Signs of Damage:Laboratory Roots,

Assessment, & Treatment

Eb Blakely, Ph.D., BCBA-DQuest, Inc. & Florida Institute of Technology

Signs of Damage: Skinner From "Contingencies of Reinforcement"

Page 51: "The principle also holds for aggressive behavior. At a time when men were often plundered and killed, by animals and other men, it was important that any behavior which harmed or frightened predators should be quickly learned and long sustained. Those who were most strongly reinforced by evidences of damage to others should have been most likely to survive."

Page 129: "A person who is at the moment aggressive is one who, among other characteristics, shows a heightened probability of behaving verbally or nonverbally in such a way that someone is damaged..."

Page 195: "Azrin, for example, has studied the stereotyped, mutually aggressive behavior evoked when two organisms receive brief electric shocks. But he and his associates have also demonstrated that the opportunity to engage in such behavior functions as a reinforcer and, as such, may be used to shape an indefinite number of "aggressive" operants of arbitrary topographies. Evidence of damage to others may be reinforcing for phylogenic reasons because it is associated with competitive survival. Competition in the current environment may make it reinforcing for ontogenic reasons."

Signs of Damage: StimuliWhat stimuli are involved?Visual stimuli – blood, bruising, scratches, “upset” expressions

Auditory stimuli – crying, screaming, reports of harm or ill fortune

Damage to environmentResponse produced stimuli – pressure on teeth, pressure on hands/feet

Early Non-Human ResearchShock “elicited” fightingSubjects: RatsProcedure: Rats exposed to shockMeasure: # of episodes of fightingAggression was called “reflexive”Results: Most shocks evoked fighting

Early Non-Human ResearchShock “elicited” biting of inanimate objectsSubjects: RatsProcedure: Rats exposed to shockMeasure: # of episodes of biting of metal, wood,

or rubber targets

Human Application

Pain may evoke aggression reinforced by signs of damageHeadacheDental workAggression to perpetrator

Early Non-Human ResearchAggression associated with schedules of reinf

Subjects: PigeonsProcedure: Ss exposed to FR 50Measure: # attacks to target pigeonResults: Most attacks occurred after reinforcer

offset

Early Non-Human ResearchWhat kind of target is most often attacked?Subjects: PigeonsProcedure: Ss exposed to FR 80-120Measure: # attacks to target (Mirror, Live

protected, Stuffed)

Early Non-Human ResearchBiting as a function of FR sizeSubjects: Squirrel monkeysProcedure: Ss exposed to FR schedules (50-200)Measure: # bites of a rubber hoseResults: Most biting occurred after reinforcer offset

as a function of ratio size

Early Non-Human ResearchBiting during extinction of responding

Human Application

Reinforcer offset: Leaving reinforcement programs

Large work requirements with tiny reinforcers!

Early Non-Human ResearchOpportunity to Aggress: Is it a reinforcer?Subjects: PigeonsProcedure: 1) FI schedule for food and 2) 2nd key pecks access to a target pigeon

Recent Non-Human ResearchOpportunity to Aggress: Is it a reinforcer?Subjects: MiceProcedure: Intruder mouse presented after completion

of FR 8 vs ExtResults: Concurrent food schedule not needed

Go

Human Application

“I just want to break something!!”Seeking out targetsAnimal abuse

SummaryAversive stimuli will evoke aggression

Shock Reinforcement offset Work requirements Heat Strikes to body

The opportunity to aggress will function as a reinforcer for behavior Most likely occurs when aversive stimuli are present May occur without “motivators”

ConclusionsAggression evoked by aversive stimuli is not “reflexive”

If operant, what reinforces it? Signs of damage (cf Skinner): cowering, crying, blood, running away Pressure on body part used to attack (e.g., teeth, fists)

How do we talk about this? Signs of damage-related stimuli may be naturally reinforcing in some

species, or some members of a species EO s may be aversive events, schedules of reinforcement, and

reinforcement termination.

We should address this in behavioral assessment and Tx

Implications

Standard Functional Analyses Unclear results But naturalistic observations suggested that attention was a factor, but

attention was given in loud, emotionally-charged bouts

David M. Richman and Louis P. Hagopian

Implications

Idiosyncratic Conditions in Functional Analysis Exaggerated Attention: “dramatic reaction to Tim’s destructive behaviors

that included a high level of voice intonation, verbal phrases such as “I can’t believe that you just did that,” and physical signs of displeasure such as waving his/her hands frantically. “

Case #1

Functional analysis: property destructionThrowing items/tipping chairs increased when mom

reacted “frustrated” or “aggravated” compared to neutral reprimands.

Put audio of mom on iPad for free time

Case Study #2

Descriptive assessment informationEngages in SIB (arm scratching, and picking) during

free time that produces bloodEngages in aggression when denied access Looks for bruising/cuts after aggression

Engages in property destruction when denied access Carefully looks at the item Mands for item to break!

Case Study #2

Blood Water Dora Book Drawing Nuts Bandaid0

1

2

3

4

5

6Preference Assessment Over 4 Exposures

Ran

k

Case Study #2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 70

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Sessions

Freq

uenc

y of

sel

ectio

ns = = Blood = Blood = Blood

Reinforcer Assessment: Conc FR 1 (Finger + blood) FR 1 (Finger only)

Case Study #2 Program

Tx elementsReplacement skill: Select alternatives when denied accessWaitingFade in work requirementsVR instead of FR schedulesMand for delay of reinforcer offset

Calendar of when events will occurExtinction? Withhold signs of damageWear long sleeves during sessions

Punishment – loss of items/activities/contingent brisk walking

Implications for Tx and AssessmentBehavior Assessment

Preference assessments Standard preference assessments with signs of damage stimuli Preference assessments in presence of aversive stimuli

Interviews should address thisFunctional analyses with signs of damage Cowering targets “Upset” caregivers Contingent property destruction Objects to hit/bite

Go

Go

Implications for Tx and Assessment

Programmatic ProceduresAntecedent manipulationsReplacement skillsConcurrent schedules of reinforcement for

appropriate behaviorReduction procedures

MedicationsGo

Sample Program

Antecedent ManipulationsRemove target - When sister hits James, separate Remove target during work requirements - Keep

sister away from James when he is engaged in chores

Frequent physical games & exercise Have potential targets do pairing

Function: Signs of Damage

Review Article

Sample Program

Acquisition Skills Requests for physical activity Leaving reinforcement Use large magnitude reinforcers

Waiting programs Slowly increase wait time Use variable time requirements vs fixed Especially consider waiting in divided attention situations

Task completion Slowly increase response requirements Use large magnitude reinforcers Consider VR instead of FR schedules

Function: Signs of Damage

Sample Program

Multiple schedules Alternate situations when reinforcers are available with

those in which they are notReduction Procedures

Removal of targets Extinction: Withhold signs of damage if possible Punishment? Side effects! Punishment maybe an EO for further signs of

damage maintained aggression

Function: Signs of Damage

Extensions to Behavior Analytic Concepts

“Extinction-induced” aggression – is it “reflexive?”Extinction as EO for signs of damage-related stimuli

Side effects of punishment: aggression!Punishment stimuli as EO for signs of damage-related stimuli

Future Research Questions

Preference assessments with and without aversive stimuli Denied access to preferred stimuli Leaving reinforcement Task presentation

Inclusion of signs of damage-related stimuli in standard functional analysis Typical attention vs “upset” caregiver Sight of blood and or bruising Sight/sound of property destruction

Questions???

Implications (continued)

Structured Interview Questions Does the person seek out items to break? Does the person seek out blood or injury? After aggression, does the person attempt to see the injuries of

the victim? Does the behavior occur when denied access to items/activities,

even though they have not been given after the behavior? Does the person aggress after consuming a reinforcer for which

he/she had to work hard? Does the person seem to enjoy seeing others upset? Does the person tend to throw objects when denied access to

items/activities?

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Aggression as a Built-in Reinforcer

Betta Splendens

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Aggression as a Built-in Reinforcer

Round 1

Preference AssessmentsTask AssessFree time Assess

Denied access AssessFree access Assess

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Effects of Exercise: ASD Participants

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