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2.4.1 Interpersonal Communication:

Direct interpersonal communication involves a direct face-to-face relationship between the sender

and receiver of a message, who are in an interdependent relationship. Because of interpersonal

communications immediacy (it is taking place now) and primacy (it is taking place here), it is

characterized by a strong feedback component. Communication is enhanced when the relationship

exists over a long period of time. Interpersonal communication involves not only the words used

but also the various elements of nonverbal communication. The purposes of interpersonal

communication are to influence, help and discover, as well as to share and play together.

Interpersonal communication can be categorized by the number of participants.

Dyadic communication involves two people. Example: Two friends

talking.

Group communication involves three or more persons, though

communication scholars are inconsistent as to the top end of the

number scale. The smaller the number in the group, the more closely

this mode resembles interpersonal communication. Often group

communication is done for the purpose of problem solving or

decision making. Example: University study group.

Group CommunicationMuch communication takes place in the context of small groups, which are defined as those of

three or more participants. The various and overlapping types of small groups lead to various types

of communication patterns.

Social groups are units such as families, friends living as roommates, and voluntary

recreational groups such as soccer teams.

Families also form primary groups, which are defined as those in which people share living

and financial arrangements.

Families also are an example of reference groups, through which participants gain a sense

of identity and an awareness of expected behavior.

Work groups are another pattern of relationships. These are built by people who are drawn

together by a common task, such as students working together on a project or company

employees assigned to a common job activity.

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Decision-making groups are brought together for the purpose of dealing with a question or

policy.

Similarly though distinctly, problem-solving groups focus on resolving a problem.

The working of groups has been the subject of much study, particularly from the framework of

organizational communication. Leadership styles of small groups have been identified generallyin a three-part continuum ranging from high control (authoritarian leaders) through moderate

control (democratic leaders) to low control (laissez-faire leaders). A fourth type, called abdacratic,

involves the total collapse of leadership over uncontrolled group dynamics. Psychologists andcommunication scholars have observed a pattern of group development, usually presented in a

four-fold model

The process begins with an orientation phase in which participants get to know each other

and learn what is expected of them as a group.

In the conflict phase, they deal with sources of conflict, usually in an effort to avoid

conflict within the group. Too much conflict can prevent the group from functioning.However, some conflict is useful to avoid the pressure toward conformity known as

groupthink.

This norm emergence phase centers on compromise, the convergence of ideas, generation

of alternative solutions, and eventually consensus. A technique often used to enhance theearly part of this phase is brainstorming, in which unrestrained possible solutions and

options are generated with no self-censorship or initial group evaluation. The purpose of

brainstorming is to generate as many ideas as possible. Only after the ideas have beengenerated will they be evaluated, keeping the two steps separate and thus allowing the

group to consider all possible options.

The closure phase completes the process by concluding the groups work.

Public communication involves a large group with a primarily one-way monologue style

generating only minimal feedback. Information sharing, entertainment and persuasion are commonpurposes of public communication. Example: Lecture in university class.

Another way of categorizing interpersonal communication is on the function or setting of the

communication.

Organizational communication deals with communication within large organizations such as

businesses. This is sometimes considered part of group communication, but communication

scholars have built up a body of knowledge focused primarily on organizations. Example: Workfocused discussion between employer and employee.

Family communication focuses on communication patterns within nuclear, extended and blended

families. Like organizational communication, this too is sometimes seen as part of the generalcategory of group communication, but much research has been focused specifically on

communication within a family relationship. Family communication can be enhanced by the long-

standing and close relationships among participants as well as the likelihood that families have

shared heritage, similar values, and social rituals. Patterns differ in communication betweenspouses, between parent and child, among siblings, and within the wider family context. Example:

Conversation during a holiday meal.

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Additionally, some scholars identify a category of impersonal communication. This is a

distinction between impersonal and interpersonal communication on the basis of the quality of theinteraction. Impersonal communication is that which involves functional short-term exchanges

such as might occur between a shopper and a salesman; the label of interpersonal is reserved for

communication that functions in deeper and more meaningful relationships.

The process of interpersonal communication includes several stages over an extended life cycle.

Communication scholar Mark Knapp has outlined one useful framework for understanding thecoming-together process. Note that these stages can be applied to personal friendships, romantic

relationships, business encounters, and many other types of interaction.

The initial encounter offers a first impression that can be full of communication data. Likesor dislikes can be instantaneous, though many people have learned that first impressions

may be misleading.

Experimenting is the second step in interpersonal communication. In this step, information

is exchanged on a variety of topics general and safe at first, gradually becoming more

personal and more self-revealing.

Intensifying follows when the experimentation leads to positive mutual conclusions that the

relationship is worth pursuing.

The fourth step in interpersonal communication is integration, in which mutual decisions

are made that the relationship is fulfilling. This is the stage of intense friendships, closebusiness partnerships, romantic commitments, and so on.

Bonding is the final stage, in which the relationship is sealed (often formally with contractsor written agreements) and generally is publicized (such as through announcements).

Knapp also outlined a similar reverse pattern for the unraveling of interpersonal

relationships:

Differentiating mirrors the initiating phase but focuses instead on the differences thatpeople notice about each other.

Communication likewise plays a central role in the circumscribing stage, during which

time participants in the relationship begin to minimize their communication and confine itto mainly functional topics.

Stagnating is the next stage, in which the relationship becomes flat and personally

unfulfilling and is continued mainly for reasons beyond the relationship, such as religiousor family obligation, contractual obligation, or social expectation.

Overt unpleasantness is evident in the avoidance stage, in which the participants in

interpersonal communication both avoid each other and express mutual annoyance when

they encounter each other. Termination if the final stage of breakdown, at which time legal, religious or other formal

contracts are abrogated and the demise of the relationship is announced to others.

Interpersonal communication occurs when two (or a few) people talk face to

face. Conversations, dialogues, and small group discussions are interpersonal

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exchanges. Each person also operates interpersonally during the exchange.

Thus, an exchange with just two people involves at least three communication

elements the unique thinking done by each person and the overriding

process created by the interpersonal exchange. For example, imagine that you

accidentally met your friend after a long time. You had a brief chat with him.

But you think of meeting him again next evening. Your friend at the same time

too thinks of having another meeting with you, in the afternoon, as he is

leaving by the evening flight. After some discussion you agree to meet at the

breakfast time as you have a busy schedule the whole afternoon.

Behavior and Interpersonal Communication: In its simplest form,

interpersonal relations are the interactions between two or more persons. We

keep coming in contact with other people for personal, professional, social or

business reasons. Whatever the context, there is an interaction between

personalities in all these situations. Our perception about each other is based

on the displayed behavior. The environment in which personal interaction

takes place is largely determined by the behavior of the parties involved. All

behaviors are motivated. The motives however, may be known or unknown,

clear or unclear, controlled or uncontrolled. The net result is the variety in

behaviors. Behaviors determine the quality of interpersonal relationships by

directly influencing every transaction in interaction. In the organizational

context, interpersonal relations become extremely important for smooth

functioning of the system, greater coherence, and convergence of effort and

minimization of conflict. To communicate well, we need to know our frames of

reference and ourselves and to be able to assess other people. Only then can

we hope to find the best ways in which to communicate effectively with them,

both to pass information and build relationships.

Some of the reasons we do not assess other people well are given

below:

We assume that people would behave the same way in every situation. We try too hard to put everyone into consistent categories.

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We are too influenced by first impressions. We are positively influenced where we have common characteristics

with other people, e.g. same school, same function. We are too influenced by apparent negative points, e.g. if someone is

not very good at short-term decision making, we might assume that

he/she is not going to be good at long-term planning either. We make constant errors because of our own limited frames ofreference and self-concept.

The Contextual View:Interpersonal communication differs from other forms

of communication in that there are few participants involved. The interact-ants

are in close physical proximity to each other, there are many sensory channels

used, and feedback is immediate. An important point to note about the

contextual definition is that it does not take into account the relationship

between the interact-ants. Interpersonal communication is contextual, In

other words, communication does not happen in isolation. There is:

Psychological context, which is who you are and what you bring to

the interaction. Your needs, desires, values, personality, etc., all form

the psychological context. ("You" here refers to both participants in the

interaction.)

Relational context, which concerns your reactions to the other

person--the "mix."

Situational context deals with the psycho-social "where" you are

communicating. An interaction that takes place in a classroom will be

very different from one that takes place in a restaurant.

Environmental context deals with the physical "where" you are

communicating. Furniture, location, noise level, temperature, season,

time of day, all are examples of factors in the environmental context.

Cultural context includes all the learned behaviors and rules that

affect the interaction. If you come from a culture (foreign or within your

own country) where it is considered rude to make long, direct eye

contact, you will out of politeness avoid eye contact. If the other person

comes from a culture where long, direct eye contact signals

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trustworthiness, then we have in the cultural context a basis for

misunderstanding.

The Developmental View: We have many different relationships with

people. Some researchers say that our definition of interpersonal

communication must account for these differences. These researchers say

that interacting with a sales clerk in a store is different than the relationship

we have with our friends and family members. Thus, some researchers have

proposed an alternative way of defining interpersonal communication. This is

called the developmental view. From this view, interpersonal communication is

defined as communication that occurs between people who have known each

other for some time. Importantly, these people view each other as unique

individuals, not as people who are simply acting out social situations.

Interpersonal channels include conversations and dialogues, interviews, and

small groups. Conversations involve unstructured, informal, and slightly

purposive communication transactions. They may not relate directly to

business, but nonetheless contribute to smooth business functioning.

Dialogues introduce purpose in relatively structured and formal transactions.

The interview is a special type of dialogue. It involves purposes such as

appraising an applicant for a job or disseminating information to the media. In

the directive interview, the interviewer commands the transaction. In the

nondirective interview, both parties give direction to the interview. The stress

interviewer uses emotion-laden questions to determine how well the stress

interviewer handles stress. The depth interview involves a directive probe into

the topic. Small groups include four to ten people, with location, time, topic,

purpose, formality, designation, and cohesion having an impact on the

transaction. Methods for conducting group meetings include problem solving,

educating, brain storming, and role-playing.

Functions of Interpersonal Communication: Interpersonal communication

is important because of the functions it achieves. Whenever we engage in

communication with another person, we seek to gain information about them.

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We also give off information through a wide variety of verbal and nonverbal

cues.

The various functions of interpersonal communication are:

o Gaining Information: One reason that we engage in

interpersonal communication is to gain knowledge about another

individual. Social Penetration Theory says that we attempt to gain

information about others so that we can interact with them more

effectively. We can better predict how they will think, feel, and act

if we know who they are. We gain this information passively, by

observing them; actively, by having others engage them; or

interactively, by engaging them ourselves. Self-disclosure is often

used to get information from another person.

o Building a Context of Understanding: We also engage in

interpersonal communication to help us better understand what

someone says in a given context. The words we say can mean

very different things depending on how they are said or in what

context. Content Messages refer to the surface level meaning of a

message. Relationship Messages refer to how a message is said.

The two are sent simultaneously, but each affects the meaning

assigned to the communication. Interpersonal communication

helps us understand each other better.

o Establishing Identity: Another reason that we engage in

interpersonal communication is to establish an identity. The roles

we play in our relationships help us establish identity. So too does

the face, the public self-image we present to others. Both rolesand face are constructed based on how we interact with others.

o Interpersonal Needs: Finally, we engage in interpersonal

communication because we need to express and receive

interpersonal needs. The three identified needs are:

Inclusion: the need to establish identity with others.

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Control: the need to exercise leadership and prove one's

abilities. Groups provide outlets for this need. Some

individuals do not want to be a leader. For them, groups

provide the necessary control over aspects of their lives.

Affection: the need to develop relationships with people.

Groups are an excellent way to make friends and establish

relationships.

Johari Window: A diagram called the Johari Window (above) provides a useful way to

graphically visualize the process of self-disclosure. The four quadrants of panes represent the

different ways information can be seen and observed, both by oneself and by others. The openpane includes what everyone can see: your physical looks, occupation, economic and socialsituation, as well as what you say and write. The hidden pane includes information about yourself

that you have not revealed to others: secrets, hopes, fantasies. The blind pane is what others see in

you that you cannot see: shortcoming, talents, faults. Finally, the unknown pane includesinformation that nobody yet knows: untapped potential, undiscovered interests.

Mediated communication: Mediated Interpersonal CommunicationMediated interpersonal communication involves technology that assists or links the sender and

receiver of messages. This may involve immediacy (live, or so-called real time). It does not

involve a primary context but instead uses technology to link the various parties in communication.

Dyadic communication includes two people, with some of the elements of interpersonal,

but the context is not face-to-face. Example: Two business colleagues using the telephone

or e-mail. Group communication includes a small group of people. Example: Teleconference in a

distance learning class.

Mediated communication offers the advantage that it allows people to communicate over a

distance or throughout a time span that would not be possible in direct communication. E-mail

offers instantaneous global communication, and cell phones are highly mobile. Computertechnology makes it possible for people to do their job without being physically present, allowing

them to work from their home or from across the world.

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Like direct communication, mediated communication may be formal or informal, personal or

public. Feedback may be immediate or delayed. Machines even can assist in communication across

language.

Mediated communication has several inherent limitations, including the ability of telephone or

Internet users to mask or disguise the source of the message, or the susceptibility of machines to

various mechanical or technological noise sources. This level of communication occurs

when two (or a few) people use some intermediate means for carrying their

messages. They do not communicate face to face and thus do not have direct

feedback. Mediated communication often uses a mechanical or electrical

device to transmit or receive messages. Examples include the telephone,

closed-circuit television, radio, radar, and the communication satellite.

Mediated communication also occurs through letters, reports, forms, andinteroffice memoranda.

Person-to-Group Communication: The person-to-group level involves one

speaker and audience. The speaker usually faces the audience, and the

audience usually contains people with similar interests. A small, private

person-to-group situation often has some of the characteristics of

interpersonal communication. However, for large public groups, the person-to-

group level lacks the benefits provided by interpersonal exchanges. The

traditional speaker and audience setting may include microphones, projectors,

and tape player.

Mass Communication: Mass communication includes messages sent to

large, public, dissimilar, anonymous, distant audiences using some

intermediate instrument of transfer. The instruments include electronic (for

example, radio, television, tape, and film) and print (for example, newspaper,magazine, book, pamphlet, brochure, direct mail campaign). The restricted

opportunity for feedback is the most serious barrier to effective mass

communication. The "mass media," as they are often called, have grown to

include the print media of books, newspapers and magazines, the electronic

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media of television, radio, and audio/video recording, and the new media of

computers and computer networks. While these media differ in many ways,

they all share the characteristics by which scholars define mass

communication.

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