradhan. The agitations expressedtheir reaction through demonstrations andremonstrations for which some of them werebeaten black and blue. They were both physicallyand mentally tortured. Pabitramohan Pradhan wasalso beaten mercilessly and treated inhumanly bythe British Policemen.


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On November 8th 1938 under the burningleadership of Pabitra Mohan Pradhan agitatedpeople from near about 25 villages joined theaxidous Andolan. It was called the HizarathAndolan. The agitators were driven out fromTalcher and took shelter in Hizarat camp at Angul.In spite of his of his domestic tribulation hepreferred it better to entangle him in the local andnational crisis.

Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Dr.Herekrishna Mahatab, A.V. Thakkar Bapa, Dr.Radhanath Rath thankfully appreciated andadmired the firing leadership of Pabitra MohanPradhan.

Under the inspiring leadership of PabitraMohan Pradhan the Hizarat Andolan wastremendously successful. But he was made thevictim of Rajadroha and sent to jail in 1940 withhis co-workers Mr. Madan Mohan Pradhan,Maguni Pradhan, Dasarathi Pani, Dayanidhi Rath,Pabitra Behera and Chandra Sekhar Raja Ballavetc.

In the year 1942 Quit India Movementspread its flame throughout the country. Heactively took part in it and flamed the fire of Prajaandolan in Talcher.

When Mahatma Gandhi was arrested inAugust Movement (Quit India Movement) hefired a call, 'do or die'. This call stimulatedenthusiasm in Pabitra Mohan Pradhan while hewas in Talcher jail.

That was 30th August 1942. In the darkmidnight when others had a sound sleep in thejail, Pabitra Babu consulted with his eminentfollowers to escape from the jail. It was last partof the cool rainy night, Pabitra Babu climbing onthe body of the co-prisoners came up to the prisonwall and jumped down, The British police guards

gun with hands were parading nearby. They couldnot know the adventurous escape of PabitraBabu. Only one rupee was on him at that time.

The hero of the Talcher Praja Andolan indisguise of a milk man with a cap (Jhampi) onhead went through Dhenkanal. He crossed OrissaBorder in disguise of a cooli and reached in TataNagar. He took shelter in a hotel namedSantiniketan. On 17th January 1943 he cunninglyleft the hotel as the British soldiers gherowed thehotel to enquire his shelter there.

The king of Talcher proclaimed red alertthroughout and declared thousands of rupees asreward to him who will bring Pabitra Mohan deador alive. But no one could dare to do so. Thename of Pabitra Babu headed the news bulletin.His escape from jail created a thunder in the mindof the king.

Pabitra Babu tried to meet Jaya PrakashNarayan but in vain. Then he tried to keep contactwith Subas Chandra Bose, the stern Nationalist.He had to serve as a servant in a disguise name'Ramu' to reach at his destination. The presentpolitical situation did not favour him to meetSubash Chandra Bose.

He, in disguise, went up to Imphal takingmessage from Calcutta to S.Bose but the timewas so turbulent that he returned to Calcutta.

In the first week of April 1944, PabitraBabu met Thakkar Bapa and Gyana RanjanNiyogi, the associate of Kiran Sankar Roy,eminent freedom fighter of Calcutta.

He was such a political worker who at therisk of his life cunningly escaped from the eyes ofthe detectives. In disguise of a Muslim he reachedat Ghorahat of Brahmadesh and gave the messageof the High command to Mr. Bharuka, thePrincipal of Commercial College, who was asecret revolutionary.


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Subas Chandra Bose had well beeninformed about Pabitra Babu's striving andagitational sagacity. He called upon Pabitra Babuand accordingly Pabitra Babu ventured a slap dashattempt to meet Subas Chandra Bose in 3rdphase. He started from Calcutta with a friendMukund Pradhan and met Mr. SatyendranathDeb, an old Congess leader of Assam. But thepolitical hazards did not permit him to reach atSubas Chandra Bose.

On 21st April, 1946 Mr. SurendranathDwibedy, the first rate leader of SamajbadiAndolan, introduced Pabitra Babu to JayaPrakash Narayan. Mr. Jaya Prakash Narayanwas highly impressed upon the revolutionaryactivities and efficiency of Pabitra Babu and askedhim to take the sole charge of Mukti Sangram inOrissa.

After some hazardous demonstrations,picketing, strike, bloodshed, massacre, communalriots, Satyagraha in way of non-violence launchedby Mahatma Gandhi, India achieved her longcherished Independence on 15th August 1947.This Red Letter Day' shed tears of joy from theeyes of Pabitra Mohan Pradhan who alwaysdreamt of it. Notoriety of the rulers wasvanquished, fear of torture was relinquished.Pabitra Babu was overwhelmed with joy at this.

Pabitra Mohan Pradhan remained awayfrom his native place in disguise for a period of 4years and 7 months and returned to Orissa on12th May 1947. He did a lot for the unification ofthe Garhjatas under the Indian National Govt. buthis name has been deemed out in the list of leaderswho made this tremendous achievement.

Basically He was a true Congressman butbeing disgusted he formed a new political partyknown as Jana Congress in which Dr. H.K.Mahatab was the head and remote controller.

Pabitra Mohan Pradhan paraded hisefficiency ascending the chair of vital portfolio indifferent ministries. He was a Minister in 1948headed by Dr. H.K. Mahtab. He pleaded foramalgamation of Sareikala and Kharasuan withOrissa which were subjugated under Bihar forwhich he had a controversy with Dr.H.K.Mahatab.

After the implementation of our ownConstitution on 26th January 1950, NabakrishnaChoudhury was the Chief Minister. In his ministry,Pabitra Babu was the Minister of Labour,Commerce, Public Relation and BroadcastingDepartment.

In 1952, First General Election was held.Controversy with Dr. H.K. Mahatab andN.Choudhury was raised on the issue of LandReform, Gramodyoga and Cottage industry forwhich he was not offered minister-ship.

Second General Election was held in 1957and a ministry was formed under Dr. H.K.Mahatab in which Pabitra Babu was the Ministerof Commerce, Welfare and Rural Development.

In 1961 3rd Mid-term Election was heldand Pabitra Babu defeated the Talcher andDhenkanal kings with keen contest. He was theMinister of Education, Agriculture, ScheduledCaste and Rural Development in the ministry ofMr. Biju Pattanaik. He was the Minister ofEducation during 1961-1963 during which hestressed upon Basic Education and did somereforms on traditional education in the State. Asan ideal teacher he had experienced the problemsin he field of Education and hence brought someremedies.

Being disgruntled with the ways andideology of the Congress Leaders Pabitra Babuquitted Congress Party and constituted a new


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Political Party known as Jana congress with thesupporters of his ideology and a coalition ministrywas formed headed by Rajendra Narayan SingDeo, the leader of 'Swatantra' party in whichPabitra Babu was the Deputy Chief Minister. Thiswas the fruit of his efficient and incorruptibleideology.

Not only Pabitra Mohan Pradhan was apolitical leader, a Freedom Fighter but also awriter, a poet and a lover of Nature. He hasimmensely, contributed to Oriya Bani Bhandar.His books 'Mukti Pathe Sainik' Part-I, II,'Brahmani', 'Malyagiri', Bharat Abhisap', 'Millan','Chandra', 'Neta Nirvachan', Mahaprayan', 'DeviDanda', 'Bhaat Gourab', 'Pita Debata', 'Bichhuati','Lajakuli Lata', etc. His literary brilliancy needsspecial discussion. But no one has come forwardto excavate his literary genius.

Pabitra Mohan Pradhan was un-compromised in his decision. His steadfast naturesometimes created mis-understanding among hispolitical rivals. He fought for the enhance of coalroyalty in order to suffice the state finance.

He was mostly a religious man. He was alover of humanity, philosopher of self-sacrifice,worshipper of labour and dignity, fighter againstnepotism, turpitude and poverty. He was a helper,a guide to the poor and needy students. He wasa democrat by heart and soul. He was sedulouspainstaking and advised others to be self-sufficientby hard labour. Any one, who went to hisresidence was served meals mostly Rice andDalma, which he himself took daily, whenever onewent to his residence must saw a huge number ofguests to whom he welcomed and greeted heartily.We rarely find such humanity in the so calledleaders of high rank. Pabitra Babu was a host in

whose hospitability even a beggar ate with heartscontent.

He was the epitome of selflessness. He didnot show self aggrandizement for his deeds. Hewas loved by all for his simplicity, honesty, saintlylife, equanimity, hospitality, charity and straight-forwardness. He was not a sycophant and so didnot allow flattery in official and private life forwhich he was encrowned with dignified positions.He did not live with affluence, dream of luxuryrather he deliberately invited affliction for thedwelling, fooding and clothing of others who wereill-fed, ill-treated, ill-clad and ill-nourished.

Pabitra Mohan Pradhan, a legend of pre-independence and post independence period, leftthe material world for good on 13th June 1988.Being struck down by his cruel fate he won thetears of millions of people. His death consecratesthe dust on which they fell. Thunders of cry, oceanof tears, warm tribute can not suffice to his love,affection, godly behavior, sociability, dedicationand contribution. Really he was a lotus emergedfrom a cow-dung compost pit who glorified theState of Orissa by heroic adventure andmultifarious deeds.

References :1. Mukti Pathe Sainik by P. Pradhan Part-I & II.

2. Pabitra Mohananka Jiban O Sahitya Sadhana EkaAdhyayan by Dr. Maheswar Pradhan.

3. Talcher Praja Andolan by dr. Prasanth Rath.

Ishwar Chandra Mohapatra is the Ex-State AwardeeHeadmaster, Sanda High School, Dhenkanal.


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Is water divining an ancient science or that ispurely a guess work ? Can it be practiced byanybody or one need to acquire divine blessingsto master over these tricks ? Whether it is merelya sound understanding of the local geology andgeo-hydrology that enables a few to predict theoccurrence of ground water in a particular site orit is altogether a different science the contours ofwhich man has not been able to fathom so far ?These are some of the questions that need to beanswered as that agitates in the minds of thecommon people for a long time.

Deepak Kumar Jena (13), a student ofClass VIII, is a water diviner by hobby. Thisyoung boy of Hatisahi village in tribal dominatedKeonjhar district, feels a current passing throughhis veins when he walks around the selected areawith a 'Y' shaped neem stick close to his chest.Deepak learnt this trick of water divining from aBaba belonging to Mahima cult two years agoand has identified more than 100 water sourcesin different villages of Keonjhar district without asingle failure.

Gouri Mahanta (60), a daily labourer, canpredict the existence of water from a site aftercarefully observing the water-level of a tumblerfor the whole day. This woman water divinercollects a lump of soil from the proposed site foridentification of water source and then worshipsthe family deity of the land owner with a smallportion of collected soil which is dropped into a

tumbler containing water. A resident of Padiabedavillage in Mayurbhanj district, Gouri has identified30 to 40 water sources in Mayurbhanj andKeonjhar districts during last 12 years. Her tricksof water divining can not be shared with anybodyas she claims to have learnt that by divine blessingsthrough a dream.

Bidyadhara Nath (56) employs differenttricks to trace the under-ground water source.He observes the direction of flame of a candle inone method and in another method he fills thehole dug over the proposed site with water. If thehole retains more than half water volume after fiveminutes, then water source is close to the groundlevel. Similarly Bidyadhara puts a candle inside atwo feet deep hole dug at the selected site. Byobserving the direction of the flame he forecaststhe presence of ground water. A resident ofHaladigadia village in Jajpur district, Bidyadharahas identified more than 1000 water sources inareas like Bhubaneswar, Cuttack, Dhenkanal,Balasore, Baripada, Anandapur, Joda, Barbil,Jajpur Road etc.

These are few examples out of the largenumber of water diviners operating in Orissa atpresent. Water divining as a body of knowledgeflourished and gained importance throughout theState. Not only the illiterates, ignorants andsupposedly by superstitious villagers rely on waterdiviners but also the big farmers, NGOs, industrialhouses and even in certain cases the water supply

Is Water Divining A Science ?

Prabhu Kalyan Mohapatra


56

department of the government repose confidencein water divining to-day. Because the cost ofwater exploration through modern methods isinvariably unaffordable for the average man,traditional knowledge of exploring water sourcesknown as "water divining" is still in vogue amongmany rural and urban communities.

Search for water is as old as humancivilisation. In the early stage of civilisation, peoplemet their water requirement from surface watersources like streams, lakes, ponds, rivers. Afterthey failed to get water from the surface sourcesexploration of water from below the groundbecame a constant pursuit for human beings.

The knowledge of tapping ground waterhas been built and refined from time to time overthousand of years. At present, finding of groundwater has become a difficult task due to changesin the water-cycle, enhanced requirement of waterby mankind and setting up of habitation in newlocations. On the other hand, the body ofknowledge to identify ground water has beenexpanded and up-graded to meet the newchallenges through modern science. In recent past,science and technology have taken long strides inexploring ground water as a result of which manytechnologies are available now to identify theground water. But this scientific knowledge isaccessible only to a handful of people of the urbanarea leaving the vast multitude of rural popultionoutside its reach.

Water divining is a process to detectground water by applying a natural quality inherentonly in some persons or the native wisdomacquired by a handful of people. This knowledgeis commercially used for ground water detectionin many parts of the globe. Water divining is alsoan ancient method through which the divineridentifies under ground water sources with a setof divining rules/laws. Although thousands ofdiviners are practicing this art or science everyday

in all parts of the world still this knowledge isgradually marginalised due to its substitution withscientific tools, mindset of disbelieving everythingnot validated by modern science. This categoryof people dismiss this water diviningcontemptuously as pure guess work and brand itas 'fake'. But on the otherhand, a large number ofpeople consider it as a form of ancient sciencethe secret of which is not easy to comprehend.However, modern science does not accept waterdivining as a form of science.

The methods used or adopted by waterdiviners vary widely from place to place. Aplethora of methods such as soil testing, coconut,L-shaped rods, Y-shaped rods, pendulums, gold-chains etc. is employed to identify under-groundwater sources in water divining. But, in theabsence of any systematic study or survey onefinds it almost difficult to have a comprehensiveknowledge about it. Fortunately, of late, teammembers of RCDS Centre for water for life,working in the field of drinking water in ruralOrissa come across a couple of water divinerswhich aroused their interest for the properdocumentation. As a humble beginning in thisdirection, RCDC (Regional Centre forDevelopment Co-operation) members with theco-operation of fellow NGOs have identifiedmore than 50 water diviners of the state within aspan of one year.

These water diviners constitute a diversecross-section of the society starting from dailylabourer to school-going teenager, from blind mento women and they belong to nine districts ofOrissa such as Bolangir, Angul, Dhenkanal,Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar, Deogarh, Sundergarh,Ganjam and Raygada.

Prabhu Kalyan Mohapatra is a freelance journalist wholives at Qr.No.VR-3/2, Unit-III, Bhubaneswar,


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The global environmental debate is discussed oncertain specific environmental problems that arefacing humanity. Think, there is hardly a societyor country today which is not involved in any wayor another in this debate. From small, local, grassroot organizations to National Govt. and globaland International bodies, this debate is becomingamong the strident of the century.

The triggering of the global ecological crisis1

has raised nagging questions regarding"developmental" paths mankind has hithertofollowed and also man's role as the sole arbiterfor destinies of all the species on the earth.

Chief among these are the rapid destructionof numerous eco-systems, the relentlessdegradation of many others and the consequentloss of genetic diversity.2 The long-termconsequences of the disproportionate impact ofthe world's rich nations on global resourceconsumption, particularly fossil fuels.

During the 1970's growth pessimistswarned that the exhaustion of global resourceswas inevitable. "Rising levels of carbon dioxide inthe atmosphere make it unlikely the world willrun out of oil before the environmental cost of itsuse in the form of global warming-becomesprohibitive". These developments have posed achallenge for international law. Scientificuncertainties have forced new ways of law making

Global Warming : A Threat toFuture Generation

Shashank Shekhar Panigrahi

through varied international environmentagreements (IEAs).

In this article an attempt has been made toaddress the role of law in confronting the challengeof global warming and the policy issues involvedin meeting this challenge.

1st the problems of Global Warming andGreen house effect, the evidence of its existenceand its possible effects upon the eco-systems andhuman beings, 2nd the development ofinternational environment laws principles and itsapplicability and evaluation, Paper presented atthe 3rd International Conference onEnvironmental Laws on dt - 24th Feb 2008organised by the Global Institute of Legal Studies,Calcutta, India. 3rd directions for the furtherdevelopments of international environmental lawas well as domestic policies and legislation.

Global Warming

"Global Warming" is shorthand for theprospective climate changes that the insulatingeffect of the earth's atmosphere from the sun topenetrate to the earth, but gas molecules fromthe equivalent of a green house roof by trappingheat remitted from earth that would otherwiseescape into outer space. Carbon dioxide (CO2)accounts for about half of the green house gases.Methane (natural gas) nitrous oxide, ozone and


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chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) make up the rest.(CFCs) are artificial chemicals widely used inrefrigerators and air conditioners as refrigerantsin Styrofoam Cups, in cleansers for computercomponents and as aerosol propellants for suchthings as deodorants).

In all cases consumption patterns are thechief cause of the volume of green house gases(GHG) released into the atmosphere. Thus thedeveloped counties of the North are the chiefperpetrators of the growing amount of GHG inthe atmosphere. The developed nations whomake up about a quarter of the world's populationare responsible for 54% of the heating effectcaused by GHG emissions. In contrast,developing nations, who make up nearly 80% ofthe world's population account for less than half.

Among the developed nations the UnitedStates stands out accounting for nearly 18% ofthe heating effect of GHG emitted but less than5% of world population. Brazil is the main culpritamong the developing nations because of theadverse consequences of deforestation of theAmazon Basin.3

There is widespread agreement on thetheory underlying global warming and on the factthat the gases that cause heat to be trapped in theatmosphere are increasing on unprecedentedrates. Dispute is, whether continued high rates ofGHG emission will lead to global warming, asmany determinants of climate change areinadequately understood. Not surprisingly,therefore, global warming is a contentious issueon the global agenda.

To note, researchers have indicated thatfrom 1860 to the early 1980's carbon dioxidelevels grew from a concentration of about 280parts per million (PPM) to about 350 PPM andare currently increasing at a yearly rate of aboutone PPM.4

Causes

Deforstation is one of the human activitiesthat accelerate global warming. Green plantsroutinely remove carbon dioxide from theatmosphere during photosynthesis. The naturalprocesses that removes GHG are destroyed whenforests are cut down, decay on burned.

For many years it was believed that an areathe size of Austria was deforested every year,but evidence indicates that the magnitude of thedestruction of the world's forests may be evengreater.5 Tropical deforestation is notably acutein places like Indonesia, Myanmar (formerlyBurma), Cameroon, Costa Rica and especiallyBrazil, where vast tracts of rain forests have beencleared and burned to make room for farms andranches (cattle, incidentally, add to the staggeringvolume of methane released into atmosphere).

Burning of Fossil Fuels greater thandeforestation accounts for three quarters of theexcess carbon released into the atmosphere orroughly a ton of atmospheric CO2 for every man,woman and child on earth.6

Rapid Industrialisation often believedespecially responsible for atmospheric pollutionas it produces atmospheric sulfur and nitrogenoxides. These pollutants return to earth typicallyafter travelling long distances in the form of "acidrain" which adds to the acidification of lakes andthe impairment of eco-system.7

Burning of coals widespread amongutilities, release more CO2 than does the burningof other fossil fuels.

Automobiles emit large quantities of GHG.Consider, the average American car driven anaverage 10,000 miles a year releases its ownweight in carbon into the atmosphere every year.8

Energy, the engine of economic growthimproves living standard throughout the world.


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Today, the industrial nations consume over 70%of the world energy. Imagine, their access to theworld's energy supplies has materially benefitedtheir societies. Even now the greatest increasesin the rate of energy consumption occur in thedeveloping nations of the South. Consider, howthe atmospheric pollution increases due to fossilfuel combustion resulted from Third Worldpolicies and achievements.

Population Growth i.e. expected doublingof the world's present population will require anenormous increase in fossil fuel consumptionsimply to maintain living standards. The unfoldingdemographic patterns may seriously disrupt theworld's climate and delicate eco-systems, whichwill make process of global warming.Consequences

Is the temprareture of the world'satmosphere rising inexorably ? The 1980switnessed the six warmest years on record andglobal warmth in 1988 increased at as recordsetting rate.9 During the same period the amountof CO2 in the atmosphere increased by 25% andthe amount of methane doubled.10

Whether the heat wave of the 1980's wasitself a consequence of the green house effect ?Through scientists do not agree, still it may providea glimpse of the future.

Think, if the GHGs in the atmospheremount, global temperature will rise. By 2050global temperatures will reach an average levelfour-degree (Celsius) higher than now. Thoughconsequences are not easily predicted,11 someinclude a melting of the polar ice caps which willraise ocean level significantly and lead to thedestruction of coastal areas and wetlands,12 anincrease in the frequency and severity of droughts,dust storm, forest fires and hurricanes and amarked alteration of rainfall and other traditionalweather patterns critical to economic process.

According to Inter governmental Panel onClimate Change (IPCC) predictions a 30-50cmsea level rise projected by 2050 will threaten lowIslands and coastal zones. A 1-meter rise by 2100would render some island countries uninhabitable,displace tens of millions of people, seriouslythreaten low-lying urban areas, food productiveland, contaminate fresh water supplies and changecoastlines.

Truly though all projected changes will notbe detrimental, collectively they will lead ofdramatic changes in global patterns of production,trade, capital flows and migration. Changes in theworld's climate promise may lead to alter worldpolitics profoundly.

Global warming may be the ultimate tragedyof the commons. It was intended by none yet isseemingly beyond the control of all who will bearits costs.

II. INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTLAWS.

As the world has become increasingly interdependent ecologically as well as economically,there is greater awarness that what is in the bestinterest of all may also be in the best interest ofeach.13

Sustainable Development, the centralconcept in our Common Future, the report of theWorld Commission on Environment andDevelopment (1987) popularly known as theBrundtland Commission emphasized sustainabilitymeans, learning to live off the earth's interestwithout encroaching on its capital. Thecommission emphasised the maxim, "the growthof limits" rather than "limits of growth" (popularamong the pessimists during the 1970s).

The marathon work of the BrundtlandCommission underscored the "inter locking" ofcrises of the global economy as well as the global


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ecology, since "ecological stress" hampereconomic prospects in the same way that rampanteconomic growth causes environmental harm. Asa result, the developing countries required a"Safety Net" which can ensure their economicdevelopment, along with long-term protection oftheir natural resource base and the environment.

The Brundtland report, an importantlandmark in the rapid emergence of environmentalconcerns as a central issue on the global politicalagenda emphasized to promote international co-operation in dealing with both national andtransnational problems within their jurisdictionswith the goal of preserving the global habitat forfuture generation.

If one reads carefully the broad contourslaid down in Our Common Future, SustainableDevelopment may well be regarded as a harbingerof a New International Ecological Order (NIEO).It has led to incorporation of specific provisionfor recognizing "special situation and needs" ofthe developing countries as well as "economic andsocial development and poverty eradication" astheir overriding priorities.

Environmental Law comprises both 'hardlaw' (norms creating precise legal rights andobligations) such as national legislation andinternational treaties, and 'soft law' such asstandards and regulations. 'Soft law14 has, in fact,played an important role in the evolution ofinternational environmental law. Severalinternational declarations (e.g. the StockholmDeclaration 1972, the Nairobi Declaration 1982,the World Charter for Nature 1982, the HagueDeclaration on the Protection of the Ozone Layer1989, the Ministerial Declaration of the SecondWorld Climate Conference 1990, the RioDeclaration 1992 etc.) have acted as catalysts inthe development of International EnvironmentalAgreements (IEAs). The emerging regime of legal

norms proves to be of great help in fixingresponsibility for causing environmental harm.

Principle 21 of the Stockholm Conference1972 on the Human Environment reads;

"States have .. the responsibility toensure that activities within their jurisdiction orcontrol do not cause damage to the environmentof other states or of areas beyond the limits ofnatural jurisdiction."

This principle of state responsibility isemerging as a doctrine of Customary InternationalLaw.15 State responsibility is likely, however, tobe an inadequate remedy for global warming,since, in several ways, state responsibility doesnot respond to the complex scientific and politicalissue at stake.

1st, sources of emissions lead to globalwarming are widespread, a combined effect frommany nations.

2nd, time lag between the emissions andtheir adverse effects make the application of stateresponsibility principles is very difficult.

3rd, alternatives to excessive emissions arenot always readily available, particularly fordeveloping countries.

International environmental law seeks tobalance a nation right to exploit its environmentwith its responsibility to avoid harm to other statesand the world community.

In the Corfu Channel Case16 (1948)International Court of Justice stated "every states(has an) obligation not to allow knowingly itsterritory to be used for acts contrary to the rightsof other states". The private law principle "sic uteretuo ut alienum non leadas" prohibits the use ofone's own property in such a way as to injureanother's property and correlary in internationalenvironmental law. This principle has been applied


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to international watercourses, transfrontierpollution and marine pollution.

The Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro,Brazil, in 1992 marked another milestone topromote a sustainable future for all of human kind.

III. DIRECTIONS COPING WITHGLOBAL WARMING

The ever-ringing question is the globalcharacter of climate change and its anticipatedconsequences and who will affect by policychoices designed to slow it. Consensus on howto cope with global warming is elusive, sincescientific uncertainties on the precise nature ofglobal warming continue.

The expected consequences of reducingcarbon emission could be especially severe in theUSA, the world's largest consumer of fossil fuelenergy. The Bush administration-characterized as"wed to the gloomiest economic predictions"estimated that the US-GNP would decline by 3%(roughly $ 150 billion) as a result of effort to haltglobal warming through increased energyefficiency. Until the surprising discovery ofsignificant ozone depletion over North America,US talked more than of positive steps to halt it.

When United States waxed uncertain aboutthe future, nation in western Europe and evenJapan began to formulate national policiesdesigned to reduce carbon dioxide emissions,Thus, Europe has assumed the mantle ofinternational leadership on this centralenvironmental issue, leaving the US isolated.

Developing nations are wary about effortsby the rich nations to solve environmentalproblems they did not cause. Leaders strugglingwith the hand-to-mouth survival of millions findthat 'Sacrifice today to save tomorrow' is bittermedicine, especially when those administering it

have already reaped the benefits of unlimitedgreenhouse effusions.17

Strategies under discussion to cope withglobal warming includes adaptive as well aspreventive strategies.

Adaptive Strategies would call upon societyto adjust to climate change, e.g. Societies couldexplore

1. planting alternative crop strains, which waycould withstand a broad range of climate changes.

2. ways to provide increased flexibility inmanaging existing water supplies.

Difficulties in adoption-

1. to predict accurately given the limitationsof current global envtl. Models.

2. to disrupt existing social pattern e.g.cultivation, removal of population from low lyingareas for other alternatives (weather patterns tendto change gradually, people are unlikely to beconvinced until a disaster occurs).

3. to be expensive for developing countries.

Preventive Strategies include a host ofmeasures ranging from energy conservation to thedevelopment of new fuels (these may not forapparent effect for future directions). However,it will likely entail major economic costs but delaymay result more costly, dangerous and possiblyirreversible consequences for the globalenvironment.

The central theme is a "sharedresponsibility" for some of our "commonconcerns" and the primary responsibility formitigating environmental imbalance is fixed on thedeveloped countries. The standard argument ofthe developing countries has been that they donot want to pay for environmental sins they didnot commit.


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Besides these there should be:1. Expression of willingness to considervoluntary reductions in their carbon dioxideemissions.2. Developing nations to adopt/acquire thetechnology to reduce their own pollutants.3. An agreement on creation of a special fund(to be administered through World Bank) tofinance the developing countries for products andtechnologies that substitute the cause of depletionof the ozone.4. International convention to provide for theestablishment of institutional channels ofconsultation, information exchange and monitoringthe concept of intergenerational rights andobligations.18

CONCLUSIONConcern about global warming has reached

a high pitch, as discussion of the green house effecthas spread from scholarly journals to popularpress. Global warming is an inherentlytransnational policy problem. As Maurice Strong,organizer of 1992 Earth Summit lamented, "Ibelieve, we are on the road to tragedy." 19

The global commons must recognize theissue of global warming which involves "theinteraction of two vast and complex systems, theplanet's eco-system and the human socio-economic system."

The unilateral emission reduction plans bythe developed countries are encouraging , the acidtest of their sincerity, however, lies in enforcementof the main commitments -financial andtechnological transfers.

References :1. For a detailed discussion on the global envt.

problems, see Bharat Desai 1992 Threats to theWorld Eco- System: A Role for the Social Scientists,Social Science and Medicine- Oxford-Vol. 35 No4,589-596.

2. For a very hard hitting account of the implicationsof loss of genetic diversity, see Pat Rove Mooney,Seeds of the Earth: A Private or Public Resource,ICDA 1979.

3. Based on data drawn from World Resource Institute,World Resources 1990-91(New York Oxford Univ.Press 1990) p 348-49 and Population ReferenceBureau 1991- World Population Data Sheet.

4. See generally, US Envtl. Protection Agency, CanWe Delay A Green House Warming: TheEffectiveness and Feasibility of Options to Slow aBuild up of Carbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere 1-2(1983).

5. World Resource Institute 1990,101-04.6. Mathews Jessica Tuchman ed. Preserving the

Global Envt. New York Norton 19917. Acid rain has fallen in measurable amounts in the

Scandinavian Countries and in the USA and Canadawhere it has been a transnational controversy.

8. Mc. Kibben 1989,489. See Shabecoff, Global Warmth in'88 is Found to

Set a Record, N.Y. Times Feb 04, 1989 at A 1 Col 1.10. Schneider 1989,72.11. Wood well 1990,Wyman 1991.12. For details see "Polar Alert" Times of India p. 12

Tuesday,12 Sept. 2000 No 218 Vol. CLXIII.13. Renner 1989.14. See the panel discussion on "A Hard Look at Soft

Law" American Society of International LawProceedings Vol 82 Apr 1988 p 371.

15. See e.g. Restatement(3rd) of the Foreign RelationLaw of the USA Reporters Note 1,1987.

16. Corfu Channel Cases (Merits) U.K ver. Albania 1949.17. Stetson 1991.18. See generally, Responsibilities to Future

Generations, E Partridge ed 1981.19. He was worried that the summit's outcome reflected,

"agreement without sufficient commitment."

Shashank Shekhar Panigrahi is the Principal, Biraja LawCollege, Jajpur in the Jajpur District.


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If we look at society from a historical perspective,we realize that protection and preservation of theenvironment has been integral to the cultural andreligious ethos of most human communities.Ancient Hindus, Greeks, Native Americans andother religions around the world have veneratednature. They worshipped all forms of nature,believing that it emanated the spirit of God.Hinduism declared in its dictum that "(t)he Earthis our mother and we are all her children." Theancient Greeks worshipped Gaea or the EarthGoddess. Islamic law regarded man as havinginherited "all the resources of life and nature" andhaving certain religious duties to God in using them.In the Judeo-Christian tradition, God gave theearth to his people and their offspring as aneverlasting possession, to be cared for and passedon to each generation.

But in today's highly industrialized world,the protection of environment has been given theleast priority, the available natural resources havebeen mercilessly exploited by everyone to fulfilland quench their own clandestine and subterfugedemands. Added to this the conventionalenvironmental wisdom holds that environmentaldegradation continues largely unchecked eventhough environmental agreements andorganizations have proliferated in the last thirtyyears. The new international environmentalorganizations are criticized for having failed to

develop coherent environmental norms andhaving failed to devise effective mechanisms toinduce their observance. Commentators variouslyattribute the inability to improve internationalenvironmental conditions to a "weak institutionalstructure ," poor international governance, a lackof "transformational leadership," and even anelement of "management shortcomings andbureaucratic entanglements." Most commentators,in fact, would opt for "all of the above" asdescriptive of the causes of internationalenvironmental governance failure. EventhoughUNEP(United Nations Environmental Programmehas been functioning as a nodal body in this regard,but till now it has largely disappointed.

The concept of upgrading or replacingUNEP with a stronger body, as discussed in thisissue, is in itself not new. However, the substantialsupport the idea has mustered in recent years hasadded a new dimension to earlier debates.Several academics and expert commissions, too,have advocated a World EnvironmentOrganization.

A WEO is needed for two reasons: First,many ecosystems continue to deteriorate and thehuman environment is under serious, uncontrolledthreats. Second, the processes of internationalenvironmental governance need bett ercoordination.

The Need for a World Environment

Anirudha ChoudhuryShagun Mehta


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While human stewardship over the earth'senvironment may not be disastrous, seriousenvironmental problems exist that are not beingadequately managed under current institutions. InGEO-2000, UNEP concluded, "if present trendsin population growth, economic growth andconsumption patterns continue, the naturalenvironment will be increasingly stressed ." Themost serious problems include a massive loss ofbiodiversity, over-fishing, depleted freshwatersupplies, and global warming.

Before critiquing the current environmentalregime, one should first note that environmentalgovernance is far from being fully dysfunctional.UNEP has achieved a number of successes overthe years, particularly in catalyzing new MEAs.The systems for implementation review ofenvironmental treaties are complex, yet the resultsare often positive . In recent years, important newMEAs were negotiated on bio-safety, persistentorganic pollutants, prior informed consent ontrade in chemicals and pesticides, liability andcompensation regarding hazardous wastes, andon the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol onclimate change.

Nevertheless, environmental governancedoes not function as well as it needs to. Theenvironmental treaties are often too weak toaddress the problem they were set up to correct.Among the MEAs, there is a lack of coordinationand missed opportunities for policy integration.At a recent meeting of the Open-EndedIntergovernmental Group of Ministers, thePresident of the UNEP Governing Councilreported, "The proliferation of institutionalarrangements, meetings and agendas is weakeningpolicy coherence and synergy and increasing thenegative impact of limited resources ." Thesefinancial resources are not only limited but arealso diminishing, and the cuts in UNEP's budget

are, to some extent, emblematic of the lack ofconfidence by governments in the currentmanagement structure.

One longtime observer, Konrad vonMoltke, reminds us that at no time has the entirestructure of international environmentalmanagement ever been reviewed with the goal ofdeveloping optimum architecture . The U.N. TaskForce on Environment and Human Settlementsreported that environmental activities in the U.N."are characterized by substantial overlaps, [and]unrecognized linkages and gaps" which are "basicand pervasive." If this is true even within the U.N.,it is probably much worse externally.

The Task Force reported further thatenvironmental ministers are frustrated at havingto attend so many different meetings, and that itwas difficult for them to get the big picture. Thecurrent scattered organization of environmentalgovernance is confusing to experts andincomprehensible to the public. If an organizationchart of world environmental governance existed,its hydra-like nature would be "Exhibit A" forreformers.

Joy Hyvarinen and Duncan Brack havekeenly observed one symptom of governancefailure: the tendency to "recycle" decisions byhaving each new forum call for implementation ofwhat the previous forum proposed. Allorganizations do this to some extent, but it isparticularly prevalent in the environmental regime.The current lack of coherence in environmentalorganization provides reason enough for reform,yet an even stronger reason exists--namely, thatthe trend is for more proliferation. The questionof whether environmental governance should becentralized was discussed extensively in the run-up to the Stockholm Conference. For example,in 1972 a special committee of the Commissionto Study the Organization of Peace noted that "a


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new intergovernmental environmentalorganization" would provide "the best possiblecoordination" and would "adequately centralizeall efforts." Yet the committee rejected thatapproach because "it would be difficult topersuade organizations to transfer theirenvironmental functions to the new entity . . . ."Thirty years later, the same conundrum exists, yetthe number of environmental functions that wouldneed to be transferred to a WEO has multipliedten-fold. Back in 1970, when George Kennanrecommended the creation of an "InternationalEnvironmental Agency," he hypothesized that asingle entity with great prestige and authority stoodthe best chance of overcoming the formidableresistance from individual governments andpowerful interests. As he analyzed it: "One canconceive of a single organization's possessing suchprestige and authority. It is harder to conceive ofthe purpose being served by some fifty to ahundred organizations, each active in a differentfield, all of them together presenting a pattern toocomplicated even to be understood or borne inmind by the world public ."

In the Rio Summit in 1992, thegovernments had an opportunity to restructureenvironmental governance, but instead of doingso, they bypassed UNEP in the new climatechange convention and created the Commissionon Sustainable Development (CSD). At a meetingof experts held in Cambridge in May 2001, therewas a consensus that on the whole, the CSD addslittle value to the debate on sustainabledevelopment. Yet no one predicts that the CSDwill be abolished anytime soon.

The problem is that the current platform ofenvironmental governance cannot correct itselfand all of the trends point to continuedproliferation, with little appetite by governmentsto thin out the ineffective institutions. The tendency

toward expansion can be seen in recent reformistactions. Concerned about the fragmentation ofenvironmental institutions, governments createdthree new ones to deal with the problem--theGlobal Ministerial Environmental Forum (GMEF),the Environmental Management Group, and theOpen-Ended Intergovernmental Group ofMinisters or their Representatives on InternationalEnvironmental Governance. Of course, each ofthese institutions can be justified and they appearto be serving a useful purpose. But it is hard toescape the conclusion that unless governmentstake a big step toward creating a holistic WEO,the current governance architecture will get worseand the time-consuming dialogue on governancewill remain open-ended rather than conclusive.

2. Global or Non-Global Scope

Esty and Maria Ivanova have suggestedthat the GEO be limited to "global-scale pollutioncontrol and natural resource management issues."They contrast "global" problems, such as theprotection of the global commons, which shouldbe controlled by a "GEO," with "world" problems,such as drinking water, air pollution, and landmanagement excluded from its jurisdiction. Theirglobal versus world terminology is a bit ambiguousbut one can distinguish between global problems,which require widespread participation to solve,and shared problems, which all countries havebut some can solve even if others do not. Forexample, a heavy reliance on government revenuefrom taxes on trade is a shared problem in manydeveloping countries that makes them resistantto trade liberalization and its concomitantenvironmental benefits, but unsustainable taxationis not a global problem.

This aspect of the Esty/Ivanova conceptionof a WEO/GEO differs from that of other analysts.For example, Runge does not limit the scope ofhis WEO to global issues. He suggests that it


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looks at irrigation schemes involving theinternational transfer of water . One problem witha WEO for just the global commons is that anydecision about what is or is not global commonsis somewhat arbitrary. Is biodiversity to beincluded ? Are ocean fisheries ? How aboutnuclear waste or other toxic waste ? Are forestsglobal because of their services to combat climatechange, or non-global because they root withinnational boundaries ? Is the Antarctic a regionalor global concern ? Lines can be drawn but theywill remain debatable.

The Esty/Ivanova approach would seemto preclude a WEO mandate for regional issueslike the regional seas programmes. Yet it isinteresting to note that the Task Force onEnvironment and Human Settlements suggestedthat attention by the global environmentalMinisters to regional issues would be a good thing.Indeed, the Task Force suggested that theMinisters shift the venue of their meetings fromregion to region and that regional issues shouldfeature prominently on their agenda. One wonderswhether there would be enough of a constituencyfor a GEO that worked exclusively on globalproblems.

This conundrum about scope has no easyanswer. Ideally, the WEO should be given dutiesthat distinguish it from the national environmentalagencies that exist in each country in order to avoidduplication. That is an almost impossible standardto meet, however, since all existing internationalagencies overlay national agencies. The Esty/Ivanova approach may do the best job of avoidingthe conundrum because national governmentscould, in principle, delegate global problems to aglobal agency. Yet it should be noted that noexisting major international agency looks only atglobal problems. The mandates of the WTO, theILO, the WHO, the FAO, etc. are to work on

problems that each country shares.

WEO Functions

A WEO might have a matrix of functionsincluding: standards and policy setting, marketfacilitation, dispute settlement, evaluation, planning,data gathering and assessment, informationdissemination, scientific research, and compliance.

1. Standards and Policy Setting

Some advocates of a WEO emphasize itslegislative role in developing norms and settingstandards. In that regard, advocates point to theWTO, the ILO, or the new WHO FrameworkConvention for Tobacco Control . While theseare useful models, the environmental regime is notlacking in policy-setting experience and wouldprobably do better to build on the extensiveexperience it has developed. Indeed, theenvironmental regime has been perhaps the mostinnovative of any regime in using soft law and inbuilding upon it .

2. Market Facilitation

The idea that the environmental regimecould help countries exchange economic andenvironmental commitments is not a new one butit deserves greater attention. In 1991, DavidVictor proposed that a General Agreement onClimate Change be modeled on the GATT and,in recent work, Whalley & Zissimos haveproposed a bargaining-based WEO to facilitatedeals struck between parties with interests inparticular aspects of the global environment onboth the "custody" and "demand" sides. Theseideas should be elaborated and expanded uponin developing strategies for a new WEO.

3. Dispute Settlement

It is sometimes suggested that theenvironmental regime would benefit from havinga dispute settlement system like that of the WTO.


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Since this WTO-envy is fairly common, let uspoint out a few reasons why the WTO modelwould not be right for a WEO. First, the WTOsystem relies on dispute settlement rather thancompliance review. This may be appropriate fora regime in which reciprocity is the central value,but it would not be appropriate for theenvironmental regime that has substantive,measurable objectives. A more effectiveapproach would be to expand the compliancereview procedures of the MEAs which are moreeffective because they are not as confrontationalas those in the WTO and because they can bedirectly linked to technical assistance, which islargely absent from the WTO.

Second, the WTO system is consideredstrong because there is a possibility of a tradesanction in the event of non-compliance. Suchtrade sanctions are counterproductive, however,and injure innocent parties. They arecounterproductive because they restrict trade inthe name of opening it further. The sanctions injureinnocent parties because in realty it is people whoyearn to trade with each other; states or Membersof the WTO do not themselves trade with eachother. Third, the WTO model provides for disputesettlement within the WTO.

While this internal adjudication model is notused in MEAs, it is used in the U.N. Conventionon the Law of the Sea, which has its ownInternational Tribunal. The MEAs that do providefor dispute settlement typically utilize ad hocarbitration or adjudication in a forum outside ofthe MEA. This includes the International Courtof Justice, which has an unused environmentchamber. Recently, the Permanent Court ofArbitration established a set of rules for thearbitration of disputes relating to natural resourcesand the environment. These arbitral proceduresare available to states, intergovernmental

organizations, non-governmental organizations,and private entities.

Conclusion

The WEO would improve environmentalgovernance by making it more coherent bothinternally and externally. Internal coherence canbe achieved by better coordination amongUNEP, MEA clusters, and other agencies.External coherence involves the interface betweenthe environment and other regimes, such as theWTO (trade and environment), the WHO (healthand environment), the ILO (workplaceenvironment), and the Security Council (biologicaland chemical warfare). On trade and environment,it is clear that both the WTO and theenvironmental regime have gained from theirinteraction. For example, the term "MEAs" aroseout of the trade and environment debate of the1990s.

While a WEO would not be guaranteed tohave better external coherence than UNEP, itmight help if the WEO constitution focused onthis goal. Not all governments will want to seesuch coherence however. For example, in the run-up to the WTO Doha Ministerial Conference, theG-77 and China issued a statement which, amongvarious points, warned that "Developing conceptssuch as global coherence with otherintergovernmental organizations like ILO andUNEP should be cautioned against as it may beused to link trade with social and environmentalissues for protectionist purposes."

Since the environmental regime comprisesnot only international organizations but alsonational environmental agencies, the WEO mustinterpenetrate national government to increase itsinfluence over policy. For trans-borderenvironmental problems (which are a large shareof the totality of environmental problems), all


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agencies must be pulling in the same direction. Ifnational agencies are ineffective, then those failureswill be felt outside of the country as well as insideof it. The WEO should respond to this challengeby working to improve environmental law andenforcement, particularly in developing countries.

Another priority should be the relationshipbetween economic and environmental policy atthe national and international levels. The WEOneeds to have a much greater effectiveness ininfluencing economic policy than UNEP has had,so that the raging questions about the effectiveprotection of environment can be put at rest, andthe establishment of WEO becomes a pleasantreality in protecting the Environment at all costs.

ReferencesE.g., Paul Wapner, World Summit on SustainableDevelopment: Toward a Post-Jo'burg Environmentalism,3 Global Environmental Politics 1 (2003). Wapnerdeclares, "Since Rio, despite impressive texts, new andimproved insti tutions, and the ever-wideningdissemination of environmental values, widespreadenvironmental degradation continues almost unabated."

"[T]he management of international environmentalaffairs has little structure and is marked by policy gaps,confusion, duplication, and incoherence." Daniel C.Esty, Greening the GATT: Trade, Environment, and theFuture 78 (1994) [hereinafter Esty, Greening].

Esty and Ivanova define an "implementation gap"resulting from administrative overload, shortage offinancing, and the lack of serious enforcementprovisions in international environmental agreements.Daniel C. Esty & Maria H. Ivanova, Revitalizing GlobalEnvironmental Governance: A Function-DrivenApproach, in Daniel C. Esty & Maria H. Ivanova, GlobalEnvironmental Governance: Options and Opportunities1, 7 (2002) [hereinafter Esty & Ivanova, RevitalizingGovernance]. The compliance problem in internationallaw and international relations is, of course, not limitedto environmental obligations. See Abram Chayes &Antonia Handler Chayes, The New Sovereignty:Compliance with International Regulatory Agreements(1995); Kal Raustiala & Anne-Marie Slaughter,International Law, International Relations and

Compliance, in Handbook of International Relations 538(Walter Carlsnaes et al. eds., 2002).

Daniel C. Esty, The Value of Creating a GlobalEnvironmental Organization, Env't Matters, June 2000,at 13.

Draft Report of the President of the United NationsEnvironmental Programme Governing Council forConsideration by the Open-Ended IntergovernmentalGroup of Ministers or Their Representatives onInternational Environmental Governance, U.N.Environment Programme, UNEP/IGM/5/2 (2002).

Joy Hyvarinen & Duncan Brack, Royal Inst. of Int'lAffairs, Global Environmental Institutions: Analysisand Options for Change 38 (2000).

Esty & Ivanova, Revitalizing Governance, supra note 4,at 1-2.

Esty & Ivanova, for example, declare that, "the currentinternational environmental regime is weak, fragmented,lacking in resources, and handicapped by a narrowmandate." See Id.

U.N. Environment Programme, Overview: GlobalEnvironmental Outlook 2000 3 (1999), available at http://www.unep.org.

Mostafa K. Tolba (with Iwona Rummel-Bulska), GlobalEnvironmental Diplomacy (1998).

The Implementation and Effectiveness of InternationalEnvironmental Commitments 16-17 (David G. Victor etal. eds., 1998).

See generally Hilary French, Vanishing Borders:Protecting the Planet in the Age of Globalization (2000);Mark Hertsgaard, Earth Odyssey: Around the World inSearch of Our Environmental Future (1998).

Open-Ended Intergovernmental Group of Ministers ortheir Representatives on International EnvironmentalGovernance, Report of the Chair, U.N. EnvironmentProgramme, Annex I, Proposals of the President of theUNEP Governing Council, P 4j, U.N. Doc. UNEP/IGM/3/3 (2001), available at http:// www.unep.org/IEG/Working documents.asp.

Konrad Von Moltke, Whither MEAS? The Role ofInternational Environmental Management in The Tradeand Environment Agenda (July 2001) at 15, available athttp://www.iisd.org.

U.N. GAOR, 53d Sess., Annex, Report of the UnitedNations Task Force on Environment and Human


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Settlements, P 20, U.N. Doc. A/53/463 (1998) [hereinafterTask Force Report].

In correspondence with the author, Urs Thomassuggests that the "frustration" argument is overdrawn.He sees evidence of a "diplotourism" phenomenon inwhich environmental officials from developing countriesenjoy the intergovernmental meetings because theofficials gain recognition that they do not achieve indomestic politics.

Joy Hyvarinen & Duncan Brack, Global EnvironmentalInstitutions: Analysis and Options for Change (Sep.2000) at 41, at http:// www.riia.org/Research/eep/eeparticle.html (last visited Mar. 26, 2002).

Commission to Study the Organization of Peace, Reportof the Special Drafting and Planning Committee on theUnited Nations and the Human Environment, in TheUnited Nations and the Human Environment 15, 60-61(1972).

George F. Kennan, To Prevent A World Wasteland: AProposal, 48 Foreign Aff. 401, 411-12 (1970).

A Summary Report from the UNEP Expert Consultationson International Environmental Governance,Sustainable Developments, June 7, 2001, at 5, availableat http://www.iisd.ca/download/pdf/sd/sdvol53num1.pdf.

Daniel C. Esty & Maria H. Ivanova, MakingInternational Environmental Efforts Work: The Case fora Global Environmental Organization 10 (Yale Center forEnvironmental Law and Policy, Working Paper 2/01,May 2001).

Daniel C. Esty, The Case for a Global EnvironmentalOrganization, in Managing the World Economy 287(Peter B. Kenen ed., 1994).

World Bank, 1999 World Development Indicators 242(2000) (providing data about taxes on trade).

C. Ford Runge, A Global Environment Organization(GEO) and the World Trading System, 35 J. World Trade399, 422 (2001).

In correspondence with the author, Esty suggests thaton issues with a mixed scale, global institutions cansupport the global dimension and the more localizeddimensions can be supported by national governments.

See http://tobacco.who.int/ (last visited Feb. 22, 2002).

See Paolo Contini & Peter H. Sand, Methods to ExpediteEnvironment Protection: International Ecostandards, 66

Am. J. Int'l L. 37 (1972); Kenneth W. Abbott & DuncanSnidal, Hard and Soft Law in International Governance,54 Int'l Org. 421, 442-44 (2000).

David G. Victor, How to Slow Global Warming, 349Nature 451, 454- 56 (1991).

John Whalley & Ben Zissimos, What Could a WorldEnvironmental Organization Do?, 1 Glob. Envtl. Pol. 29,30 (2001).

Steve Charnovitz, Rethinking WTO Trade Sanctions,95 Am. J. Int'l L. 792 (2001).

See Richard J. McLaughlin, Settling Trade-RelatedDisputes Over the Protection of Marine LivingResources: UNCLOS or the WTO?, 10 Geo. Int'l Envtl.L. Rev. 29 (1997).

See Compliance and Dispute Settlement Provisions inthe WTO and in Multilateral EnvironmentalAgreements, Note by the WTO and UNEP Secretariats,WTO Doc. WT/CTE/W/191 (June 6, 2001); Peter H.Sand, A Century of Green Lessons: The Contributionof Nature Conservation Regimes to Global Governance,1 Int'l Envtl. Agreements: Pol., Law & Econ. 33, 48-49(2001) (noting that the dispute settlement clauses inMEAs have not been invoked).

Optional Rules for Arbitration of Disputes Relating toNatural Resources and/or the Environment, PermanentCourt of Arbitration (June 2001), available at http://www.pca-cpa.org/EDR/ENRrules.htm.

Declaration of the Group of 77 and China on the FourthWTO Ministerial Conference at Doha, Qatar,Communication from Cuba, WT/L/124, P 26 (Oct. 24,2001

One idea that has been floated is to use the new term"ecolonomy" to describe the nexus between economicsand ecology. See Steve Charnovitz, Living in anEcolonomy: Environmental Cooperation and the GATT,Pacific Basin Research Center, Kennedy School ofGovernment, April 1994; M.K. Rai, Ecolonomy--AnEmerging Discipline for Sustainable Development, 1Ecol., Env't & Conservation 125 (1995).

Anirudha Choudhury and Shagun Mehta, 5th year,Hidayatullah National Law University, Raipur,Chhattisgarh.


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In traditional tribal societies there was no formalsystem of education. The knowledge cultivatedup to that generation was to be handed over tothe upcoming next generation. The necessity oftransfer of knowledge has led them to invent somenovel methods of education. For acquiringtechnical knowledge the youngsters had to do thesame work under supervision of an elder or eldersthrough participation. The art of ploughing,weaving, making of tools and weapons, worksof art, house building, cooking etc. can becategorised as under. Human feelings and literaryknowledge is more of a subtle nature. The feelingsneed a smoother media for expression. The songs,may be the songs of planting, harvesting, childbirth,love and marriage which are examples of thisgenre. To catch the young minds and to train themfor a better understanding of surroundingenvironment, art and other essential riddles werea modest method of education. Riddles are integralpart of almost all the tribal languages.

Kui is a dialect spoken in Kandhamal andits adjoining districts in Orissa. The Kandha tribeand other people residing in the district speak thisdialect. From the time immemorial people havespun various riddles in Kui dialect and use themfor amusement, game and tutoring. The ongoingdiscussion is based on a study of the riddles takenfrom Kui language.

Structure of a riddle:A riddle has no specific given structure. It

can be of a single line prose or a rhyming coupletor few more lines. The most significant characterof a riddle is , the question has some clues whichleads towards the answer or the most probableresemblance. The clues may be symbolic ordescriptive. Riddle is a blend of poetic lucidityand physic-technical trivia. What makes the riddlemore attractive is the touch of humour. The humourmultiplies with the tone, gesture, and style of thespeaker. It is an interactive method of education.Any one who knows a riddle will be on commandto put a hurdle to jump and the counterpart willfeel the pressure. The questioner and the repliercan very often interchange their positions. Thistwo parties can be two individuals or two groupsof people or any one in the group irrespective ofage and sex.Scope of Riddles:

As stated earlier, the riddles are theapplication of lucidity of poetry for educationabout essentials. Education can incorporate anyfield or matter. In other words the scope of riddlesis unbound. It touches the aspects like parts ofbody to open sky, the plants, animals, housemaking, food, drink and what not. The wide rangecovered by riddles can be briefly discussed withfollowing examples:

Riddles : An Informal Method of TribalEducation

Anuja Mohan Pradhan


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Of Human body:Badigara tani kradi Dosamane.It can be translated as A tiger is sleeping

inside the cave. Here the replier has to think firstthat what can be comparable to a cave, but itshould not be empty. It is live, important andalso can be active. But now(normally) it is sleepingi. e. taking rest. Is it within his body or outside ?The answer is tongue. Inside the cave of mouthtongue sleeps and springs into action whenneeded. Is not it a funny observation of a part ofhuman body? When explained, the child gets apermanent imprint of knowledge of what a cave,a tiger, role of a tongue is and its nature.

Rondene patti joreka daranga.It can be translated as-" There is only a

single beam but has two doors (in the house)".The beam in a house is a long sized wood, whichis placed touching two opposite walls. A sketchof tribal house structure can be more explaining.

Pic. A Pic. BIn the picture A the long beams are called patti(pattinga in plural). More than one beam is usedtouching two opposite side walls, normally three,five or seven in number for a bigger house. PictureB has only one beam in slanting position. It is atemporary hut or crop watching house. Hence, asmall house with single beam has no place fortwo doors. This makes the riddle more difficult.The replier has to narrow his possible answers toa slanting object with two openings. The answeris nose, a slanting nose with two nostrils. Somesimilar riddles in this category will be :

As you cut so it grows. (Ans-Hair)

A coconut with seven eyes. (Ans-Head).

Of Plants:Tadi Pimpikadi, mida batakadi.It is translated as ' A thin mother has a fat

child'. Is it possible that a mother is thinner thanher baby ? Is there anything near by ? The answeris "Tuber". A child in this area often sees hismother following a thin creeper to its root anddigs out a fat tuber.

Kali kodi noka mane, rata kodi beotisajine.

Translated as - Two little cows go in a row,the black one leads, red one doth follow. Theriddle makes it clear that there are two objects oran object in two parts with black and red colourback to back. They are approximately of samesize. The black one is always ahead of red. Theanswer is the Marking nut (SemicarpusAnacardium), locally known as gonju and calledbhalia in Oriya. It is a fruit like cashew nut. Theseed is outside the pulp of the fruit. A child inrural area of Kandhamal must have seen hismother bringing ripe bhalia for him along withseeds. Seeds are kept in home as they have agood medicinal use. The riddle can be seenthrough the following sketch.

Cashew Nut Marking Nut (Bhalia)Meedai koditake tadiri mane.Translated as-"The mother weeps when her

child is picked up". It sounds natural. Yet it is ariddle to solve. The answer is the whitish fluidoozes from the stem when a mango is pluckedfrom tree. This riddle not only shows that the treeis the mother, but also potrays an affectionateheart of a mother. Taught from childhood, a childof this area will restrain to cut a fruit-bearing tree.


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Of Tools and Weapons:

The tools and weapons are so closlyassociated with Kui people. Thus, how riddlemakers can ignore these useful objects? Theyoungsters have to be made acquainted with theirshape, nature and use. The axe, agricultural tools,pots for fetching water etc. are well explained inthrough riddles.

Ijoti sajine jainjain na, Oreti bainemaasi aajana.

Translated as, "It goes out very shinning, butreturns home dirty". Is it a shoe? No. A notebook? No. Because both of the things have littleuse among tribal people, at least previously. Theanswer is axe. Before going to work it issharpened to shinning by polishing on a smoothstone. While cutting trees, especially a Saaltree, the lactation makes it black.

Dukuli buda ketanga gaadi trebinenju.

Translated as - " An old man with hunch back,makes round of paddy fields. " The answer ishand spade, a most useful agricultural tool. Theriddle describes its physical structure and itsintended place of use. Thus the riddle gives apractical insight of the implement which a childhas to use in future to earn his livelihood.

Gotodi bejutani tihti potanga sekesekena koksamanu.

Translated as " A wood so bend like a bow,hundreds of sparrows sit in a row. " The answeris a sickle, an implement use for cutting grass,weeds and crops.

Ijoti sajine RitiRitina na, Oreti bainetuutu panjana.

Translated as - " It goes out empty stomach, butreturns belly full. " The answer is pot fetchingwater.

Ijoti sajine tuutu panjana, Oreti baineRiti Ritina na.

Translated as - " It goes out belly full , returnsempty stomach". Is it a contrast of previous one?The reply is the bamboo basket used for carryingcow-dung to the fields.

The riddles were the most interesting andeffective methods of informal education in all thetribal societies. The older generation- grandparents who could not go to work functioned asa sort of modern day play schools, told riddlesto the street children along with stories and songs.The humour element in riddle keeps the childrenin captive attention. A similar picture of informalmethod of education can be seen in the book-Freedom in Exile, autobiography of HisHoliness, Dalai Lama. He describes, "theteachers of a Lama were not only classroomteachers, they acted as sweepers of house, cooketc. whom the child holds in low esteem. Failureto give reply to such person will affect the self-image or ego of the child. Lama and he will puthis effort to down the ridiculing cook. Riddles werealso used as amusing pass time in communityhouse, while taking rest on the way. During socialoccasions, festival times the young boys and girlswere engaged in such conversation. The riddlesor the format can be used in primary education.Some riddles from Kui dialect are given belowfor an amusement reading.

A tick on the elephant's hip. Unless it yawns,Jumbo can't beep.Ans. - Lock of the house.Little policemen, red turban on their heads, Campin every house, One gets up, when you call.Ans. - matchbox.It never changes its place, yet, Travels acrossthe horizons. Ans. - Eyes.


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White little children make a wall, Can you climbit, without a fall ?

Ans. -White ants making ant hill.

Fair little damsel with a slim waist line, Garmentsshe wears, above ninty-nine.

Ans. - Trunk of Banana tree.

Baby starts crying when you take to your arms,Leave it on ground, sleeps in silence.

Ans. -Cattle Dong bell.

A child born with grey hair.

Ans. -Maize.

Two buttocks upon a single leg.

Ans. -Siali (Bauhinia vahili) leaf.

A child rolls on mother's chest.

Ans. -Mortar of pestle.

There are ropes filled in the drum.

Ans. - Intestines of human being

Neither by kick, nor by whip,

Just put your step,

To make it hop.

Ans. - Leg Pound (Dhenki)

Two little brothers so quarrelsome,

Beat each other till they sleep.

Ans- Eye lids

Ten little men out on a hunt,

Only two hit,

Rest beat the bush.

Ans. : Search and killing of louse by pressingbetween two thumbnails.

Dry hard wood at the bottom,

with a stream at the top.

Ans. -Sago palm tree.

It never softens when you boil, Just bake in fire,You can't take it out.

Ans. -Hair.

An old lady looks so dark, Is an expert to makeparched rice.

Ans. -A kendu wood with black bark. It makessparkling sound when put into fire.

An old man, sitting with an umbrella on.

Ans. -Mushroom.

Hairy mother, bald child, Bald mother, hairychild.

Ans. -Hen-Egg-Chick.

Mother looks dark and dirty, Her children, Sovariety, so tasty.

Ans. -Cooking pot.

Single ear of the corn, Weighs a ton.

Ans. - The stem bearing berries of a sago palmtree.

King's carpets, None can roll up.

Ans. -Road.

None can scratch king's pimples.

Ans. -Jack fruit

Monkeys dance in a red cocoon.

Ans. -The flies inside a ripen fig.

No door in the white house.

Ans. -Egg.

Anuja Mohan Pradhan is working in NationalMetallurgical Laboratory, Jamshedpur-831007.


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Satkosia Gorge Sanctuary is the second largestand the 2nd Tiger Reserve of Orissa. It hastremendous genetic and ecological importance asit is the wet portion of Decan Biogeographic zone.It has a significant elephant population in deciduousforests. The sanctuary is also important for beingthe natural habitat of two endangered species offresh water crocodilesviz. Gharial and Muggerand a sizeable populationof Tiger, Leopard, Gaur,Sambar, Chowsinghaand barking deer. Largepopulation of Giantsquirrel is sighted on thecanopy cover of theforest . Rare andendangered birds andbutterflies are verycommon. 22.4 Km. long stretch of SatkosiaGorge of Mahanadi river harbours a largepopulation of varied fishes and aquatic fauna.

Being located at the heart of Orissa, it issurrounded by hundreds of villages and numerousindustries like NALCO, NTPC, TTPS, BhusanSteels & Straps, Jindal steels, besides the coal

mines of Talcher and other small industries. It actsas a carbon sink for them and hence is essentialto protect the environment.

This sanctuary is vulnerable to heavy bioticpressure from surrounding villages such as treefelling, poaching, grazing of live stock, fishing andfire, which are against its sustenance. People living

in and around thesanctuary in more than200 villages depend onit for their livelihood andday to dayrequirements. Theycollect fuel wood,timber, bamboo for theirbonafide use. But theyalso collect Mahuflower, Sal seed,K e n d u l e a v e s ,

Mushroom, Honey and other forest produce tosell in nearest towns. Commercial extraction offorest produce and peoples dependency on themwill threat the conservation of biodiversity in thesanctuary.

Satkosia Gorge of river Mahanadi is thehabitat of endangered Gharial and Mugger as the

Eco-Tourism in Satakosia - A Means ofLivelihood

Harsha Bardhan Udgata


75

gorge is also home of 183 species of fishes andprawn, which are the main food material for them.But nearly 800 traditional fishermen of 20 villagerson river bank depend on river for fishing for theirmeans of livelihood. Tikarpada, Majhipada,Beherasahi, Kuturi, Marada are the few villagesamong them. Unregulated fishing activity not onlydisturbs the breeding biology of the crocodiles,but also limits the food availability for them.Crocodiles die of strangulation in forbidden gillnets used for fishing in the darkness of night. It isagain a question of livelihood going againstconservation of endangered fauna.

Now it has become a challenge for thesanctuary authority how to go for conservationwithout disturbing the livelihood of the dependentpeople. Conservation and livelihood should goside by side to gain the support of local peoplefor existence of the sanctuary.

Non forestry based livelihood options likefishing in pond, poultry, apiculture, tailoring andmushroom cultivation are beneficial, hence theseare promoted by the sanctuary authority throughecodevelopment activities. But livelihood basedon ecotourism is a different type of forest basedactivity which can be carried out not at the costof the forest. It sells the aesthetic value of the forestand wildlife only.

Eco tourism is defined as a responsibletravel to natural areas that conserves theenvironment and improves the welfare of localpeople (The International Ecotourism Society1990). Responsible tourism is that tourism whichmaximizes the benefits to local communities,minimizes negative social or environmental impactsand helps local people conserve fragile cultures,habitats and species.

Tikarpada, a place on the bank of riverMahanadi in Satkosia Gorge Sanctuary is famousin Orissa for its Crocodile Research Center andhas been attracting tourists form different cornerof the country. During winter especially fromOctober to February every year the flow oftourists as well as Picnickers reaches to maximumfor visiting the sanctuary to experience wildernessand see wild animals. The climate during theseason is very much congenial to spend time withinit. Nearly 15000 tourists visit the sanctuary in ayear. But the facilities and infrastructure atTikarpada are not sufficient to provide adequateservices to them.

During 2006, the then Principal Secretaryto Govt. of Orissa in Forest & EnvironmentDepartment Sri S.P.Nanda,IAS and the thenPrincipal Chief Conservator of Forests (Wildlife),Orissa Sri S.C.Mohanty,IFS thought to startcommunity based ecotourism at Tikarpada toprovide visitor facilities like accommodation,fooding, trekking, boating etc. Then a core teamconsisting of Sri A.K.Mohapatra,IFS, the thenConservator of Forests, Angul, Sri SusantaNanda,IFS, the then Divisional Forest Officer,Satkosia Wildlife Division and myself selected asite 2 km down to Tikarpada in the sand dune


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inside river Mahanadi to pitch 10 swiss cottagetents there.

During January, 2007 an ecotourismcomplex was developed there in the name ofGorge Retreat. Ten tents were pitched on the sandenclosed with chain link fence around the complexto prevent unwanted entry of visitors as well aswild animals. Solar street lights were installedin side the complex. All the tents were attachedwith tent toilets which were fitted with 24 hoursrunning water supply. All the tents were wellfurnished with facilities of a star hotel and solarhouse lighting system. Large size umbrella ofappliqué work were fixed in front of each tentwith chairs underneath for the visitors to sit andenjoy the beauty of the gorge. A restaurantattached to a common dinning hall made up oftent was established within the complex to caterfood to the visitors as per their demand out ofmenu chart.

Two fibre power boats were purchasedand placed in the water of gorge to facilitateboating by the visitors. Initially the establishmentcost of nearly fifteen lakh of rupees was borne bythe State Forest Department and the createdassets were handed over to the community toutilize them for their livelihood.

The young boys of Tikarpada village whowere either sitting idle as unemployed or involvedin traditional fishing in the river were organized torun the ecotourism complex. 64 such boys weregrouped to form a registered society in the nameTikarpada Parivesh Paryatan Samiti (TIPPS).They were asked to manage the tent, restaurantand boats and provide necessary services to theecotourists. Selected 22 members of the society

were taken into confidence and various activitiesstarting from reception to food supply and boatingwere distributed among them. The ecotourismcomplex was formally inaugurated on dated20.01.2007 by Sri S.P.Nanda,IAS, PrincipalSecretary to Govt. of Orissa in Forest &Environment Department. During 2006-07 theoccupancy in tents was not upto the mark. Butthe demand for the complex noticeably increasedduring Nov, 2007 to April, 2008. The visitorswere rushing to office of the DFO, SatkosiaWildlife Division for booking of the tents.

The visitors have enjoyed pleasant nightsin the tent, beauty of the Satkosia gorgesurrounded by thick forest, trekking into foresttracks accompanied by guides, Tikarpada brandfish in their dish, chirping of birds and crowing ofthe peacock, call of giant squirrel and sighting ofMuggers and Gharials on the sand near to waterline of the river.

The members of TIPPS were given severaltrainings on Hotel Management by variousinstitutions of Bhubaneswar to build theircapacity. They have learnt to be well dressed,polite in dealings and cordial in rendering services.They were arranging camp fire to every group of


77

visitors in the night and taking them on boating toshow them crocodiles. Since the facility wasseasonal the complex has been temporarily closedsince April, 08 last due to summer. It will againrevive in November.

It has been observed that about 750 statetourists, 300 outside state tourists have stayed intents. 1260 tourists have enjoyed boat riding. Thesociety has earned income from rent of tents,boating fees and restaurant and Rs. 2, 97,125/-as their profit after deducting all working costsincurred during the period.

The 22 members of the community haveshared 65% of net profit i.e. Rs. 1, 93,131 amongthemselves as their remuneration. They have keptbalance 35% of the profit i.e. Rs.1,03,994 in theirsaving account, which will be utilized for theirwelfare activities, maintenance and furtherdevelopment of the infrastructures. Theremuneration has been shared as per the degreeof responsibilities they shouldered. For example,the Manager got 10% share, Security Guards got6% share, Room Boy got 4.25% share, Clerkgot 3% share and so on.

The community which was competing withthe crocodile for their livelihood by way of fishing,could be diverted to such an option which is forestbased but not at its cost. The pressure on riverdue to fishing could be reduced to some extent.The sanctuary as well as forest department havegained the support of local community so far asprotection of wild life is concerned. The

community is providing secret information aboutthe smuggling and poaching and helping the staffin protection of forest and wildlife. They are readyto accept the proposal of the forest departmentfor regulatory fishing in the gorge to protect thehabitat of the Gharials.

Now the local community is interested topromote the ecotourism activity further out of theirsavings in the coming season. They are planningto construct tribal huts made up of bamboo matand mud with its holistic cultural look foraccommodation of tourists besides the existingtent facilities for even extended period. They willopen one souvenir shop to sell traditional smallcrafts to the visitors. They have also planned topurchase one petrol driven vehicle to use it incarrying tourists to forest areas to show them wildanimals and birds.

TIPPS is an example for successfulecotourism in true spirit. They have proved thatecotourism can be adopted as an alternatelivelihood for them which in turn will protect theforest and wildlife. Their endeavour will definitelyencourage people of adjoining villages likePurunakote, Labangi, Pampasar and Baliput ofthe sanctuary to go in for ecotourism as a meansof livelihood.

Harsha Bardhan Udgata,OFS is working as Asst.Conservator of Forests, Satkosia Wildlife Division,Angul.


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Bio means life and diversity means variations. Soin general term biodiversity means range ofvariations among all form of life whether plantsand animals. It is very complex in nature. Till todaywe do not know how many species of plants andanimals exist in this living world .Some Scientistssay that it is in between 10 to 80 millions. Out ofthat only 1.7 millions have been identified andgiven scientific names. So from this it can beimagined how complex is the biodiversity of theworld. Biodiversity can be expressed in terms ofgenetic and species diversity. The genetic diversityleads to formation of new species in the processof natural selection through chromosomal mutationin the process of Sexual Reproduction. Thespecies diversity may be within the species (lntra-specific) or in between the species( Inter-specific).Lot of variations are observed in any biologicalecosystems.

Loss of Biodiversity

Any biological system or ecosystem isdynamic in nature. It is never static. It changescontinuously. So at any point of time there maybe continuous growth. After some time the systemreaches its peak and then vanishes. It is the lawof the nature. Darwin's theory of evolution ofspecies says that one species is lost when it cannot cope up with the new surroundings. Anotherspecies is created. But this process is very slow

The Need for Biodiversity Conservation andForest Biodiversity of Kalahandi

District of OrissaManoranjan Pattanayak

and takes millions of years. But due to excessiveaction of the human being this process isexaggerated now. For example according to asurvey from tropical forest 5 plant species arelost in each hour. The species extinction hasgrown to such an extent that the survival of humanbeing is at risk.

Due to excessive exploitation of the naturalresources, loss of biodiversity is taking place atan alarming rate. Some of the major reason ofloss of biodiversity are:

1. Deforestation is the major cause of loss ofbiodiversity.

2. Shifting cultivation in Forest area leads todestruction of Forest biodiversity.

Forest Biodiversity Sal Forest, Kalahandi


79

its natural state. So that there is healthy competitionamong the species.

2. Ex-situ Conservation:- This method saysthat the conservation process is done outside thenatural habitat of the plant or animal population.Some population of animals or group of plantsare maintained in captivity or in cultivation. Theestablishment of different Botanical Garden andZoological Parks are examples of this method.The biggest ex-situ conservation of animals is theNandankanan Zoological Park at Barang nearBhubaneswar. This method is very cost effectiveand constant monitoring is necessary for itsmaintenance. Some of the major points ofbiodiversity conservation are:

l. Sustainable use of Biodiversity

2. Conservation of Medicinal Plants

3. Restoration of damaged ecosystem

4. Motivation of Local people

5. Utilisation of waste land for indigenousspecies.

6. Awareness among school children throughEco-club

Forest Biodiversity of Kalahandi district

Let us come to the forest biodiversity ofKalahandi district. The district of Kalahandioccupies the south-west portion of Orissa. It isbounded on the north by Bolangir, south byNowrangpur and east by Kandhamal district andon west Chhatisgarh State.

Forest are renewable resources coveringmillions of living organisms of both plants andanimals living in perfect harmony with nature. Thetropical forest are considered as the mostbiodiversity rich vegetation of the world. Theseconstitute only 7% of total land surface of theworld. The Forest of Kalahandi displays a great

3. Increase in livestock population.

4. Destruction of mangrove forest for shrimpcultivation.

5. Diversion of forest land for industry.

6. Loss of evergreen forest area forconversion to tea cultivation.

7. Illicit removal of trees from forests.

Biodiversity Conservation:

The World Conservation Strategy givesthree basic objectives for natural resourcesconservation. They are:

a. Preservation of genetic diversity

b. Maintenance of essential ecological process

c. Sustainable use of natural resources

The United Nations' Organization(U.N.O.) conference on environment anddevelopment was held at Rio, Brazil in 1992. Itemphasized the conservation of rich biodiversityof the world. The biodiversity of plant speciesmaintains the rainfall level. It regulates climate andenvironment stability. Broadly the biodiversityconservation may be categorized into two types:

1. In-situ Conservation:- This methodemphasizes that the biodiversity is conserved in

Dry deciduous Forest Biodiversity


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floristic diversity due to wide variation oftopography, altitude, climate and soil. Mostly itbelongs to Tropical forest both dry and moist.During Summer season, forest become leafless.The presence of 'Sal' in this district is veryremarkable. The natural occurrence of both 'Sal'and teak known as ecotone is specialcharacteristic of this district.

According to Champion and Sethclassification of Forest type of India, followingforest types are seen. Besides there are numeroussubtypes also.

(a) Tropical Moist deciduous Forest:

This forest type is seen in M.Rampur,Thuamul Rampur and Narla area. Some plantspecies are Xylia xylocarpa, Alstonia scholaris,Adina cordifolia, Terminalia tomentosaPterocarpus marsupium Syzygium cumini,Terminalia Arjuna Terminalia hellerica etc.

(b) Southern dry deciduous forest: -

This type of forest is seen in Kegaon,Kesinga area. Some plant species are Boswelliaserrata, Acacia catechu, Cassia fistula,Lagerstroemia parvifolia, Anogeissus latifolia,Aegle marmelos, Delbergia paniculata etc.

(c) Dry bamboo breaks:

It is found in Th.Rampur part of KarlapatKegaon area. The bamboos are found forming apure crop in steep and dry hills which weresubjected to shifting cultivation in the past. Thecommon species is Dendrocalamus strictus.

Mixed dry deciduous Forest at Kesinga

The Forest of Kalahandi has got SouthIndian affinity. The rare type of flora and faunaare unique in its habitat. So proper steps may betaken for safeguard of these unique biodiversityto save it from further degradation.

References :l. Revised Survey of Forest Types of India by Harry

G.Champion and S.K.Seth. Nataraj publishers,Dehradun, India.

2. Orissa District Gazetteer, Kalahandi Districtby Sri NilamaNi Senapati, Govt of Orissa.

3. Principle and Practice of Silviculture by L.S.Khanna, Dehradun, India.

4. Our Environment by Leeq Fatehally. Nationalbook Trust, New Delhi.

Manoranjan Pattanayak is working as Forest RangeOfficer, Kesinga in the District of Kalahandi.

ORISSA REVIEWVOL. LXIV NO. 11 JUNE - 2008

BIJOY CHANDRA JENA, I.A.S.Commissioner-cum-Secretary

BAISHNAB PRASAD MOHANTYDirector-cum-Joint Secretary

SASANKA SEKHAR PANDAJoint Director-cum-Deputy Secretary

Editor

BIBEKANANDA BISWALAssociate Editor

Editorial AssistanceBibhu Chandra Mishra

Debasis PattnaikSadhana Mishra

Bikram Maharana

Manas R. NayakCover Design & Illustration

Hemanta Kumar SahooManoj Kumar Patro

D.T.P. & Design

Raju SinghManas Ranjan Mohanty

Photo

The Orissa Review aims at disseminating knowledge and information concerning Orissa ssocio-economic development, art and culture. Views, records, statistics and information publishedin the Orissa Review are not necessarily those of the Government of Orissa.

Published by Information & Public Relations Department, Government of Orissa,Bhubaneswar - 751001 and Printed at Orissa Government Press, Cuttack - 753010.

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CONTENTS

Similipal Biosphere : Genesis of Historicity Samarendu DasBalabhadra Prasad Das ... 1

Dolphins of Chilika Prof. Prafulla Kumar MohantyDr. Sanjaya Narayan Otta ... 21

Growth and Development of Chhau Dance in Orissa Basanta Kumar Mohanta ... 27

On - Farm Water Management in Orissa D. PanigrahiS.K. Mishra ... 33

Elephants in Art, Architecture and History of Orissa Debabrata Swain ... 36

A Lotus Blossomed in a Compost Pit Ishwar Chandra Mohapatra ... 50

Is Water Divining A Science ? Praphu Kalyan Mohapatra ... 55

Global Warming : A Threat to Future Generation Shashank Sekhar Panigrahi ... 57

The Need for a World Enviornment Anirudha ChoudhuryShagun Mehta ... 63

Riddles : An Informal Method of Tribal Education Anuja Mohan Pradhan ... 70

Eco-Tourism in Satakosia - A Means of Livelihood Harsha Bardhan Udgata ... 74

The Need for Biodiversity Conservation and ForestBiodiversity of Kalahandi District of Orissa Manoranjan Pattanayak ... 78

Documents

Similipal Biosphere : Genesis of Historicitymagazines.odisha.gov.in/Orissareview/2008/June-2008/...Kotta, the present Khiching. These two ruling families had close social and cultural