Edited by Lila Miller and Stephen Zawistowski

Shelter Medicine for Veterinarians and StaffSecond Edition

ShelterMedicine forVeterinarians

and StaffSecond Edition

ShelterMedicine forVeterinarians

and StaffSecond Edition

EditorsLila Miller, BS, DVM

Stephen Zawistowski, PhD, CAAB

A John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Publication

This edition first published 2013 C© 2013 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

First Edition C© 2004 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

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DisclaimerPlease note that this textbook is intended to provide general information on the subjects that are covered. Thevarious authors do not purport to be providing medical or legal advice, nor should the reader make suchinference. The forms included in this book are intended to be used as general models, not to substitute for legaladvice from the shelter’s own attorney. Note that any forms and agreements in this book are guides for yourshelter and may help expedite your attorney’s representation of your shelter, but that the forms and agreementsincluded herein may need to be modified to comply with the laws in your home state, changes in the law thatoccur after this book’s publication date, and the particular details of your shelter’s operations, policies, andprocedures. Please consult with an attorney practicing law in your state who is familiar with your shelter, andwho is qualified to advise on the substantive areas of law covered by these forms and agreements. Furthermore,any medical or behavioral advice is provided to expedite veterinary care; use of information provided hereindoes not relieve the veterinarian of their legal and ethical responsibility to use sound professional judgment indetermining what is in the best interest of their patient.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Shelter medicine for veterinarians and staff / editors, Lila Miller, Stephen Zawistowski. – 2nd ed.p. ; cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-0-8138-1993-8 (pbk. : alk. paper)1. Veterinary medicine. 2. Pets–Diseases. 3. Animal shelters. I. Miller, Lila. II. Zawistowski, Stephen.

[DNLM: 1. Veterinary Medicine–methods. 2. Animal Diseases–diagnosis. 3. Animal Diseases–prevention& control. 4. Animal Welfare. SF 745]

SF745.S46 2013636.089–dc23

2012019512

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not beavailable in electronic books.

Set in 9.5/12 pt Times by Aptara R© Inc., New Delhi, India

1 2013

Dedication

We dedicated the first edition of Shelter Medicine for Veterinarians and Staff toDr. Lloyd Tait because he kindled the flame that became shelter medicine at theASPCA. We dedicate this second edition to the Association of ShelterVeterinarians and all those who provide care for animals in shelters. They havefanned the flames and ignited a revolution in how we think about the work we do.

Contents

Contributors xiAcknowledgment xvIntroduction xvii

Section 1: Introduction1 Introduction to Animal Sheltering 3

Stephen Zawistowski and Julie Morris

2 Population Statistics 13Janet Scarlett

3 Shelter Design 21Lucinda Schlaffer and Paul Bonacci

4 Sanitation 37Kay Steneroden

5 Administrative Issues 49Bonnie Yoffe-Sharp

6 Legal Issues for Shelters 59Jane McBride

Section 2: Husbandry7 Quality of Life, Stress, and Emotional Pain in Shelter Animals 83

Franklin D. McMillan

8 Population Management 93Sandra Newbury and Kate Hurley

9 Canine Care in the Animal Shelter 115Lila Miller and Stephanie Janeczko

10 Feline Care in the Animal Shelter 145Brenda Griffin

11 The Care of Small Mammals in the Animal Shelter 185Christopher S. Hanley

12 Reptile and Amphibian Care in the Animal Shelter 201Natalie Isaza and Ramiro Isaza

13 Avian Care in the Animal Shelter 225Debra A. Nicholson

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viii Contents

14 Temporary Care of Wildlife in the Animal Shelter 247Scott Diehl and Cheryl Diehl

15 Equine Care in the Animal Shelter 263Jeannine Berger, John Madigan and Kathryn Holcomb

Section 3: Infectious Disease16 Strategies for Management of Infectious Diseases in a Shelter 281

Miranda Spindel

17 Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases in Shelter Populations 287Janet Scarlett

18 Practical Overview of Common Infectious Disease Agents 297Elise Gingrich and Michael Lappin

19 Disease Recognition and Diagnostic Testing 329Kate Hurley and Patricia Pesavento

20 Treatment Strategies 343Julie D. Dinnage

21 Outbreak Management 349Jeanette O’Quin

Section 4: Animal Cruelty22 Overview of Animal Cruelty Laws 371

Stacy Wolf

23 Veterinary Forensics: Medical Evaluation of Abused Live Animals 383Robert W. Reisman

24 Examination of the Deceased Victim 407Melinda Merck

25 Forensic Toxicology 421Sharon Gwaltney-Brant

26 Animal Hoarding 431Gary Patronek

27 Animal Fighting 441Randall Lockwood

28 Equine Cruelty 453Pamela Corey

Section 5: Shelter Programs29 Emergency Medicine in the Animal Shelter 463

Cynthia D. Delany

30 Euthanasia 469Martha Smith-Blackmore

31 Foster Care 495Martha Smith-Blackmore and Sandra Newbury

Contents ix

32 Disaster and Emergency Planning and Response for Animal Shelters 517Kevin M. Dennison and Jeanie Lin

Section 6: Behavior33 Behavior Evaluation, Adoption, and Follow-Up 531

Emily Weiss and Heather Mohan-Gibbons

34 Behavioral Enrichment 541Katherine Miller and Stephen Zawistowski

35 Animal Behavior Forensics: Evaluation of Dangerous Dogs and Cruelty Victims 559Pamela J. Reid

36 Behavioral Pharmacotherapy in the Animal Shelter 569Amy Marder

Section 7: Spay/Neuter37 Spay/Neuter Services for Shelter and Community Animals 579

Kathleen V. Makolinski

38 Anesthesia and Pain Management 593Andrea Looney

39 Surgical Techniques for Spay/Neuter 625Philip A. Bushby

40 Pediatric Neutering 647Leslie Appel and Janet Scarlett

41 Management of Stray and Feral Community Cats 669Julie K. Levy and Christine L. Wilford

42 Nonsurgical Sterilization of Cats and Dogs 689Brenda Griffin

Appendix 1Resources for Veterinary and Shelter Professionals 697

Appendix 2Association of Shelter Veterinarians (ASV) Guidelines for Standards of Care in Animal Shelters 701

Index 703

Contributors

Leslie D. Appel, DVMExecutive Director, Shelter Outreach ServicesCourtesy Lecturer, Cornell University College of

Veterinary MedicineIthaca, New York

Jeannine Berger, DVM, DACVBDirector of Behavior ResourcesSan Francisco SPCASan Francisco, California

Paul Bonacci, AIA, LEED APPartnerARQ ArchitectsKittery, Maine

Philip A. Bushby, DVM, MS, DACVSMarcia Lane Endowed Professor of Humane Ethics

and Animal WelfareMississippi State University College of Veterinary

MedicineStarkville, Mississippi

Pamela Corey, DVMDirector of Equine Veterinary ServicesAmerican Society for the Prevention of Cruelty

to AnimalsNew York, New York

Cynthia D. Delany, DVMSupervising Shelter Veterinarian Yolo County

Animal ServicesUC Davis Koret Shelter Medicine ProgramDavis, CaliforniaExecutive DirectorCalifornia Animal Shelter Friends, Inc.Woodland, California

Kevin M. Dennison, BS, DVMRegional Emergency Programs ManagerUnited States Department of Agriculture, Animal

and Plant Health Inspection ServiceFort Collins, Colorado

Cheryl DiehlAnimal Care DirectorWildlife in Need CenterOconomowoc, Wisconsin

Scott DiehlWildlife ManagerWisconsin Humane SocietyWildlife Rehabilitation CenterMilwaukee, Wisconsin

Julie D. Dinnage, DVMSenior Veterinary Technical ConsultantElanco Companion Animal HealthScottsdale, Arizona

Elise N. Gingrich, DVM, MPH, MS, DACVPMSupervising VeterinarianLarimer Humane SocietyFort Collins, Colorado

Brenda Griffin, DVM, MS, DACVIMAdjunct Associate ProfessorDepartment of Small Animal Clinical SciencesUniversity of Florida College of Veterinary

MedicineGainesville, Florida

Sharon Gwaltney-Brant, DVM, PhD,DABVT, DABTVice President and Medical DirectorASPCA Animal Poison Control CenterUrbana, Illinois

xi

xii Contributors

Christopher S. Hanley, DVM, DACZMChief Veterinarian and Director of Animal HealthToledo ZooToledo, Ohio

Kathryn E. Holcomb, BS, MAPhD CandidateUniversity of California at DavisDavis, California

Kate F. Hurley, DVM, MPVMDirectorKoret Shelter Medicine ProgramCenter for Companion Animal HealthUC Davis School of Veterinary MedicineDavis, California

Natalie Isaza, DVMClinical Associate ProfessorShelter MedicineDepartment of Small Animal Clinical SciencesUniversity of Florida College of Veterinary

MedicineGainesville, Florida

Ramiro Isaza, DVM, MS, MPH, DACZMAssociate ProfessorZoological and Wildlife MedicineUniversity of FloridaGainesville, Florida

Stephanie Janeczko, DVM, MS, DABVPSenior Director Veterinary OutreachAmerican Society for the Prevention of Cruelty

to AnimalsNew York, New York

Michael Lappin, DVM, PhD, DACVIMProfessor, Department of Clinical SciencesVeterinary Medical CenterColorado State UniversityFort Collins, Colorado

Julie K. Levy, DVM, PhD, DACVIMDirector, Maddie’s Shelter Medicine ProgramUniversity of Florida College of Veterinary

MedicineGainesville, Florida

Jeanie Lin, BA, MLA, DVM, MPHRegional Emergency Programs ManagerUnited States Department of Agriculture,

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service,Animal Care

Raleigh, North Carolina

Randall Lockwood, PhD, CAABSenior Vice PresidentForensic Sciences and Anti-Cruelty ProjectsAmerican Society for the Prevention of Cruelty

to AnimalsFalls Church, Virginia

Andrea Looney, DVM, DACVA, CVA, CCRPClinical Assistant ProfessorCollege of Veterinary MedicineCornell University Hospital for AnimalsIthaca, New York

John Madigan, DVM, MS, DACVIMProfessorAssociate Director, Large Animal Clinic VMTHDirector, International Animal Welfare Training

InstituteUniversity of California, DavisDavis, California

Kathleen V. Makolinski, DVMSenior Director, Grants and Spay/Neuter ProgramsAmerican Society for the Prevention of Cruelty

to AnimalsNew York, New York

Amy Marder, VMD, CAABDirector of the Center for Shelter DogsAnimal Rescue League of BostonBoston, Massachusetts

Jane E. McBride, Esq.Senior Assistant Attorney GeneralIllinois Attorney General’s OfficeSpringfield, Illinois

Franklin D. McMillan, DVM, DACVIMDirector of Well-Being StudiesBest Friends Animal SocietyKanab, Utah

Contributors xiii

Melinda Merck, DVMVeterinary Forensics Consulting, LLCAtlanta, Georgia

Katherine Miller, PhD, CAAB, CPDTDirector, Applied Science and ResearchAmerican Society for the Prevention of Cruelty

to AnimalsNew York, New York

Lila Miller, BS, DVMVice President, Veterinary Outreach and Veterinary

AdvisorAmerican Society for the Prevention of Cruelty

to AnimalsNew York, New YorkAdjunct Assistant ProfessorUniversity of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary

MedicinePhiladelphia, PennsylvaniaAdjunct Assistant ProfessorCornell University College of Veterinary MedicineIthaca, New York

Heather Mohan-Gibbons, MS, RVT, ACAABDirector of Applied Research and BehaviorAmerican Society for the Prevention of Cruelty

to AnimalsNew York, New York

Julie Morris, MSSenior Vice President, Community OutreachAmerican Society for the Prevention of Cruelty

to AnimalsNew York, New York

Sandra Newbury, DVMNational Shelter Medicine Extension VeterinarianKoret Shelter Medicine Program Center for

Companion Animal HealthUC Davis School of Veterinary MedicineDavis, CaliforniaAdjunct Assistant ProfessorShelter Animal Medicine Department of

Pathobiological SciencesUniversity of Wisconsin School of Veterinary

MedicineMadison, Wisconsin

Debra Nicholson, DVMVeterinarianBest Friends Animal SocietyKanab, Utah

Jeanette O’Quin, DVM, MPHClinical Assistant ProfessorOhio State University College of Veterinary

MedicineColumbus, Ohio

Gary J. Patronek, VMD, PhDClinical Assistant ProfessorCummings School of Veterinary Medicine at

Tufts UniversityBoston, Massachusetts

Patricia A. Pesavento, DVM, PhD, DACVPAssociate Professor of Anatomic PathologyDepartment of Pathology, Microbiology and

ImmunologyUC Davis School of Veterinary MedicineDavis, California

Pamela J. Reid, PhD, CAABVice President, Anti-Cruelty Behavior TeamAmerican Society for the Prevention of Cruelty

to AnimalsUrbana, Illinois

Robert Reisman, DVMSenior Forensic Veterinarian, Bergh Memorial

Animal HospitalAmerican Society for the Prevention of Cruelty

to AnimalsNew York, New York

Janet M. Scarlett, DVM, MPH, PhDProfessor of EpidemiologyDirector, Maddie’s Shelter Medicine ProgramCornell University College of Veterinary

MedicineIthaca, New York

Lucinda Schlaffer, AIA, LEED APPartnerARQ ArchitectsKittery, Maine

xiv Contributors

Martha Smith-Blackmore, DVMDirector of Veterinary Medical ServicesAnimal Rescue League of BostonBoston, MassachusettsFellow, Tufts Center for Animals and Public PolicyClinical Assistant ProfessorCummings School of Veterinary Medicine at

Tufts UniversityNorth Grafton, Massachusetts

Miranda Spindel, DVM, MSSenior Director, Shelter MedicineAmerican Society for the Prevention of Cruelty

to AnimalsFort Collins, Colorado

Katie Steneroden, DVM, MPH, PhDPost Doctoral FellowAnimal Population Health InstituteColorado State University College of Veterinary

Medicine and Biomedical SciencesFort Collins, Colorado

Emily Weiss, PhD, CAABVice President, Shelter Research and DevelopmentAmerican Society for the Prevention of Cruelty

to AnimalsBenton, Kansas

Christine L. Wilford, DVMAssociate VeterinarianAtlantic Veterinary HospitalSeattle, Washington

Stacy Wolf, Esq.Vice President and Chief CounselHumane Law Enforcement and Legal

AdvocacyAmerican Society for the Prevention of Cruelty

to AnimalsNew York, New York

Bonnie Yoffe-Sharp, BS, DVMCity VeterinarianPalo Alto Animal ServicesPalo Alto, California

Stephen Zawistowski, PhD, CAABScience AdvisorAmerican Society for the Prevention of Cruelty

to AnimalsNew York, New YorkAdjunct Professor of Clinical MedicineUniversity of Illinois College of Veterinary

MedicineUrbana, Illinois

Acknowledgment

In the first edition, we began by thanking the ASPCAand our many colleagues here for their invaluablehelp and support in the effort to complete that text.In the years since, our debt has greatly increased.Once again, they have provided us with signifi-cant content for the book, as well as a wide rangeof professional, personal, and administrative sup-port. Drs. Kathy Makolinski, Miranda Spindel, andStephanie Janeczko from the ASPCA VeterinaryOutreach Department provided skills, information,and perspectives on shelter medicine not available tous while developing the first edition. We are alsopleased to acknowledge the continued support ofASPCA President and CEO Edwin Sayres and hiscommitment to evidence-based animal welfare.

Additional thanks go to Marion Lane, who pro-vided a sharp editing eye in the preparation of chap-ters for submission, and Diane Wilson, who kepttrack of myriad administrative details to keep thingsmoving along.

Once again, special thanks go to our families,who were supportive and tolerant of books andfiles strewn about living spaces and our sometimesabsence from family activities as we wrestled withwriting, editing, and fretting.

Thank you all.

Lila MillerStephen Zawistowski

xv

Introduction

Lila Miller and Stephen Zawistowski

Shelter medicine was truly in its infancy when workbegan in 2002 on the first edition of Shelter Medicinefor Veterinarians and Staff. The first formal veteri-nary class in shelter medicine was taught in 1999at Cornell University using informal handouts andmaterials gleaned from a variety of sources andadapted for application in a shelter setting. The Asso-ciation of Shelter Veterinarians (ASV) had just beenformed in 2001. The shelter medicine residency pro-gram at the veterinary college at UC Davis was apioneer program. While it seemed that the seeds hadbeen firmly planted for shelter medicine to becomean established specialty within veterinary medicine,it was still largely unknown just how much interest orsupport would be generated at the university level oramong general practitioners. Regardless of the direc-tion that formal studies of shelter medicine wouldtake, within a year after the first edition of ShelterMedicine for Veterinarians and Staff was publishedin 2004, it was clear from favorable peer reviewsand the demand from shelters and veterinarians thata second edition was needed. There have been severalother important developments in the field of sheltermedicine, including the publication of the textbookInfectious Disease Management in Animal Sheltersby Miller and Hurley in 2009 and the release ofthe ASV’s Veterinary Medical Care Guidelines forSpay–Neuter Programs (Looney et al., 2008) andGuidelines for Standards of Care in Animal Shel-ters (ASV, 2010). The two documents produced bythis highly regarded and experienced group of vet-erinarians are referenced throughout this textbook.Of particular note for animal sheltering is that theASV guidelines are based upon the Five Freedomsthat were developed for the welfare of farm animalsin the United Kingdom in 1965. (The Five Freedoms

can be found in Table 9.1 in the chapter on caninecare.) These thoroughly referenced guidelines havethe potential to improve the welfare and quality ofcare for shelter animals by being based on the needsof all animals, which do not change based on theirsituation, and should be used for that purpose.

Other key developments in shelter medicine arethe growth of the ASV and increased interest in shel-ter medicine at veterinary colleges and in other coun-tries. ASV now has more than seven hundred mem-bers in several countries. It is an important resourcefor veterinary professionals interested in working forand with shelters. It provides and sponsors a listservefor its members, veterinary college chapters, contin-uing education programs, scholarships, and positionstatements on key issues and is working to create ashelter medicine board-certified specialty. The asso-ciation’s website is www.sheltervet.org

Shelter medicine continuing education programsare being presented routinely at national veterinaryand animal welfare conferences (North AmericanVeterinary Conference, Western Veterinary Confer-ence, Midwest Conference, Humane Society of theUS Expo) and have been topics at international vet-erinary conferences in Canada, South Africa, Turkey,Australia, the Netherlands, and Spain, demonstratingan interest that is broad based in scope and growing.At the time of this writing, many veterinary collegeshave either informal or formal shelter medicine pro-grams and/or residencies, including Cornell Univer-sity, UC Davis, University of Florida, University ofPennsylvania, Purdue, Iowa State, Colorado State,University of Wisconsin, Oregon, and so on. TheVeterinary Information Network (VIN) on the Inter-net teaches courses in shelter medicine and animalwelfare and has a shelter medicine folder that allows

xvii

xviii Introduction

VIN members to exchange information. While muchof the material in this new edition of ShelterMedicine will apply to shelters anywhere in theworld, the contributors live and work in the UnitedStates, and that will be evident in their examplesand focus.

The challenge of this second edition was to tryto sort through, organize, and present sensibly theenormous amount of information pertaining to thisrapidly developing field. In some ways, the first edi-tion was easy; it was a new field with just a fewpeople working on a handful of topics, and we couldcover much of it. The first edition had 30 chapterswith 37 authors; this second edition has 42 chap-ters and 51 authors. A careful assessment was madeof what additional information would be includedwhile retaining much of the original information thatwas still current and applicable. Content was deter-mined through consultation with shelter medicineexperts both in the field and academia and via surveil-lance of the ASV sheltervet listserve. The listserveyielded valuable information about topics of con-cern to veterinary and shelter professionals. Someauthors were invited to update their contributions tothe first edition, while new authors were recruited forsome chapters because of their special expertise inthe field or because of new developments they wereinstrumental in uncovering.

Shelter medicine, like other medical fields, under-goes many changes in theory, fact, and practice. Syd-ney Burwell, the late dean of the Harvard MedicalSchool, cautioned that “half of what you are taught asmedical students will in ten years have been shownto be wrong. And the trouble is none of your teachersknow which half” (Guise, 2008). Some of the recom-mendations found in the first edition may have beeneliminated or modified in the second edition becauseof new knowledge that Dean Burwell predicted weshould be prepared to receive.

One major change in the second edition is theexpansion of information from one to several chap-ters. Dog and cat husbandry are now covered in sev-eral separate chapters instead of combined in one.Likewise, spay/neuter and animal behavior informa-tion that was relegated to one or two chapters isnow covered in multiple chapters. To make space fornew topics and more information on existing top-ics, the chapters on nutrition and vaccination were

eliminated and that information incorporated in theindividual species chapters. Readers of this editionwill find they are referred to numerous other chap-ters for additional information on a particular topic.For example, rather than include detailed and oftenduplicate information about behavioral enrichmentin both the dog and cat chapters, the reader is referredto the separate chapter devoted to behavioral enrich-ment.

SECTION 1: MANAGEMENT TOPICS

The first six chapters in the first section of the text-book could be described as covering managementtopics. Chapter 1 on the history of animal shelteringreturns with updates, a discussion of recent develop-ments, and new information, including microchip-ping and software management programs. Chapter2 on statistics is a new chapter that reflects cur-rent trends in modern animal sheltering that valuedata collection and its impact on program designand measurement of progress in saving animal lives.With an emphasis on providing for animal welfare inall aspects of animal sheltering, Chapter 3 on shelterdesign provides new concepts about housing animalsthat stresses allowing them to express their normalbehaviors. It also offers “cutting-edge” design ideasthat are practical and inviting for staff, animals, andthe public, as well as environmentally friendly andsustainable. The value of good sanitation practicesto maintain a healthy shelter population cannot beoverestimated, and although there are many otherresources available with this information, it is an inte-gral part of shelter medicine. Chapter 4 on sanitationprovides an overview of procedures, protocols, andprinciples, with guidelines, specific information, andreferences to some of the newer disinfectant productson the market. Chapters 5 and 6 on administrativeand legal issues, respectively, contain updated infor-mation about topics that might ordinarily be viewedas ancillary to shelter medicine but are key to thesuccessful operation of a shelter.

SECTION 2: ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

The second section of this textbook is devoted tospecies-specific animal husbandry. It begins with twonew and exciting additions to this edition, Chapters7 and 8 on quality of life and population manage-ment. These two topics are intertwined. Quality of

Introduction xix

life is a complex subject that is difficult to define,particularly for populations of animals, but must beaddressed if appropriate and humane animal care isto be provided. But a good quality of life for shel-ter animals is difficult, if not impossible, to provideand sustain if attention is not paid to actively manag-ing the population and remaining within the shelter’scapacity to provide that care. Chapters 9 on canines,12 on reptiles, 13 on avians, 14 on wildlife, and15 on equines return with new and updated basichusbandry guidelines, welfare, and medical infor-mation. Chapter 11 on small mammals now includesinformation on rabbits (instead of a separate chapter)and ferrets. Feline welfare has not received the sameattention as canine welfare until recently. An attempthas been made to remedy this by providing extensivecoverage of feline care in Chapter 10.

SECTION 3: INFECTIOUS DISEASE

The information about disease management has beenexpanded to six chapters from four. Chapter 16begins with a brief, general overview of diseasemanagement. Chapter 17 is a new chapter on epi-demiology that explores disease as it occurs in pop-ulations of animals rather than individuals, look-ing at ways to understand and thus help preventits spread. Similar to the previous edition, Chapter18 provides an overview of the most common dis-eases found in shelters, while Chapter 19 reviews andupdates the most appropriate disease-testing proto-cols. Chapter 20 on treatment is a new chapter thatdescribes how treatment options differ from thosein private practice and what criteria should be usedto guide appropriate treatment and care decisions inshelters. Chapter 21, another new chapter, focuseson management of disease outbreaks, a challengethat almost every shelter must face at some pointno matter how well designed their facility or dis-ease management program may be. This chapterhelps bring together many of the concepts aboutdisease presented throughout this section to aid inthe development of effective, rational managementstrategies.

SECTION 4: ANIMAL CRUELTY

Chapter 22 opens the fourth section by provid-ing an overview of animal cruelty laws that notonly affect animals and shelters but veterinarians

as well. Chapters 23 and 24 delve into veterinaryforensics by providing basic guidelines for examin-ing the living and deceased animal cruelty victim,respectively. Since the first shelter medicine text-book was published, at least four textbooks on vet-erinary forensics have appeared. (See appendix 24.1for their titles.) Successful prosecution of animalcruelty cases requires scrupulous attention to col-lecting, preserving, and documenting evidence andtestifying; the reader is encouraged to use the infor-mation in these chapters as a springboard for obtain-ing more advanced training in veterinary forensicsand handling animal cruelty cases. Chapter 25, anew chapter on forensic toxicology, provides guide-lines and valuable new and expanded informationfor handling suspected cases of poisoning, whichunfortunately happens all too frequently, both delib-erately and accidentally. Rather than have animalhoarding treated as a subset of another chapter onanimal cruelty, Chapter 26 is devoted entirely to thisphenomenon that was formerly called animal col-lecting. Information is provided regarding researchand current theories about this behavior as well asspecific guidelines for shelters and staff faced withmanaging these tragic situations. Chapter 27 on ani-mal fighting is updated with additional informa-tion about this form of animal cruelty and will behelpful for veterinarians and staff who are directlyinvolved in the investigation of this crime. Chapter28 rounds out the animal cruelty section by provid-ing information about equine cruelty. Horses occupya unique niche in the United States by often beingclassified as both companion animals and livestock,and some of the care and legal concerns regardinghorses are very different from what is encounteredin cruelty to small companion animals. This chapterhelps provide the information necessary to prosecuteequine cruelty whether it is neglect or active cru-elty, and offers basic guidelines for refeeding starvedhorses.

SECTION 5: SHELTER PROGRAMS

The fifth section of this textbook contains four chap-ters that deal with special programs. Chapter 29 onemergency care helps shelters define emergencies,create a basic emergency care kit, and develop guide-lines for providing appropriate care when emergen-cies occur. Regardless of a shelter’s mission and

xx Introduction

resources, the question of euthanasia will eventuallyarise. Chapter 30 provides technical information andguidelines for the humane euthanasia of the variousspecies of animals most commonly encountered inshelters. The chapter is not a substitute for euthanasiatraining or certification, but does discuss the pros andcons of methods such as carbon monoxide as wellas some of the main medical and scientific issuesassociated with euthanasia. Chapter 31 provides anextensive discussion of foster care programs thatmore and more shelters are discovering are neces-sary, lifesaving adjuncts for their organizations andcommunities. These programs place adoptable andnon-adoptable animals who are at risk for euthanasiadue to mild infectious disease or other treatable con-ditions into less-stressful home environments whererecovery is more likely to occur with individualizedcare and comfort being provided. The last chapter inthis section deals with disaster management. Sheltersare increasingly called upon to help deal with disas-ters that involve collaborative efforts between local,state, and federal authorities and agencies. Chapter32 is an extensive source of information that alsoprovides links to resources that shelters will need inorder to understand and handle their roles in disasterand emergency relief efforts.

SECTION 6: BEHAVIOR

The progress that has been made regarding behav-ior issues for shelters is reflected in the four chap-ters that comprise Section 6. Extensive new researchinto animal cognition, behavior, and welfare offersfresh insights and raises the importance of providingfor the behavioral health of shelter animals. Chap-ter 33 provides an overview of adoption programsand current behavioral evaluations. Chapter 34 isa new chapter devoted to the importance of pro-viding enrichment to sheltered animals to enhancetheir physical, behavioral, and psychological well-being. The chapter provides many examples of waysto enhance the animal’s environment and experi-ences and discusses the importance of positive socialengagements with both conspecifics and humans fornormal behavioral health. Chapter 35 introduces therelatively new field of behavior forensics, whichevaluates the behavior of dogs who are presentedto shelters as a result of legal cases, are victimsof cruelty, or are considered to be dangerous. It

discusses the components of a behavior evaluationand explains how to best use them to make recom-mendations regarding the disposition of these ani-mals. Chapter 36 provides an update on the use ofdrugs to manage behavior problems and facilitaterehabilitation.

SECTION 7: SPAY/NEUTER

Section 7 may surprise some readers because two ofthe six chapters provide a fairly in-depth treatment ofspay/neuter and anesthesia procedures. Spay/neuteris an integral part of a comprehensive shelter andcommunity approach to reducing animal shelterintake. Chapter 37 looks at a variety of traditionaland nontraditional spay/neuter programs and pro-vides information and examples that can help shel-ters and communities decide which approach willbe most effective for them in reducing the num-ber of unwanted animals being born and relin-quished to shelters. The impetus for the developmentof pediatric neutering techniques and high-volume,high-quality spay/neuter programs originated withshelters, and many of the protocols and standardsof care reside within the animal sheltering com-munity. Because some of these procedures havenot penetrated into the mainstream of veterinarymedicine, some practitioners believe the proceduresare unproven, unsafe, unnecessary, and thus unac-ceptable. Inclusion of specific anesthetic and surgicalguidelines, protocols, and procedures as can be foundin Chapter 38 on anesthesia, Chapter 39 on surgicaltechniques, and Chapter 40 on pediatric neuteringnot only provide information to shelter veterinariansand staff but also help lay the foundation for theirfull acceptance by all veterinarians as standard oper-ating procedures. These chapters are not designedto substitute for professional instruction in surgeryand anesthesia or for the use of textbooks devotedentirely to these subjects.

Chapter 41 provides the results of new studiesas it tackles the management of stray and commu-nity cats, a topic that remains as controversial nowas it was when it was presented in the first shel-ter medicine textbook 8 years ago. Chapter 42 endsthe section on a high note by providing informa-tion about the research on nonsurgical sterilants.The continued development of alternatives to surgi-cal sterilization of dogs and cats has the potential to

Introduction xxi

revolutionize veterinary medicine as well as the ani-mal sheltering world.

CONCLUSION

It would be nearly impossible to provide in-depthcoverage of all the topics pertinent to sheltermedicine in one volume. The purpose of this sec-ond edition is to introduce newcomers to the field tothe vast array of knowledge necessary to provideappropriate and humane care for shelter animals,to provide new research and update the informa-tion provided in the first edition, and to serve as aresource to guide shelters in need of additional infor-mation to operate modern, efficient, and humaneshelters. Please refer to the two appendices at theend of this book for a list of veterinary and shelter

medicine resources and a description of the oftreferred to ASV Guidelines for Standards of Carein Animal Shelters.

REFERENCESAssociation of Shelter Veterinarians [ASV] (2010)

Guidelines for standards of care in animal shelters.Accessed at http://www.sheltervet.org/displaycommon.cfm?an=1&subarticlenbr=29

Guise, N.B. (2008) Riding the waves of changetogether: Are we all paying attention? Journal of theMedical Library Association, 96, 85–87.

Looney, A.L., Bohling, M.W., Bushby, P.A. et al.(2008) The Association of Shelter Veterinarians’ vet-erinary medical care guidelines for spay–neuter pro-grams. Journal of the American Veterinary MedicalAssociation, 233(1), 74–86.

Section 1Introduction

1Introduction to Animal Sheltering

Stephen Zawistowski and Julie Morris

HISTORY

Animal shelters in America evolved from the live-stock impounds that were found in colonial townsand villages. At that time, it was common for peopleliving in a town or village to keep chickens for eggs,a goat or cow for milk, and a feeder pig to be fat-tened on kitchen scraps and then slaughtered to pro-vide hams and bacon for the family. Animals whoescaped their confinement near the family’s home,or were found wandering on public property, wouldbe rounded up by the community’s poundmaster andtaken to the impound. The impound would be fencedin and might have a shed. People searching for theirmissing beasts would come to the impound, andif they could identify their animal, they could payan impoundment fine or fee and take their propertyhome. The poundmasters kept any unclaimed ani-mals for their personal use. They might keep theanimals to feed their own family, or sell them tosomeone else. The poundmaster’s income was basedon the impound fees, and the money earned fromthe sale of these livestock, supplemented by the ani-mals they kept for their own use (Zawistowski andMorris, 2004; Zawistowski, 2008). Companion ani-mals, while present in many homes, occupied anawkward place in the culture (Grier, 2006). Wealthyfamilies might have high-quality hunting dogs, orcherished lap dogs. Portraits from the era frequentlyshow individuals and families posing with theirprized companions. Grier’s research also showedthat families of lesser means also shared their liveswith animal companions. However, companion ani-

mals did not enjoy the same protection afforded tolivestock. The earliest laws to protect animals inAmerica were meant to protect animals with valueas property (Favre, 2003). This included livestock,but not dogs and cats. Just as they do today, dogswould stray from their homes. From time to time,the poundmaster would catch them and take themto the impound. If no one came to claim them andpay the required impoundment fee, the poundmasterfaced a conundrum. Unlike the horses, cattle, pigs,or other livestock that came to the impound, it wasunlikely that the poundmaster would be able to sellunclaimed dogs. And of course they were not likelycandidates for the poundmaster’s table. As a result,most of these stray dogs were killed. Depending onthe skill and sensitivity of the poundmaster this couldbe a quick death or a prolonged and painful death.Clubbing, strangling, and drowning were commonmethods (Zawistowski, 2008).

As villages became towns, and towns becamecities, it became less likely for people to keep theirown livestock for meat, milk, and eggs. Stray dogsflourished in these cities, surviving on scraps, trash,and handouts. Reproduction was unfettered, and thepoundmaster now found that stray dogs became theirprimary quarry. By now, the impound was known asthe dog pound. Few dogs were claimed by ownersor bought by people interested in having a pet. Asa result, the poundmaster now had a substantial jobfinding an efficient way to kill dozens, if not hun-dreds, of dogs at a time. By 1870s, the pound inNew York City resorted to drowning the unwanted

Shelter Medicine for Veterinarians and Staff, Second Edition. Edited by Lila Miller and Stephen Zawistowski.C© 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2013 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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4 Section 1 / Introduction

animals in a large iron cage lowered into the EastRiver. A century before the birth of the no-kill move-ment in America, strolling down to the river towatch stray dogs being drowned was an afternoon’sdiversion.

Dogcatchers of the era were despised, and notbecause they killed stray dogs. The men were stillnot paid a steady wage and continued to depend onredemption fees from people reclaiming their dogs atthe shelter (Crossen, 2007). Their income dependedon catching owned dogs and having people reclaimthem. In time, the pound system evolved into a cor-rupted practice of kidnaping owned dogs and ran-soming them back to their owners, while at the sametime ignoring the many strays that plagued the city.

Slow change came to animal sheltering with theinitiation of the American animal welfare move-ment (Lane and Zawistowski, 2008). Henry Bergh,a philanthropist and former diplomat learned of theRoyal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Ani-mals (RSPCA) in England, while returning from anassignment in St. Petersburg, Russia. He stoppedin London and met with the Lord of Harrowby,the president of the RSPCA. When Bergh arrivedback in New York City in 1865, he quickly set towork gathering support to establish a similar soci-ety in America. On April 10, 1866 his efforts wererewarded with a special charter from the State ofNew York for The American Society for the Preven-tion of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA). Bergh’s ini-tial efforts were directed toward protecting the manyhorses who worked in the streets of the city. How-ever, the early records of the ASPCA offer numer-ous examples of Bergh’s interventions on behalf ofdogs and cats. These included pursuit of dogfighters,ragpickers who used dogs to pull their carts, and fre-quent criticism of the city dog pound. City officialscalled upon Bergh and the ASPCA to take over themanagement of the city pound several times over theyears. Each time, however, Bergh declined. He waswell acquainted with the politicians of his era, andhe feared that they would fail to provide him with theresources required to run the pound in a successfuland humane fashion, and at the same time imperilingthe broader work of his fledgling society.

Bergh’s influence rapidly expanded outside of hisnative New York City. Just 1 year after the foundingof the ASPCA, a society for the prevention of cru-elty to animals (SPCA) was formed in Erie County/

Buffalo, NY, with former president Millard Fillmorechairing the meeting. Philadelphia and Boston fol-lowed in 1868. Bergh was in communication withfounders of these organizations. He provided infor-mation on the ASPCA charter, an understandingof the mission and organization, and encouragedthem to adopt the SPCA name. Dozens of additionalSPCAs were created in the next decade. Bergh’ssociety remained a model for these other organi-zations to emulate, but there was no formal relation-ship between the ASPCA and the many local andregional societies for the prevention of cruelty toanimals that followed. As a result, early in the his-tory of the American animal welfare movement theseeds were planted for a problem that persists to thistime, the misconception that SPCAs are somehoworganized under or linked to the ASPCA.1

Caroline Earle White was the founder of the Penn-sylvania SPCA in 1868. Social convention of the eradenied her a position on the board of directors forthe PSPCA because she was a woman. She thenformed a Woman’s Auxiliary of the PSPCA. It wasin this role that she led the Woman’s Auxiliary in thedevelopment of the first humane animal shelter. Theyconceived and built the City Refuge for Lost and Suf-fering Animals. This facility accepted stray animals,provided food and medical care, and promoted theplacement of these as pets into new homes. They con-fronted the question of what to do with animals thatcould not be placed by commissioning the develop-ment of a humane euthanasia chamber that used gasto asphyxiate the animals—a dramatic improvementover the practice of clubbing and drowning.

The next major development in animal shelteringfollowed Henry Bergh’s death in 1888. While Berghhad not taken up New York City’s offer to operatethe city’s public animal shelters, his successors atthe ASPCA took up the task in 1894. As part ofthis arrangement, the city approved the requirement

1. This was further complicated when the term “humanesociety” became another common organization name. Itis important to recognize that “society for the preventionof cruelty to animals (SPCA)” and “humane society” aregeneric terms that refer to groups that provide animal shel-tering and other services to their communities. They maybe loosely organized in state or regional groups, but in theend are independent entities.

1 / Introduction to Animal Sheltering 5

that dogs in New York City be licensed, and autho-rized the ASPCA to collect the $1.00 license fee, anduse the funds to provide animal control services. Thelicense income permitted the ASPCA to hire salariedworkers and convert a warehouse into a holding ken-nel. Workers on salary no longer needed to dependon reclaim fees for their income. They were thenable to concentrate on picking up stray dogs and catsfrom the city streets. In just 1 year, the ASPCA waspraised for the performance of the transformed ani-mal shelter system. This included the fact that theASPCA-operated shelter captured and euthanizedmore dogs than the shelters had done in the previousyears. It was indeed considered an important serviceto remove these nuisance dogs from the streets. Thecity fathers of Brooklyn, NY—Brooklyn was stillan independent city at the time—were so impressedwith what they observed happening across the EastRiver that they prevailed upon the ASPCA to step inand manage their animal shelter as well.

Many SPCAs around the country followed theexample of both the Woman’s SPCA and theASPCA. Some would open charitable animal shel-ters that would take unwanted animals from the pub-lic, provide medical care, and make them availablefor adoption, or euthanize them if they were notadopted. Other societies would enter into relation-ships with city and town governments to provideanimal-sheltering services. In still other communi-ties, the local government owned and operated theanimal shelter and provided the associated services.The current state of affairs in animal sheltering acrossthe country remains a mix of these various models.In some places, SPCAs and humane societies con-tinue to provide animal-sheltering services as char-itable organizations. In other places, they may haveservice contracts with one or more city or town gov-ernments to provide some or all animal-shelteringservices. These arrangements may include captur-ing stray animals, handling enforcement of animal-related regulations such as licensing and aggressiveor dangerous dogs, cruelty investigations, shelter-ing animals, providing lost and found and animaladoption programs, public health functions such asholding animals for rabies observation, and eutha-nizing sick, injured, or unwanted animals. They mayeven provide spay/neuter services for shelter and pri-vately owned pets. In some cases, the humane groupmay provide only part of these services. For exam-

ple, the local government may cover the salaries ofanimal control officers who capture strays and han-dle regulatory enforcement, but may contract with ahumane society to provide sheltering services. It isnot uncommon to find that a community has both agovernment-operated animal shelter and one or moreshelters operated by humane groups. All in all, it isa complicated state of affairs, and those interested inworking with an animal shelter should take the timeto understand the nature of its management, scope ofservices, and areas of responsibility.

In the years since Caroline Earle White pioneeredthe first humane animal shelter, there have been manyadvances in both methods and scope of services andprograms, as evidenced by the breadth of topics cov-ered in this text. The rest of this chapter will be ashort introduction to some of the services and pro-grams not covered elsewhere in the text, as well assome of the important issues that animal-shelteringorganizations currently face.

SHELTER ORGANIZATIONS

As noted above, animal sheltering across the countryevolved as an odd mix of organizations and circum-stances. Many of the early humane groups devel-oped in major urban areas such as New York City,Buffalo, Boston, Philadelphia, San Francisco, andothers. Each of these organizations was founded bylocal community leaders and focused on the specificneeds of their regions. In 1877, some of these lead-ers felt the need to coordinate their efforts in a moreeffective fashion. John G. Shortall of the IllinoisHumane Society was the impetus behind a meetingof humane leaders that eventually lead to the forma-tion of the American Humane Association (AHA).The early focus of AHA was the cross-country trans-port of livestock. Eventually, it would also addressanimal-sheltering issues. While originally conceivedto be an umbrella organization for humane groups inthe United States, this goal was never fully realized.Instead, AHA has established itself as a resource onanimal welfare issues, including animal sheltering.Through publications, conferences, and educationaloutreach to the field, it provides a range of supportservices.

In the 1950s, a small group within AHA feltthat the organization was becoming too focusedon animal-sheltering issues and was not providingactive leadership on other humane issues such as

6 Section 1 / Introduction

vivisection and hunting (Unti, 2004). In 1954, a smallgroup led by Fred Myers formed the Humane Soci-ety of the United States (HSUS). An early animal-sheltering focus for HSUS was the effort to com-bat “pound seizure,” where animal shelters wererequired to provide unclaimed dogs and cats toresearch laboratories. HSUS currently sponsors thelargest annual conference for animal shelter profes-sionals, Animal Care Expo, and publishes AnimalSheltering magazine; it also provides a variety ofother educational and consulting services for localanimal shelters.

The National Animal Control Association(NACA) represents professionals working in the ani-mal control field, and the Society of Animal WelfareAdministrators (SAWA) is composed of shelter pro-fessionals who work at a range of both nonprofitand government-run animal shelters. As evidence ofthe continued evolution of the animal-sheltering fieldand its development as a viable professional career,SAWA has developed the credential of Certified Ani-mal Welfare Administrator (CAWA). Certificationis earned through management and animal welfareexperience as well as successful performance on acertification examination. Elements of that programinclude:

� Administration and management, includingstrategic planning, accounting, budgeting andfinancial policies, contract negotiation, and rulesrelated to nonprofit status

� Personnel supervision and leadership, includingrecruitment, selection, training and performanceevaluation, labor relations, compensation andbenefits

� Public relations and fund-raising, including mediaand presentation skills, customer service policies,fund-raising and development

� Animal care and treatment, including humane ani-mal treatment, animal care and control laws, ani-mal health and welfare, and shelter design

� Reasoning related to problem solving, informa-tion analysis and synthesis, and discretion.

While NACA and SAWA are composed of individ-ual professionals working in the field, the NationalFederation of Humane Societies (NFHS) member-ship is composed of organizations. The NFHS worksto foster collaboration and cooperation among the

many shelter, animal rescue, and animal controlorganizations in the field.

In 1994, the ASPCA ended its contract to provideanimal control services to New York City. Since thenit has developed a Community Outreach departmentthat provides grants, training, and assistance for ani-mal shelters across the United States.

SHELTER SERVICES

Shelter services have evolved over the years, andhave changed substantially from the original mis-sion of rounding up strays, returning a handful toowners, placing a few in new homes, and eutha-nizing the rest. Perhaps, most significant has beenthe general acceptance that cats should also be apart of a community’s animal-sheltering programs.Early shelter programs concentrated on dogs, andindeed, more often than not, the shelters—calleddog pounds—were funded at least in part by doglicense fees. In general, the essential elements ofa well-organized animal-sheltering program includethe following (Handy, 2001):

� Uniformly enforce laws related to public healthand safety

� Respond to nuisance complaints in a timely man-ner

� Investigate complaints of animal cruelty, abuse,and neglect

� Rescue mistreated and injured animals� Shelter stray and homeless animals� Work to reunite lost pets with their families� Place healthy, behaviorally sound animals in

responsible homes� Euthanize suffering animals as well as those who

are neither reclaimed nor adopted� Promote mandatory identification of both dogs

and cats� Create incentives for the public to have pets ster-

ilized� Deter future problems through education pro-

grams.

While the above elements constitute what are fre-quently considered the core of primary services thatshould be available in a community, often one ormore are omitted in various locations. A criticaldevelopment in animal sheltering is the acknowl-edgment by some animal welfare organizations that