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Biodiversity

and Forests

in Sikkim:

Linkages

with

sustainability

and well-

being of

people

June 30 2012

The background paper highlights the human dimension of utilization,

management and governance of biodiversity, forests, and other natural

resources in Sikkim. The paper reviews the current and future prospects,

issues and threats to biodiversity and forest conservation and its likely

implications on the lives of people of the state. Finally, the report provides a

critical overview of the Sikkim’s forest policies and suggests

recommendations as a way forward to sustainable development and green

growth.

Background

paper for Sikkim

Human

Development

Report 2012

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OVERVIEW

Sikkim is the second smallest state of India after Goa in terms of size- 7096 sq. km (0.22% of size of

India) and smallest in terms of population- 6,07,000 ( In 2011 or 0.05% of India’s population). Wedged

between Tibet Autonomous Region of China to the north and east, Bhutan to the south-east, Indian

state of West Bengal to south; the landlocked state of Sikkim shares international border with China,

Nepal and Bhutan. From being a protectorate, Sikkim became part of the Indian union in year 1975. Bio-

geographically Sikkim is predominantly mountainous terrain being part of lesser Himalayan zone, with

elevation ranging from 250 meters to 8500 meters, the highest peak being the Khangchendzonga which

is also the highest peak in India and third highest in the world.

1.1 The climate of Sikkim is highly varied due to factors related to wide

range of elevation which plays a primary role in determining climate and

also partly due to diverse configuration of surrounding high mountains,

valleys and water bodies which produces variety of climatic conditions

from sub-tropical humid type to temperate alpine and arctic type. The

average temperature of the state varies from sub-zero during winter to 28

degrees centigrade during summers. Rainfall varies from 2700 mm to

3200 mm.

1.2 Originally the land of Lepchas, Sikkim society bears strong influence of

Tibetan Lamaic traditions that came with Tibetan Buddhists. The

benevolent rule of early Lepchas kings and later Buddhist influence has shaped the social and political

evolution of the state into a peace loving society that has retained strong bonds with nature and

environment. The state today is a beacon of peace in largely volatile and restive north-eastern region of

India.

1.3 With the total population of 607,000 (2011) the state has overall low population density of 76

persons per sq. km spread across the four districts of the states- North district, South district, East

district and West district. The population density shows large variations across the four districts; with

the relatively densely populated (257 persons per sq. km) and most developed East district with capital

city Gangtok to very sparse density (10 persons per sq km) in the North district.

1.4 The economy of Sikkim is predominantly rural (over 88% population live in rural area) with a strong

agrarian base, showing little diversification in industries and manufacturing sector. Over 80% of the

population is directly and indirectly dependent on agriculture and allied sector, and rest in

manufacturing and service sector. The state suffers from poor infrastructure with weak communication-

lowest road density per 1000 km, lack of efficient health and education system and weak manufacturing

and skill base. The weak economic status is reflected in low per capita power utilization at 192 kwh

(India average 354) and poor investment climate of the state. Sikkim is the only state of India which

presently does not have rail and air connection with rest of the nation (though a proposed airport is

coming soon near the capital city of Gangtok).

Figure 1

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1.5 As of in financial year 2011 the nominal State GDP of Sikkim is INR 5652 crore (0.08% of India’s GDP),

exhibiting one of the highest growth rate among the states at 19.24 percent and high per capita income

of nearly INR 49,000 per annum which is second highest in the north-eastern region after Arunachal

Pradesh and higher than per capita income of states like Jharkhand, Bihar, Orissa and UP. The budgetary

deficit at just over 2 percent is one of the lowest among the states of the country.

1.6 The state’s economic growth rate picked up during IX plan at 8.3 percent and is expected to grow at

7.9 percent during X plan which is higher than the national average. While good showing in agriculture

has helped in boosting the rate, the real driver for growth has been the service sector which has

benefitted from tremendous expansion in sectors like tourism. Though the poverty rates in year 1999-

2000 assessment showed very high poverty rate at 36.6 percent, latest poverty estimates indicate sharp

decline in poverty levels to about half at 16 percent.

1.6 On the social indicators side, the state shows strong performance with literacy rates at 68.8 percent

(India- 64%), and similarly on health with lower than national average fertility rate and infant mortality

rate. However the sex ratio at 875 is lower than the national average.

1.7 Rice, maize and buck wheat are main crops grown on terrace cultivation with channel irrigation as

main source. The average productivity is much below the national average due to lack of application of

modern agriculture techniques arising from constraints related to the mountainous terrain and poor

agriculture infrastructure such as irrigation, weak input supply and poor market support. As a result

Sikkim is food deficient and has to depend on import from rest of the country to feed its growing

population. Among cash crop, Sikkim is the largest producer of large cardamom (4500 MT) producing

more than 88 percent of India’s total production and half of global production. Recent years have

witnessed decline in large cardamom productivity owing to large scale pest attacks on cardamom crop

across the state. Animal husbandry is another major sector of rural livelihood though it has seen

significant decline since the past decade after ban on grazing in the forest areas by the state

government.

1.8 Over the past decade the public policy has largely veered towards providing huge subsidies to

people below poverty line to cover range of welfare measure including provision of low-priced food-

grain, distribution of livelihood assets like cows, pigs, supply of fuel efficient chulhas and giving out LPG

cylinders and such. Though the subsidies have stemmed migration from rural to urban areas and

reduced pressure on forest resources, it has inevitably strained the fiscal balance with huge public debt

which is mostly offset through central funding to Sikkim under the special category status for being

member of north-eastern group of states.

1.9 Sikkim enjoys special status under article 371 F of the constitution of India which broadly recognizes

and provides safeguards to protect unique ethnic character of Sikkim and preservation of its traditional

laws. The Article guarantees several privileges to Sikkim in terms of local autonomy on governance, laws

restricting people of non-Sikkimese origin to settle and conduct business in the state, provisions related

to central taxation and special role of state Governor and legislature.

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Economic growth and environment: making strategic choices

1.9 For a small, land-locked, mountainous and remote state like Sikkim blessed with abundant natural

resources, the strategic choices for future economic development are critically poised. The real

challenge for the development planners is to frame policies that maintain the critical balance between

conservation of natural resources and at the same time spur economic growth to help large population

escape from poverty and unemployment. Owing to the boundaries Sikkim shares with three countries to

its North, West and East, there is large presence of defense and paramilitary forces in the state. Most of

the high altitude areas are occupied by these forces and the pressure on these fragile ecosystems from

their presence cannot be undermined. Improper garbage management practices, burning of

rhododendrons for firewood and the increase in number of feral dogs are some of the challenges that

need to be overcome.

1.9.1 High population growth rate in the decade of 70’s and 80’s has put enormous pressure on Sikkim’s

natural resources from increasing demand of land for settlement and agriculture. Due to widespread

poverty, there was intense and unsustainable pressure on forests for fuelwood, fodder and medicinal

plants for subsistence and commercial use. Small scale mining activities and demand of land for

development purpose was also causing diversion of forest land and loss of biodiversity resources. A

change in government in the state in mid 90’s led to a turning point with conservation agenda pitch-

forked at the forefront followed with a slew of new policy measures firmly supporting conservation

through increased public investment in improving natural resource base, putting a halt to green felling

and timber export and subsidizing services like rural energy supply, promoting livelihood diversification

for reducing pressure on forest. The ban on grazing activities in all Protected Areas and Reserved Forest

in 1998 was further aimed at reducing cattle population to arrest further degradation of forests. Though

such policy decisions have potential political cost it has given strong signal to stakeholders on the state

government’s firm commitment towards conservation of biodiversity.

1.9.2 Land is a highly scarce resource in Sikkim. Devising a balanced land use policy presents a pressing

challenge in view of rising demand for land from growing population for settlement, agriculture,

infrastructure development and other economic activities. The land use pattern of Sikkim is strongly

influenced by the elevation, climate and mountainous terrain, especially in the field of agriculture and

forestry. Forest is the main land use in the state and nearly 40% (reserve + private) of the geographical

area is under varying forest densities cover followed by alpine barren land, snow and glaciers. The

cultivated land is approximately 11% of the total geographical area (776.74km2) and is confined to

altitude less than 2000m. Around 70% of the cultivated land (541.44ha) is terraced/semi-terraced and

remaining is under fallow/scrub. The planning decisions may not always be scientific because of conflicts

among sectoral interests, government policies and the priorities of landowners. Therefore, planning

decisions for implementation should be based on compromisation among several interests without

risking the principles of land capability, sustainability and environmental security for agriculture, forests,

horticulture, grasslands, urban development, mining, infrastructure facilities, recreation and others.

1.9.3 To balance imperative on conservation with sustainable economic development, and to leverage

its comparative advantage in abundant natural resources, Government of Sikkim as a policy has selected

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eco-tourism and hydropower as key sector for growth and employment generation. Over the years,

hydropower development on rivers like Teesta has generated clean energy and growing eco-tourism has

provided direct and indirect employment to large section of population

1.10 Biodiversity and natural resources

Sikkim is a part of Eastern Himalayas and is listed among one of the 34 Global Biodiversity Hotspots. The

small state is endowed with rich natural resources, represented in its huge floral and faunal biodiversity,

abundant water resources, streams, rivers and glaciers and plentiful forest cover. With over 500 species

of orchids, 4500 species of flowering plants, 27 mountain peaks, 21 glaciers and 227 lakes, Sikkim is

home to amazing range of biodiversity many of which are endemic in nature.

1.10.1 Due to varied elevation and climate, Sikkim has four distinct eco-regions - tropical, sub-tropical,

temperate and trans-Himalayan. The exceptional biodiversity in small area of less than 100 km stretch is

result of states’ unique bio-geographic location with Tibet in north to Bay of Bengal in south; former

climatically influencing cold desert region of north and later the moist deciduous features of south.

Sikkim is the only such example of bio-geographic zone in India and perhaps among few in the world

having such range of ecological conditions from tropical moist to temperate and alpine zone in such

small geographical area. The mountainous terrain of Sikkim with varying altitude, variety in elevation

and aspect creates innumerable pockets of unique micro-climatic conditions, ecology and eco-tones

nurturing wide ranging physical and climatic scenarios for unmatched biodiversity and endemism. The

state is also home to large variety of unique ecosystems like high, mid and low altitude lakes and

wetlands, pastureland, alpine meadows making a mosaic of immensely valuable natural resource base.

The state is a valuable repository of national biodiversity wealth and therefore has seminal importance

in the country’s biodiversity conservation strategy.

1.10.2 As a result of the biodiversity conservation measures, Sikkim has over 47 percent of area under

tree cover which is one of the highest in India both in terms of proportion to geographical area of state

and per capita forest cover. Over 77 percent forest cover in Sikkim falls under dense or moderately

dense category which is again among the highest for any state in India. Sikkim is the only state in the

north-east which has not lost its forest cover over the past assessment which again indicates its

successful efforts on conservation of forest resources.

1.10.3 Out of approximately 1200 orchid species found in India, Sikkim is repository of over 523 species

and one of the richest hot-spots for orchid diversity in Indian Himalaya. Sikkim is home to 4458 of the

15000 flowering plants, nearly one-third in the country and 50% of India’s of Pteridophytes. Sikkim

jointly with Darjeeling hills has been blessed with rich diversity of medicinal plants of over 700 medicinal

plant species found in the region.

1.10.4 The rhododendrons are a great indicator of forest health and ecological stability and out of nearly

72 rhododendron species in North-east India Sikkim is known to have 36. Due to human interference the

natural populations of rhododendrons in the entire Himalaya are gradually diminishing. The major

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threats to rhododendrons are deforestation and unsustainable extraction for firewood and incense by

local people.

1.10.5 Sikkim’s diverse faunal base includes 150 species of mammals (India 484), 550 species of birds

(India 1222), and 9627 species of butterflies (India 19254) in addition to many reptiles, amphibians and

insects. Some of the Red Data Book mammal species are red panda, snow leopard, clouded leopard,

musk deer, Tibetan wolf, red fox, Indian wild dog, hog badger, Tibetan sheep or argali, Tibetan gazelle,

serow, goral, and Tibetan wild ass.

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500, 15%

2161, 64%

696, 21%

20, 0%VeryDense

ModeratelydenseOpenforest

Treecover

COMMUNITIES AND FORESTS

Sikkim is a land of pristine environment with refreshing air, covered with luxuriant forests, sparkling

streams, dotted with glaciers, and scores of lakes and wetlands all teeming with rich biodiversity. Forest

is a vital resource for socio-economic development of the state as it constitutes the largest land-use

category. Much more important than the economic resource, the forest in Sikkim is home to its 0.6

million people, bearer of their local culture and traditions and in many ways a basis of Sikkimese

identity. The human development and to a great

extent the well being and happiness and quality of life

of the people of the state is critically linked to its

forest resources and therefore maintaining ecological

balance, protecting forest cover and conserving

biodiversity is a key to progress of the state.

1.1 Over 82% percent (5841 sq km) of geographical

area of Sikkim is under jurisdiction of forest

administration which is among the highest proportion

for any state in India (Fig 2). The forest cover

constitutes 47.59 percent (93190 ha) of geographical

area of the state and Protected Area is over 30 percent

of the geographical area. Of the total forest cover in

the state over 93 percent is Reserved Forest and 6.6

percent is Protected Area (PA). The per capita forest

and tree cover at 0.63 ha is among the highest in country. Nearly 30 percent of the land area in north is

under permanent snow cover where tree and vegetation is not possible due to physical and climatic

condition.

1.2 The forest cover of Sikkim is in general of very good quality with over 77 percent forest falling under

very dense and moderately dense category (Fig 3). Overall South Sikkim has highest proportion of area

under forest cover (76.13%), followed by East Sikkim (73.27%)

and high altitude region of north Sikkim has lowest proportion

of forest cover (31.12%). East Sikkim has highest proportion of

forest under very dense category (23%) followed by west

Sikkim (14.2%). East Sikkim is also the densest populated region

of the state.

1.3 Based on Champion and Seth classification, Sikkim has 11

forest types belonging to 6 forest type groups- Tropical Moist

Deciduous, Sub-tropical broad leaved hill, Montane wet

temperate, Himalayan Moist Temperate, Sub- Alpine forest and

Moist Alpine scrub. In terms of area, Sub-tropical broad leaved hill forest, Montane wet temperate

forest and sub-Alpine forest type each constitute approx one-fourth and together a total of three-fourth

proportion of forest cover.

Figure 2

Figure 3

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0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

Elevation wise Forest Cover

OF

MDF

VDF

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

Year1975 Year 1987 Year 1995 Year 2005 Year 2009

1.4 Elevation wise nearly 66% of forest cover is between 1000-3000m which is mostly under category of

Montane wet temperate and Himalayan moist

temperate forest group (Fig 4). Nearly 20% of forest

in 1000-3000m altitude is under very dense

category.

1.5 From the data available from the Forest Survey

of India (State of Forest Report 2011) which

inventoried east and north Sikkim for period of six

years 2002-’08, the total Tree outside Forest (ToF) in

Sikkim is spread over 20 sq km or 0.28% of

geographic area of the state. These trees outside

forests are important resource for fodder and

fuelwood for the local population.

2. Trends in forest cover

Based on latest data available from the Forest Survey of India (FSI) Status of Forest Report (2011), there

has been an overall loss of forest cover in north-east states from baseline of year 2009 with exception of

Sikkim which has been able to keep its forest cover intact. Since 2009 north-eastern states like Manipur

and Nagaland have lost massive forest areas; 190 and 146 sq km respectively, whereas Sikkim recorded

zero net loss of forest cover in all four districts bucking the national and regional trends.

2.1 Two factors seem to be responsible for general trend of forest loss in north eastern states - militancy

and practices like shifting cultivation. In fact regions infested with left extremism like Andhra Pradesh

have also suffered massive loss of forest cover, suggesting possible link of militancy with forest

destruction. Sikkim is among the most peaceful state of India and has proactive policy thrust on forest

and biodiversity conservation that has

yielded rich dividends on forest growth1.

2.2 The recorded forest area of Sikkim

since 1975 has consistently depicted an

upward trend (Fig 5) with maximum

growth of over 5 percentage point in 8

years time period between 1987-’95.

2.3 The bold policy decision like ban on

green felling and ban on cattle grazing in

1 From website: i) http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Green-cover-fading-in-Red-zone-Northeast/Article1-808199.aspx

ii) http://isikkim.com/2012-02-green-cover-fades-in-entire-northeast-except-sikkim-fsi-2012-08-02/

Figure 4

Figure 5: Forest cover trend over years

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Case 1: Role of EDC in Fambong Lho Sanctuary

Situated very close to capital city of Gangtok, Fambong Lho

sanctuary is home to endangered Red Panda, the state animal

and to host of other endangered fauna like black bear, barking

deer besides scores of colorful birds. 10 Eco Development

Committees have been formed for Fambong Lho Wildlife

Sanctuary covering all Gram Panchayat Units around it, with

members constituted from only those wards that border with

the sanctuary. In a study conducted by WWF India to assess the

effectiveness of these EDC found that- i) In many cases the

prescribed democratic processes for constitution,

representation and functioning of EDCs were not being

followed ii) there was general lack of capacity and lack of clarity

among EDC members on their roles and responsibilities iii)

members felt they lacked real power to act against forest

offenders. In many cases the EDCs believed that their role is

limited to plantation in forest and not much is happening for

employment or income generation. EDC members expressed

that the forest have regenerated and are getting very dense on

account of their contribution through protection and plantation

but they will not have any right over any product like fodder,

fuelwood and other NTFPs over the same forest which they

helped to regenerate. Further due to restoration of forest there

has been and increase in wildlife which members believe has

led to increasing incidence of Human Wildlife Conflict (HWC).

all Protected Areas, Reserved Forest, plantation and water source areas by the state government in

1998 is among the major factor behind arrest of deforestation and degradation of forest. As a result of

ban on grazing there was 30 percent decline in cattle population inside the forested areas that led to

restoration of large patch of degraded forest and a result, today there is significant proportion of forest

cover (7%) that is very dense.

2.4 If we take the recent figures indicating dramatic fall in poverty level in the state to about half at 16

percent population below poverty line, Sikkim seem to emerge as a model state in the region

illuminating pathways to sustainable development while protecting its natural resources.

3. Forest Management

The main object of forest management is towards conservation and enhancement of forest cover to

enable it to perform effective ecosystem services like soil conservation, sustaining hydrological balance;

supporting biodiversity conservation and provide effective resilience towards the climate change

impacts.

3.1 To achieve above, the forest management is geared towards expanding and improving forest and

tree cover through afforestation schemes, rehabilitation of degraded forest through participatory

management, reducing human and cattle pressure on forest and promoting nature education. The state

vision is to use forest and environment as a strategic resource to be harnessed for sustainable

development through responsible eco-tourism without compromising on conservation.

3.2 Over 82 percent of the geographical area of

Sikkim is under the administrative control of

Forest Department. Of this, 82 percent is under

Reserved Forest category and 2 percent

Khasmahal (285 sq. Km) and Gaucharan (104 sq.

Km). Sikkim has 1 National Park and 7 wildlife

sanctuaries covering 2179 sq.Km (30.7% of state

geographic area).

3.3 The forest manual drafted in the British

period, which has been supplemented from time

to time, has served as a statute book since 1909,

when it was first compiled. According to this

manual, no rights and concessions to the people

exist as far as Reserve (government) Forests are

concerned. As far as Private Estate forests are

concerned, all rights devolve upon the owner,

landlords and their tenants. In the case of

Khasmahal forests, people have the right to free

supply of timber and firewood but this can be

availed only after obtaining formal permission

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Case 2: Himal Rakshak- Guardians of high mountains

from the Forest Department. In Gorucharan Forests, local people have the right of free grazing and

collection of deadwood and fodder. After the Forest Conservation Act of 1980 was implemented in

Sikkim, it became mandatory to acquire permission from the government for any activities in the forest

area. Legal diversion is now possible only for public forests while for private forestland this permission is

not required.

3.4 In line with the National Forest Policy 1988, Sikkim has embarked on process to engage with local

community for protection and management of forest. To this end, 155 Joint Forest Management

Committees (JFMCs) and 47 Eco Development Committees (EDC) have been constituted across the

state. A JFMC is formed for a village or a cluster of villages situated adjacent to Reserved Forests (RF)

and is registered with the concerned Territorial Divisional Forest Office. Likewise an EDC is formed for a

village or a cluster of villages situated adjacent to Protected Areas, such as National Park or Wildlife

Sanctuary and is registered with the respective Wildlife Divisional Forest Office.

3.5 The main objective of the JFMC/ EDC is to collaborate with Forest Department for protection and

management of forest. The JFMCs/EDCs are required to prepare micro-plan for their village, carry out

plantation in forests for regeneration and conduct patrolling to prevent forest offences. However there

is a strong need to strengthen policy-legal framework, and address institutional weaknesses, as

currently these Committees are not able to exercise much control over forest resources. In absence of

genuine democratic process not much decentralization of power that has taken place (Case study 1).

3.6 To address some of the concerns on incentives to JFMCs/EDCs, the Forest Department is in process of initiating a programme where these institutions would be involved in facilitating and providing services to eco-tourists to generate income. However due to weak process of policy convergence, in this case between forest department and Tourism Department may prove to be a serious lacuna to achieve desired result on ground.

About 60 percent of Sikkim’s land area is above 3000m which falls under Protected Areas and Reserve Forests with

sub-alpine and alpine vegetation. This region is called Himal (meaning snow clad area) and is home to large

number of threatened floral and faunal species and biodiversity like snow leopard, musk deer, black necked crane

and host of medicinal plants. This region is critical for food and water security of population in low and middle

altitude as most rivers and streams are fed from water sources located in this region. The region has largely harsh

climate and therefore has poor infrastructure. Unlike lower altitude, constituting JFMCs/EDCs and intensive

patrolling by the state Forest Department is not feasible in this region and therefore there is always a threat of

poaching wild animals, illegal extraction of medicinal plants, bio-piracy and degradation of vegetation. Realizing

the challenges of remote physical conditions, the Forest Department has initiated the process to recruit Himal

Rakshak (Protectors of Himal) from among the local pastoralists and herders who use the forests for grazing and

subsistence purpose. The Himal Rakshaks patrol forest, prevent poaching and destruction of wildlife habitat, stop

illegal extraction of medicinal plants, check bio-piracy and spread awareness among people on nature

conservation. They are provided identity cards and are trained by the Forest Department and their partners to

carry out patrolling in their allotted area and take action against forest offenders. However lack of incentives for

the Himal Rakshaks, which is now purely a voluntary venture on part of the members, is a serious concern that has

to be addressed to ensure sustainability. Regular capacity building of the members is also required which will help

build their motivation and gain recognition from the state.

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4. Forest and people: dependence and relationship

For the people of Sikkim, the forests are their nourishing mother. As in a remote, land-locked and

mountainous region, the people of Sikkim share a unique cultural, ecological and economic relation with

the forest which is strongly embedded in local history and traditions. The social, political and cultural

institutions of Sikkim bear a very strong imprint of its physical environment as these institutions have

evolved with the need of people to survive in their immediate geographical setting. While the physical

environment of Sikkim has shaped its social and political organizations, the interface of institutions itself

has been dynamic in nature responding to changing socio-economic landscape over the past decades.

The remoteness of the land with less outside influence has contributed to the evolution of its unique

social-political ecology that is based on shared value of love of nature and preservation of natural

heritage. Due to relatively sparse population the conflict over abundant resources has been low and

further due to unique challenges of mountain lives, the abiding value has been of amity and

cooperation. The Lamaic Buddhist traditions have influenced moderation in outlook and a respect for

nature and its symbols. As the local people believe, the great Buddhist saint Padmasambhava has

blessed the land of Sikkim.

In the following section on people’s dependence on forest, a short description is being provided on

economic relation of community with forest, impact of anthropogenic pressure, the emerging scenario

with Human-Wildlife Conflict (HWC) and finally a perspective on role of forest on the overall well-being

of the people of the state. There is a general lack of data for Sikkim on Non-Timber Forest Produce

(NTFP) utilization and markets and on issues related to impact of human activities on forest and

biodiversity as most of the past researches have focused on medicinal plants and biodiversity.

4.1 The broad state level scenario on livelihood is- cultivation of large cardamom in sub-tropical zones,

cattle rearing in temperate and alpine zone especially in the western region around the

Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve (KBR). Tourism has brought prosperity in some pockets especially

in temperate zone and around the KBR. The ethnic diversity is also reflected in general livelihoods

pattern with Gurung and Mangers working mostly as shepherds, maximum population of Bhutias are

traders and yak herders, Rai, Lepchas and Limboos hunter gatherers and shifting cultivators, Chhetris

and Bauns agro-pastoralists and herders and Tibetan Dokpas are nomadic yak and sheep herders in the

trans-Himalayas.

4.2 The people of Sikkim have traditional dependence on forest for food, fodder, medicines, fibers,

construction material and for livelihood and cash income. The cultural and social lives of people are also

closely intertwined with the forests in way that the two are inseparable. The local folklore, indigenous

knowledge and traditions have a strong linkage with the forests and its associated flora and fauna. The

nature and degree of local dependence on forest varies with location, altitude, local floral and faunal

resources and with other factors like eco-tourism and trekking pressure.

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4.3 In general, forest fringe communities and upland farmers are more dependent on NTFPs for their

livelihood compared to lowland farmers as opportunities for agriculture are less developed in the upland

than at the lower altitude which leads to great dependency of former on forests. For local community

NTFPs are important for: a) earning cash income; b) satisfying household needs such as fodder,

medicine, shelter, and other household goods; 3) sourcing traditional agricultural inputs such as leaf

litter, wild plants, small tools and water; and 4) obtaining supplementary foods such as roots, tubers,

vegetables, fruits and grains for the family.

4.4 Research in the KBR which occupies over one-third of the geographical area of Sikkim shows that

nearly 80 percent of the fringe communities are dependent on agriculture and pastoralism as source of

income. Due to restriction on grazing and limitations of hill cultivation, together with pressure of rising

population and fragmented families, there are serious strains on livelihood security of the families.

4.5 In a research carried out in buffer zone of KBR, it was revealed that due to the mountainous terrain

and difficulties in communication, communities living in the area uses large number of plants as foods,

vegetables, ingredients for house construction and medicines to cure serious diseases, sprains, cuts and

fractures since ancient time. NTFPs available in these forests are important alternative to livelihood of

the local communities. They consist of house construction materials, edible fruits and vegetables,

medicinal plants, fiber, broom grass and natural decorative.

4.6 The above survey recorded ninety-four species of NTFPs. Of these about 8% of the enlisted species

were found to use for construction purposes; 45%species as wild edibles; 33% as medicinal purpose, 8%

as decorative and 5% as fiber and incense. Among these, above 50% NTFPs were found marketed and

among them majority were wild edibles and medicinal herbs.

Table 1: Common NTFPs in buffer zone of KBR

Category NTFP Uses Occurrence

Construction and local

handicrafts

Bamboo Construction of houses,

bridges and fences

Mostly cultivated, occurs

in community forest and

reserve forest, between

1700-2750m

Edible fruits and other

food

Young bamboo shoots

Making vegetable and

pickles

”

Seven edible varieties of

mushroom

Local delicacy, source of

nutrition

In forests and roadside

young shoots of

Pentapanax leschenaultii,

leaves- Girardinia

palmate, Urtica dioica and

flowers of Tupistra nutans

Eaten as

vegetables or made

pickles and also have

medicinal value

In reserve forests

Diplazium spp. (wild ferns) used as vegetables Moist and shady places;

also marketed

Dioscorea sp. Yams used for edible In private and community

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purpose forest

Fodder

Bamboo leaves Livestock fodder Mostly cultivated

leaves of Machilus edulis,

M. odoratissima, Basia

butyracea and Bauhinia

variegata offer a good

fodder for cattle

Cattle fodder In reserve forest

Medicinal plants (31

plants with medicinal

value recorded)2

Artemesia

vulgaris, Eupatorium

adenophorum and

Hydrocotyle asiatica

Used for variety of

ailments

In open, bushy area close

to forests, mostly not

marketed

Natural decorative

Dried Anaphalis contorta,

A. triplinervis and

Lycopodium clavatum

widely

used as decorative on

different occasions

In reserve forest and

community forests at

various elevations

Pollinium mollis and

Raphidophora sp

used as decorative in

houses

In reserve forest and

community forests at

various elevations

Cones of Pinus longifolia,

Abies densa and Tsuga

dumosa

decorative in different

forms

In Reserved Forest

Broom and Fiber plants Broom grass Used as broom stick and

also as fodder

Sub-tropical Himalayan,

from plains to 2000m,

mostly grows in wasteland

4.7 In the past, before the year 2000, herbal use for a protracted time marked gradual increase in the

number of consumers and the reciprocal rise in herbal processing units that have played a major role in

diminishing the available medicinal plants in its habitat and also on degradation of ecosystems.

Department of Forests has now totally banned collection of medicinal plants and export outside the

state is almost negligible as per the records.

4.8 Sikkim has a great potential in the development of herbal enterprise that could be linked with

conservation and economic development. The agro technologies for many of these high valued

medicinal plants are available and they can be transferred to the communities for cultivation. The value

addition and marketing of this important natural resource is of great challenge and opportunity for

future development.

4.9 Fuelwood and fodder: demand and usage

4.9.1 In mountains and high altitudes, fuelwood is a critical energy resource and is always in high

demand. In Sikkim the households predominantly depend on fuelwood as chief source of energy as it is

used for cooking, heating space, and curing cardamom. Most of the fuelwood collection is carried out in

2 The list for medicinal plants use is long and therefore not reproduced here. Several reports, papers, and other secondary sources on medicinal plants is listed in reference section

15 | P a g e

winter and very little in rainy season. Women and children are actively involved in the collection process

which is carried out by lopping, chopping of trees and collection of wood from the forest floor.

4.9.2 The average household consumption of fuelwood is greater for higher altitude. Research carried

out in the areas around the KBR indicate average fuelwood consumption for a household at over 20 Kg

per day and the average usage peaking in winter at 25 Kg per day per household. The estimated per

annum usage of fuelwood for a household is 7400 kg which comes mostly from reserve forest and KBR

(together 78%) and only 19% comes from private forests.

4.9.3 It has been observed that demand for species with high calorific values are given preference over

those with lower value. Among the preferred species Quercus lamellosa ranks the highest in the

temperate areas followed by Schima wallichii, Eurya acuminate, Castanopsis hyxtrix, Beilschmiedia

sikkimensis and Prunus cerasoides. In the higher altitudes, however, various species of rhododendrons

are the most sort of for their ability to light even when the wood is not properly dry.

4.9.4 Apart from demand for fuelwood from households there is a rising trend of such demand from

commercial tourism related activities such as from guest-houses hotels and tour operators. In the

trekking corridors along the KBR, fuelwood demand from tourism now constitutes 7% of total. The

Forest Department has banned use of fuelwood for tourism purpose but illegal collection still takes

place.

4.9.5 Tourism (sometimes community based tourism) is one of the main sources of income for the local

communities and an estimated 20000 people are directly and indirectly dependent on sector for their

livelihood. In Sikkim tourism has grown almost 10 times in past two decades. Growth in tourism has

resulted into immense pressure on forest especially in popular trekking trails like Yuksam-Dzongri along

the KBR. A large number of the trekking trails occur in some of the important wildlife areas and highly

vulnerable ecological zones of the State. Therefore, during peak tourist seasons the number of tourists

actually visiting these ecologically sensitive areas is significant. The demand for fuelwood and other

anthropogenic pressure is resulting in degeneration of local forest cover and forest disturbances leading

to appearance of secondary species at the cost of removal of selected species.

4.9.6 Fodder collection in KBR buffer zone is carried out in dry season and mostly grass and branches of

trees are collected and stored for year round use. The estimated average fodder collected per

household is 15 kg or 5475 kg per year. However the figure varies in wide range with 340 kg per annum

per household in Lachen to 1290 Kg for Uttaray.

4.9.7 Forest floor litter is extensively collected from KBR buffer zone for use in livestock bedding,

mulching, composting and as shade for select crops. The estimated annual household use of forest floor

litter is 2,920 kg per household.

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4.10. Bamboo: Usage and potential

4.10.1 Bamboo is an immensely valuable forest resource in Sikkim. As in many parts of India especially in

the north-east, in Sikkim bamboo serves as versatile resource used for multiple purposes as timber, as

food especially by tribal and for making handicrafts and furniture.

4.10.2 In Sikkim, bamboo is found in the moist valley, sheltered depressions along the streams and

lower hill slope of the Sal forest, moist deciduous forests, wet temperate forests and sub-alpine

coniferous forests. The main genera found are Arundinaria, Cephalostchyum, Dendroclamus,

phyllostachys etc. Large scale bamboo patches are found along the stream, Sal belt, Gorucharan and

Khasmal forest lands, roadside and homestead. The cultivation of bamboo in rural areas is restricted to

margins of water courses in the agriculture sector or in the corners or borders of dry farming land.

4.10.3 Bamboo has great potential to boost the rural economy of Sikkim provided the laws and

regulations governing cutting, transportation and use of bamboo are more relaxed and friendly to

farmers. Bamboo export can provide major income source to the farmers through the generation of

royalty. In recent policy change the state government has withdrawn royalty charged on villagers for

bonafide bamboo use but the royalty charge on bamboo export continues. Realizing the potential of

bamboo for enhancing forest revenue, the Forest Department is now promoting bamboo plantation in

private and forest land through the JFMCs and EDCs.

4.10.4 Six out of the top 13 bamboo species identified by the government of India under the Bamboo

Mission are found in Sikkim. These bamboo species are of high commercial value as they are used in

handicrafts and paper making. The National Bamboo Mission was started in Sikkim in year 2006-07 and

received wide support from community for its potential to uplift the rural livelihoods across the state.

Under the Mission, the Horticulture and Cash Crop Development Department (HCCD) of Sikkim

promoted distribution of quality seedlings in villages for plantation in private land whereas the

Directorate of Handlooms and Handicrafts (DHH) has provided skill development training to state

artisans for bamboo handicrafts. Recently the Cane and Bamboo Technology Center (CBTC) under

UNIDO has decided to work with the state government to promote large-scale bamboo cultivation in the

state through appropriate policy framework and investments with view to promote bamboo based

industries in the state.

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Case 3: HWC in Pangolakha and Fambanglho wildlife sanctuaries

WWF- India in collaboration with the Sikkim Forest Department carried out a field

based assessment (2009) of HWC in Pangolakha and Fambanglho Wild Life

Sanctuaries (WLS) in densely populated region of east Sikkim. Village around these

WLS are populated mostly by Sikkimese of Nepalese ethnicity (nearly 80%) and rest

are Bhutias . The main occupation of the local people is agriculture (92%) with

average landholding of 3-4 acres. The research survey carried out with about 1500

respondents, reported large-scale damages to crop and livestock from raiding

wildlife from the forest. Macaque, porcupine and barking deer emerged as top

three wildlife species causing damage, followed by squirrels, P. civet animals and

black bears. Maize and cardamom are two main crops that bear maximum damage

from all raiding wildlife. Other crops often damaged are paddy, squash, potato,

mustard, cabbage etc. Most incidence of severe damage to maize comes from

macaque and porcupine, whereas macaque and palm civet cause severe damage to

cardamom. Over 46% respondents reported damage to livestock, mostly to poultry

(91%) and rest to young goats and other cattle. Jackal and Y. marten are two main

animals responsible for loss of livestock. Over 69% of the respondents reported not

using any measures though they were suffering considerable crop damage. For

those employing any measure, they mostly used the scarecrow, though it

reportedly had little effect on mammals like macaques, porcupine, barking deer.

This was followed by bamboo fencing and barbwire fencing.

5. Human-wildlife Conflict (HWC)

A large area of Sikkim (47.59%) is

under forest cover and of this

there is a significant proportion

under very dense forest category

(7%). Increase in population

especially over the past three

decades or so has been matched

with increasing forest cover which

has led to intersperse of human

settlement and agriculture land

within or close to forest. On

account of better protection and

conservation measures large

tracts of degraded forests have

regenerated over past decade

resulting in improved density and

enhanced forest canopy. With

restoration of habitat, many

faunal species that had vanished

in past due to habitat loss, have

reappeared while the population

of existing faunal species have

also increased significantly. This

has led to an overlap in land-use

leading to increasing HWC in Sikkim. The HWC has always existed in past but there has been a sharp

increase in the spread and frequency of the conflict due to increasing interface of humans with wildlife.

The HWC in Sikkim though a major issue for community today has not been studied in details and

therefore the understanding on the issue is limited. Villages after villages that were covered as part of

this study reported massive damages to agriculture crop, livestock and sometime to human life on

account of increasing predator and herbivore raids from neighboring range (Case 3).

5.1 There is a lack of comprehensive policy in Sikkim on managing HWC. There is a compensatory

payment mechanism in place to pay-off the loss but there is wide-spread disaffection among the

villagers on the amount being meager. Further the compensatory scheme can only serve the tactical

purpose and what is actually needed is a long-term policy that seeks to mitigate the conflict by adopting

strategic measures

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5.2 In Sikkim the cases involving direct encounter between man and animal is less common with only

stray incidents of leopard and bear attacks on human reported. This is in contrast to many wildlife areas

in India where loss to human life from elephants, tigers and other predators is quite common.

5.3 As reported by the affected villagers, the compensation provided is less than the actual cost of

damage; though the disbursal from the Forest Department is quite prompt. This may partly explain the

subdued public protests against the rising incidence of HWC and reason for rare incidences of retaliatory

killing of wildlife by community.

5.6 Many household access forests for fuelwood, fodder and other NTFPs increasing chances of direct

encounter with wildlife. In many cases fuelwood is the main energy source especially in remote villages

prompting people to visit neighboring forests for its collection.

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Case 4: Demojong, the sacred landscape of Sikkim

Demojong is a sacred landscape that in one sense has given the state of Sikkim, a cultural identity. Dedicated to the ruling deity Padmasambhava, an incarnate of Lord Buddha, this landscape is part of the Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve. Demojong extends from the peak of Kanchendzonga, the second tallest in the Himalayas, down to areas of lush tropical rainforest. Of the total catchment area of 328,000 ha of the mythical Demojong, 28,510 ha lies under snow. The vegetation is varied, ranging from alpine rhododendron scrub vegetation at altitude to moist sub-tropical evergreen forests in the valleys, all within a distance of about 15 km. Such plant biodiversity (including many valuable medicinal plants) provides raw material for the traditional Tibetan pharmacopoeia. Over a dozen ethnic groups living in the landscape practice traditional agriculture, non-timber forest-product extractions (NTFP) and nomadic cattle grazing as a means of satisfying their livelihood needs. While this small scale extraction is permissible in the landscape, larger perturbations are not. Demojong is a sacred landscape so much so that a major adverse reaction, largely emanating from the local population, occurred when a HEP project was proposed for the sacred Rothang Chu river. The project eventually had to be abandoned as this was a Bhutia- Lepcha heritage site with shared associated ceremonies, rituals and festivals. This is the context in which Demojong has to be seen – a site that illustrates the role of culture as a bulwark for the conservation of biological diversity.

6. Forest, biodiversity and role of local culture and traditions

In a human development approach to conservation there is need to emphasize the centrality of

anthropogenic factors in setting conservation and forest management goals. The new interest in

understanding the role of local culture and traditions that attribute community value to a landscape for

its tangible and intangible benefits; is a way to look at conservation and management through a bottom-

up perspective instead of traditional top-down approach. For the forest rich and traditional societies like

Sikkim, it should be realized that conservation of biological diversity and cultural diversity are

inseparable and therefore both should be conserved as an integrated whole. The traditional

communities as in Sikkim see nature and its varied expressions from the cultural lens where religion and

associated folklores paint a rich tapestry of local indigenous knowledge, traditions and customs that

provide sacred value to landscapes (case 4). In this sense, the local culture and ecology are woven as in a

mosaic of diverse culture-scape which provides guiding principles, ethics and moral fiber to community

approach to conservation.

6.1 With a diverse eco-cultural heritage, the Sikkimese people have a rich base of traditional ecological

knowledge where the landscape provides intangible values and tangible economic benefits with

implications at societal level. Self imposed social restrictions permit only small-scale alterations of the

landscape. However, when a large-scale perturbation (for example a government-sponsored Hydro-

electric Power project) that would have disturbed the peace of the region was mooted, the project

eventually had to be abandoned.

6.2 The traditional ethic in Sikkim states

that all sustainable conservation and

management of natural resources that

takes into account the sustainable

livelihood of local people must be based

on community participation. It is further

argued that this kind of developmental

land use has to be built upon validated

traditional ecological knowledge and the

use of formal knowledge-based

technologies should only occur to the

extent that the society in question is

willing to accept them. One can see a

strong influence of these values on the

policy landscape of Sikkim which has

largely affirmed to these principles.

6.3 The forest administration in Sikkim

has direct control over forest land (82%

of area) with restricted community

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rights. However the, Gumpas (monasteries) and private forests are also very common where community

exercise control over access and utilization. There are large numbers of forests attached to the Gumpas

(monasteries) that are under their management and control. Apart from these sacred groves,

sometimes also referred to as gynas (an ethnic Bhotia word meaning ‘forest garden’), may be either

stand-alone entities or part of a larger ‘sacred landscape’, as is the case of the entire forested region of

the ‘sacred’ cultural landscape of Demojong.

6.4 In the mid and low altitudes, a large number of mountain springs are found dotting the landscape,

which is the main source of water for 80 percent of the rural population. Though Sikkim has countless

rivers and streams, arising from its high altitude areas, either being fed by glaciers or rain- fed, they find

little use in the daily lives of people. These mountain springs, locally known as Dhara, are the natural

discharges from various aquifers, dependent on recharge from rainwater. Traditionally most of these

springs are considered sacred and revered as Devithans, which have led to their conservation through

the ages. The rural areas of Sikkim are replete with stories of Goddesses being the guardians of these

water sources, and how some disturbance around these sites have led to inauspicious incidents in the

villages. Therefore, many spring sites have always had some form of protection by the local

communities. The rural households access water from these springs, mostly through gravity based piped

systems and sometimes manually.

7. Forest, biodiversity and wellbeing of people

In Sikkim the forest and biodiversity resources are essential to the well being and happiness of the

people. In political ecology, there is an emerging school of thought which looks at role of forest and

other natural resources in a broader perspective, beyond the traditional forest role of providing goods

and services to a larger role in is contribution to well being and happiness of people. Much of these

discussions have evolved in the light of limitations of classical economics in measuring values of all

goods and services provided by forests as many such intangible benefits do not enter the market system

and are therefore go un-recognized or are undervalued. For a state like Sikkim, the limitations are

acutely evident as revenue generation from the forests is very small and in many years actually shows a

significant deficit with the expenses incurred in the managing the environment and forest. However the

forest and biodiversity resources of Sikkim has immense value- environmental, cultural and social, from

local to national and global level and in is in many ways performs the core function in ensuring the well

being of its people.

7.1 The discussion on well being is related to definition of who counts for the forest? In other words a

clear definition of stakeholders is essential to derive a meaningful discourse on forest and its relation to

well-being of the people. For example, the forest and biodiversity resources have very different meaning

and social-economic significance for community living close to forest as they are in many cases

dependent on these resources for their livelihood, fuelwood, fodder and cash income. The population

living in capital city of Gangtok will have less direct dependence on forest, but forest are important for

maintaining local hydrological balance, landslide prevention, climate regulation and for overall water

and food security among the rural populace. And this way the implication of well being will be change at

21 | P a g e

regional, national and global level. It can be argued that the forests and biodiversity wealth of Sikkim has

strong well being impact at all level in a way that determines the global biodiversity richness

7.2 The well being from forest is ensured only when some fundamental needs from forest are met- i)

Security and sufficiency of access to forest resource now and for future ii) economic opportunity: forest

should enhance livelihood of community iii) decision making opportunity: where people should have

role in management and decision making process iv) heritage and identity: cultural significance of forest

should be recognized and enhanced for the current as well as future generation v) equity in benefit

sharing and fair incentive structure for contribution to forest protection and conservation. It would be

useful to analyze the well being of people of Sikkim from the criteria and framework described above.

22 | P a g e

8. Policies: analysis, gaps and recommendations

To protect and sustain its natural resource and biodiversity wealth, the future growth paradigm of

Sikkim should be based on ecological modernization framework which seeks growth derived from

environment protection and conservation. To seek economic development through classical approach of

manufacturing sector driven growth may result in stress on local natural resource base and lead to

degradation of environment and disruption of fragile balance in ecosystem. The unique economic-

ecological context of Sikkim demands an innovative development strategy that can leverage the states’

comparative advantage in sectors like sustainable eco-tourism, hydro-power and service sector as

engine of future growth. The recent evolution of Green Growth framework is useful reference point for

the state to adopt as it build strategies for future growth. For green growth to take place, both the state

government and Central government policy should act in conjunction to promote balanced growth while

factoring in the natural resource assets of the state and the value of ecosystem services that it provides

at local, regional and at the national level. This calls for a fresh perspective on development planning

and sectoral allocation of resources to stimulate growth in right direction. Otherwise, the cost of losing

the last vestiges of unique biodiversity and pristine environment would be inexorable and irreplaceable-

something which both Sikkim and India as a country can ill afford.

To analyze the forest, wildlife and environment policy framework of Sikkim, it will be useful to use year

1995 as the point of departure when the current government assumed office under the leadership of

Mr. Pawan Chamling who is also the current Chief Minister of the state. The government of Sikkim has

over the years (Box-xxx) provided strong policy impetus towards environmental protection and

conservation of biodiversity and forests. The visionary Chief Minister of Sikkim, Mr. Pawan Chamling,

who was awarded as the greenest Chief Minister of India in 1999 by the Delhi based Centre for Science

and Environment, ushered major policy reforms to ensure that the pristine and fragile environment of

Sikkim is not destroyed under the relentless pressure of development solely driven by market forces. As

the state vision statement says the Sikkim will not run in ecological deficit but will use its forest and

environment as a strategic resource to promote green growth through promotion of eco-tourism,

hydro-power development and development of knowledge economy.

There is a general dearth of statistics on Sikkim and that applies to the case of forestry. With the

introduction of web based Environment Information System (ENVIS), the situation has been remedied to

some extent but still there are gaps in available data which makes policy analysis a challenging task. The

following analysis and recommendations are based on available data in public domain and may have

gaps on account of non-availability of updated information.

Structural issues in forestry sector and recommendation

8.1 Sikkim being a small state with small population base has been able to avoid the economic and

environmental cost that ensues in a transitioning economy as it evolves from primary to secondary and

tertiary sector. Being part of the north-eastern states it falls under Special Category State (SCS), and

enjoys preferential status from Center in terms of volume and conditionality of fund transfer from the

central pool. From the macro-economic perspective, though the state has a narrow fiscal base that

23 | P a g e

1995

•Government announces 1995-'96 as Harit Kranti year for greening Sikkim through peoples participation. Decade 2000-'10 declared as Harit Kranti Dashak

• Ban on green felling in forests & restriction on tree felling in Reserved Forest. Timber export outside state has been banned

1997• Ban on use of non-biodegradable materials like plastics, poly bags etc

•KNP extended from 850 sq Km to 1784 sq. Km (25.1% of geographical area)

1998

• Ban on cattle grazing in Reserved Forest

•Barsey Rhododendron sanctuary, West Sikkim notified

•Introduction of participatory forest management through constitution of JFMCs and subsequent notification for EDCs

1999-'00

• Smriti Van (Memorial Forests) concpet launched. people encouranged to plant trees.

• KBR with an area of 2619 sq. Km decalared

•State Forest, Environment and Landuse policy 2000 adopted to regulate development activities

2001-'02

• Sacred peaks, caves, rocks, lakes, chhortens and hot spring notified

•State Medicinal Plants Board set-up

•Pangolakha Wild-life sanctuary, East Sikkim created

2003-'05

•Eleven important bird area identified by government

• State Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan prepared and Sikkim State Biodiversity Board setup

2006

•E-governance strengthening through launch of ENVIS

• State Green Mission launched for avenue plantation along raods and wasteland. Over 32 lakh saplings planted till 2011

• Wetland Conservation Plan formulated

2007-'10

• State of Environment Report prepared and published

• Eco-tourism Directorate created

• State Council on Climate Change constituted

• Ten Minutes to Earth launched to support Global plantation campaign initiated by UNEP

• JICA supported Sikkim biodiversity conservation and forest management project launched

•International Rhododendron Festival celebrated

Figure 6: Major policy milestones

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generates low internal revenues from taxes and other sources, it has been able to fund the burgeoning

subsidies bills on account of Central transfer which props fiscal balance in face of rising public debt. The

massive transfer of subsidies to the countryside has been able to stem the rural-urban migration and

thawed policy pressure for urban based employment generation in manufacturing sector. This scenario

would have extracted cost on the environment and natural resources of the state. Recent figures on

poverty line shows Sikkim’s dramatic decline in poverty level down to about 16 percent. Such low figures

on poverty despite the stagnant secondary sector (reached peak of 21% of GSDSP in 1997-’98 and is

almost stagnant since then3) are again due to plan budget grant which is financing state public debt

(Debt to GSDSP ratio was 84% in 2004-’05). In nutshell, there is a strong element of subvention that

underpins Sikkim’s ability to mount successful investment in natural resource conservation.

Recommendation: The outlook for conservation is critically dependent on this policy balance but for a

more assured future Sikkim will have to generate capacity for internal revenue generation to fund its

investments in conservation and protection of environment. The diversification of economy to service

driven sectors like eco-tourism, hospitality, knowledge hub should be accelerated to fortify internal

revenue, generate employment and reduce poverty.

8.2 The budgetary trends on allocation to forest, wildlife and environment sector has shown in a real

term decline in recent years with a mere 30 percent increase from 4.25 crore plan budgetary allocation

in 1995 to 5.55 crore in 2003; which is clearly not enough to cover even the inflationary cost. Around 4.5

crore of the budget goes in wage and salary payment leaving precious little for future investment. The

decline in allocation is likely to have repercussion on afforestation and forest regeneration programme

and on any planned development in future.

Recommendation: For long-term conservation goals, the state government needs to augment budgetary

allocation towards forestry sector to make future investments in planned programmes. There is also a

strong need to prune expenditure arising from salary and wage payment by downsizing the size of forest

bureaucracy and by cutting wasteful expenditure from leakages which also relates to the larger problem

of restoring fiscal discipline in government expenditure.

8.3 The forestry sector in Sikkim is not a major revenue center due to traditional policy orientation

towards conservation. Within the forestry sector, the contribution of NTFPs, timber and other products

in revenue generation over the past decade has been low and erratic with no distinct upward trend-

from a high of 4.09% in 1997-’98, the share of major forest produce (timber, firewood, charcoal) dipped

to just over 1% next year and was around 3% in 2002-‘03. Due to ban on green felling and several other

legal restrictions on collection of NTFPs and firewood from forests, their share in total state revenue has

been rather insignificant. The royalty fixed by Forest Department on marketable forest produce like

sand, medicinal plants/herbs, charcoal and timber is often lower than the market value and is not

revised regularly to adjust to market price and demand-supply conditions. This further depresses the

revenue realization from forestry sector and puts strain on forestry budget allocation.

3 The steep rise in contribution of Tertiary sector in 1997-’98 to 1999-’00 was largely on account of increase in salary bill of government from hike of 6th Pay Commission.

25 | P a g e

Recommendation: While the state policy on forest is firmly entrenched in conservationist agenda, it

would be useful to revisit the policy structure to facilitate sustainable utilization of forest resources in

Sikkim. The forests in Sikkim are mostly in ecologically climax stage and therefore no further succession

is possible. It will therefore be useful to harvest/extract forest produce in a sustainable manner to

maintain the restorative vigor of the forests. For more immediate purpose, the revenue policy from the

forest produce should be revised to give a much needed fillip to the revenue generation from the

forestry sector.

8.4 There is in general lack of convergence and coordination between the Forest Department and other

wings of the government. The policy formulation process is often carried out in a disconnected manner

which often leads to weak governance, sub-optimal policy outcome and in some cases a complete policy

failure. A case to point is the lack of synergy between the Tourism Department and Forest, Wildlife and

Environment Department that has led to policy incoherence in critical revenue generation areas like

eco-tourism. Similarly there is a tremendous opportunity to prime up forestry activities like

afforestation, building forest fire line and roadside plantation by routing the MNREGA funds. In fact in a

state like Sikkim, the rural development strategy should be closely aligned to the forest resource

development strategy as outcome on both are highly inter-dependent.

Recommendation: Inter-departmental coordination should be improved through policy reform

especially at the state secretariat level where most of the policy and governance structures are

formulated and monitored. The office of the District Magistrate should be treated as a nodal point for

administrative convergence and therefore should be sufficiently empowered. Time bound and

strategically important programme like ecotourism promotion in select corridors in the state should be

implemented in a Mission mode while ensuring inter-departmental coordination.

8. Specific and emerging policy issues in forest resource development

8.1 Ban on green felling in the forest (1995): The Government of Sikkim put in effect total ban on felling

of trees in Reserved Forest except for dead, diseased and dying trees to be removed for bona fide use

similar ban on export of timber outside state for commercial purpose. The Government also framed

rules for felling trees in private forest land. In past the trend towards deforestation was mainly on

account of – i) demand for land for settlement and agriculture for increasing population especially for

the region till the altitude of 2000 m; ii) grazing pressure, forest fires and fuelwood collection and iii)

diversion of forest land for developmental activities. Diverted forest land for development purpose

which is estimated to be 590 ha till 1998 has mainly gone to army and Border Roads Organization (35%),

Hydel project related diversion (26%) and construction (29%). Sikkim has been the best performers

among other states on Compensatory Afforestation (CA) and so far 1000 hectares CA has been carried

out which has more than offset the forest loss from diversion.

Over the past decade and a half, the ban and restrictions have contributed towards increase in green

cover and restoration of degraded forests that were under increased pressure from human activities.

Similarly ban on timber export for commercial purpose stemmed the felling of trees for revenue

generation and led to improvement in stock. The forest stock plays critical environmental roles like

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maintaining hydrological balance, soil moisture retention, landslide prevention and carbon

sequestration.

Recommendation: For the ecologically fragile mountainous state like Sikkim, healthy forest covers is

indispensible for maintaining ecological balance and for mitigating impacts of climate change. Therefore

the policy has clearly yielded good environmental returns and is partly reflected in the state been able

to claim a significant fund from Center as environment bonus.

To further boost revenue from the forest cover, the state government should initiate measures to test

the feasibility of REDD+ implementation in select region of the state to claim returns on carbon

sequestration from its forest. This would require new institutional arrangements for forest governance

and policy reforms at different levels.

The local population is predominantly dependent on fuelwood as primary source of energy and even

after large scale promotion of LPG by the government its use has reached to less than one percent of

the population. The fuelwood dependence in north is still greater. As a result there is an immense

pressure on forest for fuelwood collection. Free distribution of LPG and subsidized re-filling should be

allowed only as short-term strategy as the cost of transporting LPG uphill both for economy and

environment is considerable. Solar energy options can be explored for limited energy solutions as

sunshine is not abundant throughout the year in many parts of Sikkim. As a second step government

should promote fuelwood collection from private forests by improving its productivity and by easing out

restriction. Finally in areas with sizeable cattle population as in the sub-tropical region, gobar gas should

be promoted at large scale to meet household energy need.

The ban on use of fuelwood for tourism purpose should be strictly enforced as it is leading to

degradation of forest in popular trekking corridors.

8.2 Ban on cattle grazing in Reserve Forest (1998): In a major policy decision the government of Sikkim

banned grazing in all Reserved Forest areas, water sources areas and plantation areas. This put an end

to age old practice of yak cattle herding especially from migrant Bhutia population from eastern Nepal.

With passage of time, there was an increase in demand for dairy products from an increasing local

population resulting in larger herd stock with community and consequently a continuous increase in

pressure on forest for grazing and fodder. As a result forest patches especially in the temperate region

were gradually getting degraded threatening the balance in ecosystem

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Case5: Ban on grazing: peoples’ perception in Barsey

Rhododendron Sanctuary (BRS)

For the 36 villages and 6456 households in the BRS, pastoralism was traditional occupation, as profitability from agriculture was low whereas there was easy access to forest for grazing and fodder. Before the ban, an average family has 21 cattle units that fetched them about INR 28,000 per annum in household income from sale of milk and other dairy products. The total average annual biomass requirement for 288 herders in BRS in year 2000 amounted to 6,336 metric tons of firewood, 7,476 metric tonnes of fodder and 41,472 pole sized timber. Using village rates, the economic value of this biomass will amounts to Rs. 90 lakhs per year. In public hearings before the ban in villages adjacent to BRS the local women held visiting herders to sanctuary as main culprit behind forest degradation, loss of biodiversity and forest offences. The villagers urged immediate removal of Goths (cattle sheds) from BRS to restore forest health. To implement the ban, Forest Department removed all Goths and banned grazing. Awareness campaign was carried out to remover herders and those volunteering to phase out herding were offered INR 10000 per household to shift to other occupation. Due to ban the herders are facing livelihood problems. Some have shifted to farming and small business but many are still facing financial hardship. 94 percent herders have not been able to earn as much as they used to from pastoralism and on average each family has incurred loss of income to the tune of over INR 18000 per annum as in 2005. While 99 percent herders gave up pastoralism on account of strict enforcement, as time progressed they realize the environmental benefits that has accrued from ban on grazing

The ban has resulted in massive decline in cattle grazing population and has led to restoration of

degraded forest patches. For example in Barsey Rhododendron Sanctuary, there has been a reduction in

cattle units from 6324 in year 2000 to 463 in 2005, a reduction of 96%. As noted in the study of Institute

of Financial Management and Research (IFMR) in 2012, the ban has led to a notable improvement in

standing stock, density and canopy cover,

enhanced biodiversity composition, better stream

recharge and restoration of wildlife habitat.

However the ban has also resulted in loss of

traditional livelihoods for large number of

households (Case 5). Interaction with the

community clearly indicated loss having adverse

impact on financial security of households, which

is only partly offset by government

compensation. Programs promoting stall feeding

are feasible only for few cattle and lack of regular

fodder supply is a major concern for households

retaining cattle. In a nutshell, the ban on grazing

has resulted in improved forest cover and other

ecological benefit has however adversely

impacted the socio-economic security of vast

section of population.

Recommendation: While the ban on grazing in

forest areas makes for a strong case from

environment and ecological perspective, it falls

short of providing viable long-term livelihood

opportunities to affected population. The

continued support from subsidies and conditional

cash transfers are at best short-term measure

that also has financial implications for the state. A rational strategic choice would be to support

alternate livelihood enhancement through skill building of local population and transfer of appropriate

livelihood assets that can provide alternate employment to workforce. Developing sectors like tourism,

health resorts, and knowledge hubs could provide avenues for employment to local population. Sikkim

received 37.7 crore in MNREGA fund in 2010-’11 but the utilization rate has been poor at about 50

percent. Delay in payments, lack of facilities at worksite and non-availability of work on demand are

some of the bottlenecks in effective implementation of the scheme. Strengthening peoples’ access to

the programme can serve important purpose of reducing financial vulnerability.

8.3 Participatory Forest Management through constitution of JFMCs and EDCs (1998): As noted earlier

the JFMCs and EDCs in Sikkim suffer from institutional weaknesses which stems from inadequate legal-

political framework which defines incentives, roles responsibilities and conflict resolution mechanism

effectively. The incentive structures are currently weak as the legal and policy regime does not allow

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much in terms of usufruct benefits for JFMC members from the forest. From the interaction with the

JFMCs members it was clear that there has been little devolution of roles and power to the community

and as a result the effectiveness of these institutions is rather restricted.

Recommendation: As a strategy the Forest Department should seek to link JFMCs and EDCs to

livelihoods opportunities so that the members start to see tangible benefits from their association with

the programme. Strengthening non-farm and off-farm income generation activities like poultry,

fisheries, gobar gas and village tourism can boost local livelihoods. Recent initiative by Forest

Department to engage the JFMCs/EDCS in eco-tourism activities is laudable and should be implemented

diligently. To reinforce the process of constitution and functioning of JFMCs/EDCs, local NGOs should be

involved in training and capacity building of these institutions and of Forest Department staff, especially

the frontline staff. . In the increasing human wildlife conflict scenario, being village based institutes

JFMCs and EDCs would be most suited to play an effective and responsible role. This could be for

carrying out quick damage assessments in the field, forming anti depredation squads, demonstrating

suitable measures like insurance schemes, etc.

8.4 Implementation of Forest Rights Act (FRA, 2006)4: The FRA is a landmark Act that recognizes and

restores traditional rights of the forest dependent population, which includes the vast majority of

Scheduled Tribes {ST} along with other forest dependent people. It does this through granting individual

rights of cultivation and habitation on forest land and community rights over access to Non Timber

Forest Resources {NTFP}, Nistaar5 and also management and control of forest areas which the

communities depend on. In Sikkim FRA has been a non-starter with the implementation being poor and

mis-directed. In fact in most cases the impelementation has not proceeded beyond the initial stages, for

various reasons. As the MoEF/MOTA Committee reported after its visit to the state in September 2010

to review implementation of FRA- ‘No Claims have been made though this Act so far. All the eligible

areas and people seem to be not aware of the Act. Therefore, the claims have not filed under the FRA

under Individual Forest Rights (IFR)’. Similarly there is lack of understanding on Community Forest Rights

(CFR) and no claim filed under this as well.

The fundamental reason behind the current resistance to implementation of FRA in Sikkim is the

misconception in section of government machinery that implementation of the Act would lead to large-

scale forest loss from traditional claims of forest dwelling communities on the forest resources; which is

currently highly restricted. A section of Forest Department which is the powerful driver of state’s

steadfast focus on conservation, has resisted implementation of Act on grounds of loss of environmental

gains from by ceding parts of forest control. With the state forest policies firmly couched in conservation

agenda and managed through strict enforcement and control, FRA is likely to face tough challenges in

times ahead.

4 Based on latest information available, the government of Sikkim has submitted to Centre its inability to implement FRA in its present framework and has sought amendments to the rules. A response is awaited from Center 5 Nistaar means rights of fuelwood and grazing of cattle

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Recommendation: If the ultimate aim of forests is to enhance the well-being of people of state then the

provisions of the FRA will provide traction to this goal by addressing just aspiration of community

towards participation and democratic governance of local resources. The decentralization of power and

recognition of communities’ traditional rights over forest will deepen civil society engagement and pave

way for poverty reduction and enhanced welfare of community.

To begin with the state government should express commitment towards FRA implementation and

misconception regarding the FRA should be cleared and provisions of the Act should be explained to the

key officials. The Social Welfare Department of the State should take lead in the process. The

government’s claim that JFMCs/EDCS are stronger institutions for forest governance and rights

protection are untenable. Similarly, argument that people in Sikkim are not dependent on forest which

occupied nearly half of the state’s geographical area is highly unlikely. To establish the factual situation

on ground, the government should commission a survey to find out communities’ traditional

dependence, and not cultivation alone, on forests. Thereafter claims under both IFR and CFR should be

facilitated and processed by organizing and notifying the Gram Sabha, SDLCs and DLCs.

8.5 Human-wildlife Conflict (HWC): As noted earlier, Sikkim does not have a policy on mitigating and

managing HWC which is increasing in its spread and intensity. As is the case of many other states in India

facing this issue, the response to rising HWC is restricted to tactical measures like compensation for

human and property loss and not much of strategic thinking is in place. As in many aspects, Sikkim can

take lead in framing an inclusive policy on HWC mitigation and management keeping in view the long-

term impact of HWC on wildlife, forests and communities.

The first step in the direction would be to carry out participatory baseline assessment of current

situation and trends on HWC in Sikkim. Based on the assessment, the Forest Department should take

lead in identifying critical and high intensity HWC regions and initiate appropriate mitigation measures

involving the local community.

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CLIMATE CHANGE: THREATS AND MITIGATION

1. The climate trend

Climate change is now an accepted fact globally, and will be one of the most crucial issues for mountain

regions worldwide, with high mountains like the Himalayas expected to warm up at a faster rate than

the lower regions. Some authors have reported rapid warming of Himalaya during the last century and it

is estimated to be approximately 2-3 times the global average. Warming in the Himalayas in the last

three decades has been between 0.15°C and 0.60°C per decade. The mean temperatures in the

Himalayan alpine zones have increased by 0.6 to 1.3 ° C between 1975 and 2006.

1.1 Along with warming, a number of changes in other weather parameters have also studied

extensively. Monthly, seasonal and annual analysis of data only for Gangtok station for the period 1957

to 2005 indicates a trend towards warmer nights and cooler days.

1.2 The temperature in Gangtok has been rising at the rate of 0.2-0.3oC per decade; therefore since

1957 the increase in temperature has been around 1 – 1.50 C. The warming is more pronounced in

winter even though considerable warming has been observed in other seasons too6.

1.3 Due to climate variability, the annual rainfall is increasing at the rate of nearly 50 mm per decade,

except in winter months and during the period 2006-2010 October to February were exceptionally dry

months. Comparison of long term meteorological data available for Gangtok station (1957 to 2005) with

the trend over the last few years (2006-09), shows an acceleration of these patterns, with winters

becoming increasingly warmer and drier.

1.4 Winter rains are increasingly becoming scarce. During the year 2008 and 2009, the state witnessed

one of the driest winters in living memory. According to Meteorological Department, Government of

India, Sikkim Division, the year 2009 was the warmest year in the century for Sikkim7.

2. Climate change Impacts

Biodiversity Climate is one of the most important determinants of vegetation patterns globally and has significant influence on the distribution, structure and ecology of forests and the biodiversity distribution. A change in climate can have far reaching consequences on diverse species, their distribution and ecology on the whole.

6-7 Bhattacharya, S., Krishnaswamy, S., Rao C., Vulnerability of Sikkim to Climate Change and Strategies for

Adaptation. In. Arrawatia, M. L., Tambe, S. (Eds.) Biodiversity of Sikkim: Exploring and Conserving a Global Hotspot. Information and Public Relations Department, Government of Sikkim

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2.1 A study on Rhododendrons one of the most important floras of the state has shown that the suitable

bioclimatic envelope for rhododendron would shrink considerably under the climate change scenario.

2.2 A study on the alpine flora, representing more than 30% of the total flora of the state, has shown

that with gradual warming, species are migrating to higher elevations. With this trend, species of the

highest altitudinal band would eventually lose their habitats because no more areas would be available

for the spatial redistribution.

High altitude areas

2.3 Sikkim has over one-third of area falling under high altitude region (which is above 3000 meters).

They form critical habitats for important flora and fauna of the state some of which are endangered like

the red panda, snow leopard, black necked crane, blood pheasant, etc. These are areas where glaciers of

the high mountains and snow melt give rise to countless streams and rivers, and important wetlands of

the state also dot these landscapes. These high altitude landscapes are very sacred spaces for the local

communities, and are thus also culturally very significant. Indigenous communities inhabit these regions

that have had long association with nature, having shared a bond that has lasted over the past many

years.

2.4 Climate change impacts have been perceived over the years by indigenous communities residing in

these fragile and vulnerable regions, which conform to the findings generated by modern science in

different parts of the world. Community perception of an overall decrease in snowfall events and

changes in timing during the past 10 years in the higher altitudes has been documented for North

Sikkim. Needless to say these changes in snowfall patterns would have an impact in the livelihood of the

pastoralist communities, as it would affect the fodder productivity for livestock.

2.5 Study of the East Rathong glacier in West Sikkim has been carried out by the Department of Science

and Technology which shows that the total recession of the glacier during the last 43 years (1965- 2008)

is about 1.44 km and the last 9 years (1997-2006) is about 320 m with an average rate of 35.5 m/yr. In

addition, an area of 2.611 hectares around frontal part of this glacier was found completely melted and

separated from the active glacier between 1997 and 2006. Glacier thinning and retreat results in

formation of new glacial lakes and the enlargement of existing ones due to the accumulation of melt-

water behind loosely consolidated end moraine. Recent studies being carried out by C-DAC, Pune jointly

with Sikkim State Council of Science & Technology, Gangtok, have shown that many glacial lakes in

Sikkim Himalayan region are expanding at a considerable rate, increasing the chance of GLOF events.

People and livelihoods

2.6 Climate change will have a direct impact on the livelihoods of communities as the agriculture sector

which is the mainstay for more than 64 percent population in the State gets affected. Already this sector

is faced with crucial constraints of limited arable land with agriculture being practiced in slopes, soils

that are acidic and low productivity in nature, and with more than 70% of the farmers small and

marginal with fragmented holdings (average<0.4 ha).

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2.7 Perception of the local community captured in the recent climate change studies show that climate

change impacts have resulted in a reduction in the temporal spread of rainfall, an increase in the

intensity, with a marked decline in winter rain in Sikkim. Increased intensity of rainfall will lead to high

runoff, resulting in low absorption of moisture by soil and loss of nutrients impacting crop productivity.

2.8 Incidences of disease outbreaks and pest infestations have also seen a rapid increase in the last 10

years. Cash crops of ginger and cardamom have been severely affected resulting in marked decline in

their productivity in the last 10 years.

2.9 With gradual warming communities in the middle and upper hills are expected to be less vulnerable,

as the rise in temperature would provide opportunities for new crops, higher production and early

ripening. However due to warming up, there is likelihood of spread of vector borne diseases spreading

towards upper hills especially from mosquitoes as warmer condition would facilitate their spread on

higher altitude. Villages lying in sub tropical zones with higher sensitivity and low adaptive capacity will

be most vulnerable as these villages will face higher impacts of climate change. Most number of villages

in the state is found settled around this sub tropical region.

2.10 In Sikkim, most of the villages are settled within close proximity of forest areas, be it a protected

area, reserve forest, Khasmal or Gaucharan. Communities have had an age old relationship with these

forests, deriving direct and indirect benefits from them, though the equations and magnitude may have

changed over the years. Any impact on these forest resources brought about by climate change will

invariably also affect the communities that depend on these resources.

2.11 With flowering and fruiting being affected by the changing climate, availability of food inside the

forests for wildlife has changed over time. This has had a direct correlation to more incidences of wildlife

straying into villages leading to increased human wildlife conflict, a phenomenon being reported from all

over the state. While increased instances of human wildlife conflict may not only be a climate change

impact, and it may have many other contributing factors, it cannot be ruled out that climate change will

increasingly be responsible for this phenomenon in the near future.

2.12 Local people in and around the adjacent Darjeeling Himalaya have perceived that these mountain

springs are drying up, in some cases upto 60 percent, and while catchment degradation was identified as

the main cause for the drying up of the springs earlier, climate change is now emerging as the new

threat. The naturally drought prone areas of the state in South and West Sikkim are critically affected.

This leads to drinking water scarcity and in many places also affects food production. Women are

especially more affected, as they have to travel further to fetch

2.13 In the subtropical zone (less than 1000 m), the production of important cash crops like ginger,

orange and fruits has declined due to prolonged droughts and outbreak of pests, diseases and weeds.

Plants such as maize, broom grass and turmeric were found to be the most resilient. This zone was

earlier a productive area with multiple cropping; now due to less winter rain, only single cropping during

the monsoon is possible. Storage and preservation of seeds is also becoming increasingly difficult due to

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pest, disease and dry winter. Communities in the middle and upper hills were found to be less

vulnerable, and warmer winters provided new opportunities for vegetables such as tomato, chilli, carrot,

cucumber, passion fruit, beetroot, etc., coupled with higher production and early ripening as well8.

Hence, though production is expected to be negatively affected in the subtropical zone, climate change

provides new opportunities to middle and upper hilly regions of the state.

8 http://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/101/02/0165.pdf, accessed on 12.09.2012

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3. Policy measures

State action plan for Climate change

3.1 Policies for addressing the issue of climate change have been forthcoming from the State

Government. The state action plan for climate change (2012 – 2030) has been prepared in 2011, by the

State Government through a consultative process. The broad thematic areas covered by the SAPCC are-

i) Water ii) Agriculture, horticulture and livestock iii) Forests, wildlife, and eco-tourism iv) Promotion of

energy efficiency v) Urban and rural habitats and communities

3.2 Some policies unique to the state, have also been framed that has led to the creation of an enabling

environment under the climate change scenario, chief among this is the policy on ban on grazing (1998),

which came into implementation in 2004. The grazing exclusion policy was framed mainly for providing a

restoration chance to degraded forest landscapes through undisturbed natural regeneration, which led

to restoration of forest ecosystems and was later recognized as a decisive policy measure contributing

to mitigating climate change.

3.3 The impact of this grazing exclusion policy in terms of enhancement of the forest carbon stock has

been studied and it was observed that the difference between the with and without policy intervention

scenarios amounts to about 585 thousand tonnes of carbon, which translates to 2142 thousand tonnes

of carbon di-oxide equivalent. This difference indicates active role played by forests in enhancing carbon

sink and sequestering carbon which would have been absent if grazing exclusion had not been

implemented.

3.4 As an offshoot of the ban on grazing making the forest areas inaccessible to the communities, a

steady and rapid increase in private forests have also occurred. Communities residing in the fringe of

Fambonglho Wildlife Sanctuary in East Sikkim, claim that close to 50 percent of privately owned land is

forested. Reasons like non availability of agriculture laborers and decreasing productivity of crops were

also cited for more farmers choosing to have forests in place of traditional agriculture. The option of

growing trees provides communities with their daily requirement of fuel wood and fodder, and at the

same time also bring them economic benefits.

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Box 1: Climate vulnerability assessment for Sikkim With impacts of climate change becoming increasingly visible locally in the state, areas that are more vulnerable to these impacts need to be identified urgently. Vulnerability exercises have been conducted by the State Government with support of GIZ at the block level and by WWF – India at the district level.

Some important findings of the district level VA were- South Sikkim is most vulnerable of all the districts of Sikkim due to higher exposure and sensitivity values. East Sikkim also has high exposure values but it gets offset by higher adaptive capacity thus resulting in lower vulnerability. North Sikkim has low vulnerability in spite of having low adaptive capacity and relatively low sensitivity values because in terms of exposure values it is almost negligibly vulnerable. West Sikkim District is almost as vulnerable as the South district because both its exposure and sensitivity values are medium high while it has significantly low adaptive capacity.

The vulnerability analysis of Sikkim highlights the sensitivity of this natural resource dependent region. On one hand there is the district of East Sikkim which stands out by having high adaptive capacity scores yet high sensitivity due to pressures from population growth and urbanization while there are other districts which have lesser adaptive capacity and are still sensitive because of their high dependence on natural resources. Therefore, it can be inferred that there is need of development and employment generation but in a sustainable manner and there should be a balance to reduce the rural urban migration to avoid pressure on natural resources. This will not only enhance the adaptive capacity of rural areas through better managed development but also reduce the load and sensitivity of urban areas. The major difference was in the level of development and their adaptive capacities which made a village less or more vulnerable to changes.

3.5 On the ecological front, the grazing ban policy yielded the expected results and much of the

degraded forests could be reclaimed with aided natural regeneration programmes and with minimal

disturbance. Communities living around forests, specially protected areas related their perception of the

forest becoming much denser and increasingly inaccessible.

Provision of alternate energy

3.6 Alternative energy options for reduction of fuel wood through use of LPG have been pursued by the

State Government through many of its initiatives. However fuel wood continues to be the main source

of energy accounting for more than 85 per cent of total energy consumption. With the trends towards

climate change, excessive dependence on

fuelwood from forest will add to the

existing stress on the forest and may be a

threat to energy security of households.

3.7 Though the distribution of LPG has

somewhat brought a reduction in the

amount of fuel wood used by

communities for cooking, it has not

served as a complete replacement. One

of the main reasons for this is the

unavailability of LPG whenever required,

which makes it difficult for the villagers

to have total dependence on this

medium for their daily requirement. On

the other hand, fuel wood is usually

freely available.

Ground water recharge – a climate

adaptation strategy

One of the main ecological functions of

the forests is its contribution to ground

water recharge. These forest patches

which most often occupy large tracts of

hill top areas are the most important

zones for recharge of ground water by

tapping rainwater, which is the only

water available for drinking and

irrigation. More than 90% of this

rainwater is lost as surface runoff and the utilization is less than 10%. There is a need to reduce this

surface runoff and increase ground water recharge.

3.8 Natural ground water recharge in mountain areas is only 10-15 per cent, and a promising initiative

has been made by the State Government for increasing recharge by harnessing the hydrological

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potential of hill top forests. Most of the rain water just flows away as surface runoff due to steep terrain

causing soil erosion, landslides and floods, which has worsened under the climate change scenario.

3.9 Making use of the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA)

programme, the State Government has successfully piloted artificial recharge works in hill top

catchments for reviving the dry season discharge of streams fed below. These pilot projects to recharge

330 million liters of groundwater by interventions in the upper catchments of critical streams like Rolu,

Seti, Reshi and Rohtak in drought prone areas have been developed to enhance the natural ground

water recharge in the drought prone zone of South and West Districts. This was based on the Dhara

Vikas programme that had been initiated earlier for rejuvenating dried up springs by carrying out

interventions in the catchment area. Natural ground water recharge is supplemented by making artificial

recharge structures like staggered contour trenches and ponds in appropriate location

Case 6: Voluntary effort to revive Khani Khola stream

Sadam Reserve Forest lies on top of the Sadam Gram Panchayat Unit in South Sikkim, and it forms a critical ground water recharge zone for an important stream -the Khani Khola, which is the main source of water for the GPU of Melli Dara located below. Catchment area treatment with a view to increase water flow of the stream was undertaken inside the Sadam RF in 2011 by Sadam GPU, covering an area of around 40 hectares, under the MGNREGA Dhara Vikas programme. Trenches, water percolation pits and plantation activities were carried out under this programme for recharge of ground water which would eventually lead to more water flowing in Khani Khola. All these activities were done with the engagement and participation of people from the Sadam GPU, who was in actuality not the true beneficiaries of the intervention. The true beneficiaries were residents of Melli Dara GPU that was located downstream of Khani Khola, who tapped this source for water supply to four of its gram panchayat wards, covering around 400 households. Any increase in the water flow of this stream would directly benefit these 400 households in terms of drinking water as well as for irrigation purposes, and within a year of the intervention in the recharge zone, the villagers of Melli Dara observed positive changes in the flow of water at Khani Khola. The year 2012 was declared as the year of water conservation by Melli Dara GPU, and a steering committee was set up comprising of 20 members from all wards. Recognizing the efforts of the Government in revival of Khani Khola, the committee of Melli Dara decided to make a contribution in the ground water recharge programme that would ultimately be benefitting their village. The members of this committee took it upon themselves to sustain the efforts made by the Dhara Vikas intervention at Sadam Reserve Forest for recharging of Khani Khola. A voluntary drive for maintaining the trenches and pits, and the plantations was initiated, being led the Panchayat members with active participation of the local communities. A day long programme was undertaken in Sadam RF, in which the volunteers cleared the silt that had accumulated inside the trenches and pits, and took care of the saplings that had been planted the previous year. This provided a good case on people contributing voluntarily for maintenance and sustenance of a programme that lay beyond their jurisdiction, but which would be beneficial to them in the long run.

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Table 2: Sikkim’s biodiversity at a Glance

Taxa Numbers

Flowering Plants 4458

Orchids 535

Rhododendrons 36

Conifers 16

Bamboos 11

Ferns and Ferns allies 480

Tree Ferns 9

Primulas 30

Oaks 11

Medicinal Plants 424

Mammals >144

Birds 574

Reptiles 88

Amphibia 50

Butterflies 689

Fishes 48

Source: http://www.sikenvis.nic.in/biodiversity.html; Arrawatia and Tambe 2011

BIODIVERSITY OF SIKKIM

1.1 Being part of the Himalayan Global Biodiversity Hotspot, Sikkim harbours a rich diversity of flora and

fauna that are distributed across five eco-regions (Table 2). It is home to over 29% of India’s tree

species, 21% of lichens, ca. 40% of ferns, ca. 42% of

orchids, 56% of primulas and ca. 42% of country’s

rhododendrons. The State is the type locality for a large

number of botanical specimens. About 165 species of

plants have been named after Sikkim, which incidentally is

the highest for any Indian State.

1.4 The diversity of bio-resources is not just restricted to

the wild flora and fauna, but it also encompasses the

immense variety of agricultural resources that are grown in

Sikkim. In fact 178 cultivars of 69 crop species are grown in

Sikkim, with rice having the highest number of cultivars

(43) followed by maize (26)

2. Ecosystem services, dependency and concerns

People of Sikkim traditionally depend on biodiversity

resources for their sustenance and other usage (Table 3).

Some of the key services that the diverse bio-resources of

Sikkim offer include – provisioning services; regulating

services; cultural services; and, supporting services. Though

each of these services is of high significance, some of them

are of critical in supporting lives and livelihoods of people.

Large scale extraction of select biodiversity species has in

many cases led to their decline in their natural habitat.

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Table 3: Forest products collected by respondents for own consumption (Values in percentage)

2.1 The overdependence of the communities on forests for fire wood could be considered as one of

reasons for degradation and fragmentation of forests in Sikkim along with timber extraction, grazing,

forest fires, poor natural regeneration and naturally slow growth of the species. During the past decade

Sikkim has experienced a degradation of 317 km² of forest areas of which ca. 61% of degradation

happened in temperate forests. This may be related to the high number of settlements in this altitudinal

2.2 During the past decade large scale developmental activities have taken place in shape of hydro

power and road expansion projects. In many cases such projects have progressed in an unplanned

manner with resulting adverse impact on biodiversity. Though there is dearth of monitoring mechanism

to evaluate the extent of damage from such project on the biodiversity, but considering the potential

vulnerability of the high altitude ecosystem, unmonitored and unplanned developments may have

caused irreversible change to biodiversity wealth of the State.

3. Medicinal plants

3.1 Sikkim is home to over 400 species of medicinal plants belonging to various taxa and is known to be

used by local community in small and large proportions to treat various ailments. However out of 400

species only 40 are used more often for traditional medicinal practices. Out of these, also, demand for

some specific species is even higher (Table 3).

3.2 Some of the stocks to market comes from private farmers or are supplied by people having permit

for harvesting in areas demarcated by the Department of Forest, Environment and Wildlife

Site Fuelwood Litter/

leaves

Fodder Wild

edibles

Bamboo

stems

Medicinal

plants/herbs

Bamboo

shoots

Others

East 88 73 81 54 81 54 46 0

North 92 79 71 100 38 54 25 40

South 97 97 90 68 81 71 81 30

West 97 89 89 68 76 59 43 0

All 97 86 84 71 70 60 50 20

Source: Japan International Cooperation Agency

(JICA) (2009)

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Management. Thus, the medicinal plants, not only offers remedy from illness, but also have an

important role to play in income generation of local communities.

3.3 Though sustainable extraction of these species can be encouraged, but in response to the demands

of the market the regulatory measures for collection imposed by forest most sorted are often

overlooked. To add to this the high return that a collector receives for his harvest urges him to procure

required plants in quantities considerably higher than the sustainable limits. The demand has touched

unsustainable level with the mushrooming of the medicine companies in the state.

Table 4: Some medicinal plants found in Sikkim

Category Species

Species marketed in large

scale

Aconitum ferox, Nardostachys jatamansi, Picrorhiza kurrooa,

Piperlongum, Swertia chirata

Species marketed in small

scale

Acorus calamus, Astilbe rivularis, Bergenia ciliate, Heracleum

wallichii, Holarrhena antidysenterica, Mesua ferrea, Orchis

latifolia,Podophyllum hexandrum, Rhus semialata, Terminalia

belerica,Terminalia chebula, Viscum articulatum, Zantoxyulum

alatum

Plants with effective use but

not marketed

Artemisia vulgaris, Clematis buchananiana, Costus

speciosus,Drymaria cordata, Eupatorium cannabinum, Ficus cunia,

Ptris biaurita, Rumex nepalensis, Urtica dioica

Source: Adopted from Misra and Dutta (2003); JICA (2009)

3.4 Over extraction of select species have made them highly threatened in the wild. Significant among

them are Aconitum heterophyllum, Nardostachys jatamansi, Podophyllum hexandrum and Picrorhiza

kurrooa that have been included under the endangered category. However, to control exploitation of

these high value medicinal plants and facilitate their regeneration, Department of Forest, Environment

and Wildlife Department has imposed a ban on collection of these species from the wild.

3.5 To compensate for the loss, seeds of some high return giving species like Swertia chirata have been

distributed by the Department of Agriculture for cultivation. Department of Forest, Environment and

Wildlife Management has provided training on propagation techniques for Aconitum, Podophyllum and

Picrorhiza, but this has not been able to generate sustained returns from the investment.

3.6 Despite only partially successful ventures with some high demand and high return yielding medicinal

plant species, Government of Sikkim has continues with its effort to popularize medicinal plant farming.

By doing this it hopes to safeguard the wild gene pool of these important medicinal species. According

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to recent estimates about 590 farmers have been registered as cultivators, 209 as collectors, and 202 as

traders.

4. Food, Fodder and other uses

4.1 About 190 species have been identified by communities of Sikkim that have high edible values or as

fodder plants or are used for various other purposes. Almost all parts of the plant like the root, stem,

leaves, rhizomes bulbs or fruits are either consumed or are used for various purposes.

4.2 Species that are preferred most as edibles include Pentapanax leschenaultii, Nasturtium officinale,

Paeonia emodi for their shoots; Girardinia palmate, Urtica dioica, Phytolacca acinosa, Rheum nobile for

leaves; and, Tupistra nutans and Rhododendron arboretum for flower and they are eaten either as

vegetables or as pickles or beverages. Some of these species have high medicinal values too. Popular

delicacies included at least five species of bamboos; about 200 species of wild mushrooms (of which

only a few species are extensively sold); ferns of genus Diplazium; and, fruits of Machilus edulis,

Actinidia sp. among others.

4.3 Likewise leaves of species like Machilus spp., Basia butyracea, Bauhinia variagata, Celtis tetrandra,

Castanopsis spp., and others offer high value fodder for cattle.

4.4 During suitable seasons these species find their way to local market in huge quantities and helps

local vegetable sellers to earn significant returns from the sales

4.5 Because of their demand among consumers many NTFPs are collected in considerably large

quantities from the wild habitats. This practice can have two implications – firstly, a large number of

these species are also consumed by the wild animals. If these species are collected from forest in large

proportions it may lead to shortfall of the wild edibles in the forests. This coupled with easy access to

such NTFPs in cultivation lands in the forest fringe villages can lure the wild animals to the crop fields to

feed upon the often ready to harvest crops leading to serious human-wildlife conflict situations.

Secondly, while some species, e.g. Machilus edulis, may be regenerated artificially under nursery

conditions easily, most species fail to do so. Therefore, collection of large quantities of these wild edible

plants or their fruits from natural habitat has seriously affected their survival, propagation and natural

regeneration, thus negatively impacting the overall habitat conditions.

4.6 In spite of the prohibition imposed by the Forest Department on extraction and collection of some

NTFPs from forests certain forest produces like bamboo shoots, ferns, stinging nettles (Urtica dioica) or

fruits of M. edulis still make their way to the local markets and are sold at reasonably high prices.

5. Alien and invasive species

5.1 Colonisation of invasive species in mountainous areas is not unheard of and they include both plant

and animal species. Informal discussions with communities have revealed that the invasive plant species

or Banmara as they are commonly referred to have increased in last few years and have colonised the

fallow lands. Invasive species menace has not been felt in alarming scale so far.

5.2 With trend towards climate change it can be presumed that fast colonising invasive plants are likely

to expand their range. Species like Lantana camara, Rumex nepalensis, Eupatoricum odoratum, Mikenia

sp., Polygonm spp and aquatic weeds have been found to cause problem at some places inhibiting the

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regeneration and growth of indigenous species and are also adversely impacting agriculture, forestry,

fishery, health and tourism activities.

5.3 On the other side, these invasive species are also used by local communities as fodder or as raw

materials for manure. The fact that most have fast growth rate they are never in short supply.

6. Recommendations

6.1 Controlled procurement of provisioning services and Ex-situ culture of medicinal plants and selected

wild edibles: Market survey has shown that there has been no down trend in demand for wild edibles

and the supplies have kept up in the daily, weekly or seasonal market. Marketing of these provisions are

usually act as a source of income for a large number of small scale fruit and vegetable sellers. Therefore,

a complete ban on their marketing can adversely affect livelihood of these groups to a great extent. To

reduce the pressure on the wild habitat by rampant collection of these produces, a rotational system of

collection from only strictly demarcated areas should be permitted. Tree species like the M. edulis unlike

some other tree can be regenerated efficiently in culture. Thus, a similar method of Ex-situ conservation

can also be attempted for species like M. edulis to not only open up an avenue of income for

communities, but can also be re-established in their habitat with suitable plantation procedures.

6.2 Controlling invasive species: Dialogue with communities suggests that they are not too concerned by

the spreading weeds as it gives them opportunity to procure fodder and raw materials for manure

without venturing into forests. In addition to that species like Eupatorium sp. is known for its dye

yielding property. This can be harnessed and community based dye manufacturing plants can be

conceptualized to provide an alternative mode of income for the communities. However invasive

species can replace indigenous species, by invading their natural habitat and in this manner altering the

vegetation composition of natural forest patch. To understand the extent and impact of invasive species

on the local biodiversity it is important to first conduct detailed study of the issue to establish the factual

situation on ground.

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CONCLUSION

1.1 In the face of generally bleak regional scenario of north-eastern region marked with destruction and

degradation of natural resources, loss of biodiversity and overall decline in natural capital of the states;

Sikkim stands out as a beacon of hope on conservation and sustainable development. With its small size,

small population base, a mountainous terrain, Sikkim has been successful in not only protecting its

fragile environment but also in enhancing and enriching its natural resource base. This has been possible

on account of unique culture and ethnic traditions of the people of the state which values happiness and

well-being in relation to nature. The government of Sikkim deserves commendation for its unwavering

support to sustainable development without compromising on conserving its pristine environment and

in a way meeting just aspirations of Sikkimese people. Through consistent policy signals and strong

governance mechanism the state has been able to chart an enviable future for green development that

can thrives on natural capital base while addressing the economic growth and welfare needs of common

people.

1.2 In contrast to most of the other states of India, Sikkim has been successful in its endeavor towards

green development as the state approached development problems differently and instead of running

into ecological deficit, it chose to remain committed on sustainable development pathway by focusing

on its comparative advantage in natural resource endowment and converting it into a strategic good.

Instead of mainstream approach of promoting manufacturing sector as a driver of growth and a

precursor to development of service sector, it is in process of tunneling through the growth curve and

transition straight to service sector based economy like eco-tourism.

1.3 The story of Sikkim holds important lessons in policy making at the regional and national level. In fact

the Sikkim approach should stimulate policy debate on the growth paradigm that rules the government

planning and development approach by illuminating alternate pathways to development process

especially for the states in north-east. For this to happen, the fundamental policy and planning

processes related to budgetary allocation, planned investments and infrastructure development should

account for unique features of economies like Sikkim by devising mechanisms for accounting the natural

capital and value of environmental functions of states’ natural resources. This however does not naively

assume that growth model of a small state with unique natural environment can be transplanted to

other and bigger states of India but argues for a closer understanding of the growth approach and

framework adopted by Sikkim which can inform policy making in other states.

1.4 Sikkim however faces some long-term challenges to its green growth pathway especially from the

structural deficiencies in its economy which has led to macroeconomic imbalances evident in rising

public debt and widening budget deficit. While the special state status that ensures preferential financial

treatment from Center has helped Sikkim to ward off deleterious impact of fiscal imbalance, it is

nevertheless important to sustain the growth rates and trend towards poverty reduction. To sustain the

momentum in current growth rate, it will have to gather pace on developing sectors like eco-tourism,

hydro power and knowledge economy as the driver of employment generation and economic growth.

Sustained growth in these sectors will also have a salutary effect in keeping pressure on forests and

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other natural resources within carrying capacity and in addition will generate revenue for further

investments in conservation.

1.5 Scarcity of land is likely to assume significant importance in Sikkim and would require serious debate

on long-term land-use planning policy. With the growing population, demand for growth and

employment will only increase and land is critical input for sustaining economic development. Skewed

land distribution among socioeconomic and ethnic groups may also assume political overtones and

create conditions for conflict. To preempt the latent social and political strain related to land, the

Government of Sikkim should look for new policy framework based on dialogue and political consensus

to address emerging challenges of economic growth and environmental protection.

1.6 Sikkim though predominantly rural is witnessing distinct trends towards urbanization. As per the

latest Census report (2011), one in four person (or 24.96% of state population) in Sikkim, live in nine

towns of the state. The decadal growth rate of urban population is 153 percent and maximum rate has

been registered at South District (434%). The tremendous growth in urban population is posing

tremendous challenges towards urban management especially in view of the mountainous terrain and

frequent landslides that occur in the state. Growing urban population is leading to more demands for

urban civic infrastructure and amenities putting strain on local resources. Gangtok faced water shortage

last summer which was unprecedented. To meet long-term challenges of urbanization, Sikkim has to

make sensible investment in urban infrastructure and at the same time reduce population pressure on

too few towns. The JNURM programme is likely to boost urban infrastructure of Gangtok but

infrastructure in rest of the towns is a matter of concern.

1.7 Sikkim has received over INR 29 crore (over 8 crore in 2009-’10 and over 21.13 crore in 2010-’11)

from Center under Compensatory Afforestation Planning and Management Authority (CAMPA). A total

of 53 percent or 337.67 lakh of Net Present Value (NPV) component of the fund is earmarked for

infrastructure development. Judicious management of funds is essential for maintaining the forest base

of the state however serious flaws in fund utilization persist with 53 percent of the CAMPA fund has

been diverted to non-forest activities. CAMPA funds are vital resources for regenerating forest tracts

and for consolidating habitats as a compensation for diversion of forest land for non-forestry purposes.

1.8 The threat of climate change presents long-term challenges to Sikkim, especially in face of its unique

bio-geographic environment which makes it ecologically highly vulnerable and sensitive to climate

impact. A small change in climate pattern is likely to have disproportionately high and disruptive

changes in its ecology, environment and economy. Being a small state, most of the anthropogenic

factors determining trends on climate change will be played out outside the boundary of the state, at

the regional level i.e Himalayas. However to reduce the impacts, Sikkim will have to proactively seek

local solutions towards adaptation mainly by maintaining its natural resource base, promoting local

grass-root level measures for water security, by reducing fuelwood demand for household energy on

forests and finally by advancing a more diversified approach to livelihood for the community reducing

excessive dependence on agriculture.

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1.9 The upward trends in tourism inflow in recent years though a boost to state economy is nevertheless

going to test the state’s capacity to sustain growth with particularly in relation to rising pressure on

environment and in face of weak infrastructure resources. The state’s tourism infrastructure would

require expansion and up gradation and at the same time the anticipated increase in tourism footprint

activities on states’ environment also need to be understood clearly before its start to have adverse

impact. Relentless increase in tourist flow is likely to pose threat to biodiversity from bio-piracy,

smuggling and other means of offences. All this would test government’s ability to make right policy

choices in face of competing strategic options keeping in mind the long-term interest and commitment

towards sustainable environment and well being of people.

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http://mdoner.gov.in/

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