Shale gas

5/20/2015 ShalegasWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shale_gas 1/19

48structuralbasinswithshalegasandoil,in38countries,pertheUSEnergyInformationAdministration,2011.

Asof2013,theUS,Canada,andChinaaretheonlycountriesproducingshalegasincommercialquantities.TheUSandCanadaaretheonlycountrieswhereshalegasisasignificantpartofthegassupply.

ShalegasFromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Shalegasisnaturalgasthatisfoundtrappedwithinshaleformations.[1]ShalegashasbecomeanincreasinglyimportantsourceofnaturalgasintheUnitedStatessincethestartofthiscentury,andinteresthasspreadtopotentialgasshalesintherestoftheworld.In2000shalegasprovidedonly1%ofU.S.naturalgasproductionby2010itwasover20%andtheU.S.government'sEnergyInformationAdministrationpredictsthatby2035,46%oftheUnitedStates'naturalgassupplywillcomefromshalegas.[2]

Someanalystsexpectthatshalegaswillgreatlyexpandworldwideenergysupply.[3]Chinaisestimatedtohavetheworld'slargestshalegasreserves.[4]AstudybytheBakerInstituteofPublicPolicyatRiceUniversityconcludedthatincreasedshalegasproductionintheUSandCanadacouldhelppreventRussiaandPersianGulfcountriesfromdictatinghigherpricesforthegastheyexporttoEuropeancountries.[5]

TheObamaadministrationbelievesthatincreasedshalegasdevelopmentwillhelpreducegreenhousegasemissions[6](in2012,UScarbondioxideemissionsdroppedtoa20yearlow[7]).Humanandpublichealthwillbothbenefitfromshalegasdisplacingcoalburning.

A2013reviewbytheUnitedKingdomDepartmentofEnergyandClimateChangenotedthatmoststudiesofthesubjecthaveestimatedthatlifecyclegreenhousegas(GHG)emissionsfromshalegasaresimilartothoseofconventionalnaturalgas,andaremuchlessthanthosefromcoal,usuallyabouthalfthegreenhousegasemissionsofcoalthenotedexceptionwasa2011studybyHowarthandothersofCornellUniversity,whichconcludedthatshaleGHGemissionswereashighasthoseofcoal.[8][9]More
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GasrigcountintheUS

recentstudieshavealsoconcludedthatlifecycleshalegasGHGemissionsaremuchlessthanthoseofcoal,[10][11][12][13]amongthem,studiesbyNaturalResourcesCanada(2012),[14]andaconsortiumformedbytheUSNationalRenewableEnergyLaboratorywithanumberofuniversities(2012).[15]

Some2011studiespointedtohighratesofdeclineofsomeshalegaswellsasanindicationthatshalegasproductionmayultimatelybemuchlowerthaniscurrentlyprojected.[16][17]Butshalegasdiscoveriesarealsoopeningupsubstantialnewresourcesoftightoil/"shaleoil".[18]

Contents

1History1.1US

2Geology3Shalegasbycountry4Environment

4.1Climate4.2Lifecyclecomparisonformorethanglobalwarmingpotential4.3Waterandairquality4.4Earthquakes4.5Therelativeimpactsofnaturalgasandcoal

4.5.1Humanhealthimpacts4.5.2Landscapeimpacts4.5.3Water

5Economics6Seealso7References8Externallinks

History
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DerrickandplatformofdrillinggaswellsinMarcellusShalePennsylvania

US

ShalegaswasfirstextractedasaresourceinFredonia,NewYork,in1821,[19][20]inshallow,lowpressurefractures.Horizontaldrillingbeganinthe1930s,andin1947awellwasfirstfrackedintheU.S.[2]

Federalpricecontrolsonnaturalgasledtoshortagesinthe1970s.[21]Facedwithdecliningnaturalgasproduction,thefederalgovernmentinvestedinmanysupplyalternatives,includingtheEasternGasShalesProject,whichlastedfrom1976to1992,andtheannualFERCapprovedresearchbudgetoftheGasResearchInstitute,wherethefederalgovernmentbeganextensiveresearchfundingin1982,disseminatingtheresultstoindustry.[2]Thefederalgovernmentalsoprovidedtaxcreditsandrulesbenefitingtheindustryinthe1980EnergyAct.[2]TheDepartmentofEnergylaterpartneredwithprivategascompaniestocompletethefirstsuccessfulairdrilledmultifracturehorizontalwellinshalein1986.ThefederalgovernmentfurtherincentivizeddrillinginshaleviatheSection29taxcreditforunconventionalgasfrom19802000.Microseismicimaging,acrucialinputtobothhydraulicfracturinginshaleandoffshoreoildrilling,originatedfromcoalbedsresearchatSandiaNationalLaboratories.TheDOEprogramalsoappliedtwotechnologiesthathadbeendevelopedpreviouslybyindustry,massivehydraulicfracturingandhorizontaldrilling,toshalegasformations.[22]thatledtomicroseismicimaging.

AlthoughtheEasternGasShalesProjecthadincreasedgasproductionintheAppalachianandMichiganbasins,shalegaswasstillwidelyseenasmarginaltouneconomicwithouttaxcredits,andshalegasprovidedonly1.6%ofUSgasproductionin2000,whenthefederaltaxcreditsexpired.[21]

GeorgeP.Mitchellisregardedasthefatheroftheshalegasindustry,bymakingitcommerciallyviableintheBarnettShalebygettingcostsdownto$4permillionBritishThermalUnits.[23]MitchellEnergyachievedthefirsteconomicalshalefracturein1998usingslickwaterfracturing.[24][25][26]Sincethen,naturalgasfromshalehasbeenthefastestgrowingcontributortototalprimaryenergyintheUnitedStates,andhasledmanyothercountriestopursueshaledeposits.AccordingtotheIEA,shalegascouldincreasetechnicallyrecoverablenaturalgasresourcesbyalmost50%.[27]

Geology

Becauseshalesordinarilyhaveinsufficientpermeabilitytoallowsignificantfluidflowtoawellbore,mostshalesarenotcommercialsourcesofnaturalgas.Shalegasisoneofanumberofunconventionalsourcesofnaturalgasothersincludecoalbedmethane,tightsandstones,andmethanehydrates.Shalegasareasareoftenknownasresourceplays[28](asopposedtoexplorationplays).Thegeologicalriskofnotfindinggasislowinresourceplays,butthepotentialprofitspersuccessfulwellareusuallyalsolower.

Shalehaslowmatrixpermeability,sogasproductionincommercialquantitiesrequiresfracturestoprovidepermeability.Shalegashasbeenproducedforyearsfromshaleswithnaturalfracturestheshalegasboominrecentyearshasbeenduetomoderntechnologyinhydraulicfracturing(fracking)tocreateextensiveartificialfracturesaroundwellbores.
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Anillustrationofshalegascomparedtoothertypesofgasdeposits.

Horizontaldrillingisoftenusedwithshalegaswells,withlaterallengthsupto10,000feet(3,000m)withintheshale,tocreatemaximumboreholesurfaceareaincontactwiththeshale.

Shalesthathosteconomicquantitiesofgashaveanumberofcommonproperties.Theyarerichinorganicmaterial(0.5%to25%),[29]andareusuallymaturepetroleumsourcerocksinthethermogenicgaswindow,wherehighheatandpressurehaveconvertedpetroleumtonaturalgas.Theyaresufficientlybrittleandrigidenoughtomaintainopenfractures.

Someofthegasproducedisheldinnaturalfractures,someinporespaces,andsomeisadsorbedontotheorganicmaterial.Thegasinthefracturesisproducedimmediatelythegasadsorbedontoorganicmaterialisreleasedastheformationpressureisdrawndownbythewell.

Shalegasbycountry

Althoughtheshalegaspotentialofmanynationsisbeingstudied,asof2013,onlytheUS,Canada,andChinaproduceshalegasincommercialquantities,andonlytheUSandCanadahavesignificantshalegasproduction.[30]WhileChinahasambitiousplanstodramaticallyincreaseitsshalegasproduction,theseeffortshavebeencheckedbyinadequateaccesstotechnology,water,andland.[31]

ThetablebelowisbasedondatacollectedbytheEnergyInformationAdministrationagencyoftheUnitedStatesDepartmentofEnergy.[32]Numbersfortheestimatedamountof"technicallyrecoverable"[33]shalegasresourcesareprovidedalongsidenumbersforprovennaturalgasreserves.
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CountryEstimatedtechnicallyrecoverableshalegas(trillioncubicfeet)

Provennaturalgasreservesofalltypes

(trillioncubicfeet)

DateofReport[32]

1 China 1,115 124 2013

2 Argentina 802 12 2013

3 Algeria 707 159 2013

4 UnitedStates 665 318 2013

5 Canada 573 68 20136 Mexico 545 17 2013

7 SouthAfrica 485 2013

8 Australia 437 43 2013

9 Russia 285 1,688 201310 Brazil 245 14 2013

11 Indonesia 580 150 2013

TheUSEIAhadmadeanearlierestimateoftotalrecoverableshalegasinvariouscountriesin2011,whichforsomecountriesdifferedsignificantlyfromthe2013estimates.[34]ThetotalrecoverableshalegasintheUnitedStates,whichwasestimatedat862trillioncubicfeetin2011,wasreviseddownwardto665trillioncubicfeetin2013.RecoverableshalegasinCanada,whichwasestimatedtobe388TCFin2011,wasrevisedupwardto573TCFin2013.

FortheUnitedStates,EIAestimated(2013)atotal"wetnaturalgas"resourceof2,431tcf,includingbothshaleandconventionalgas.Shalegaswasestimatedtobe27%ofthetotalresource.[32]"Wetnaturalgas"ismethaneplusnaturalgasliquids,andismorevaluablethandrygas.[35][36]

Fortherestoftheworld(excludingUS),EIAestimated(2013)atotalwetnaturalgasresourceof20,451trillioncubicfeet(579.1 1012m3).Shalegaswasestimatedtobe32%ofthetotalresource.[32]

Europehasestimatedshalegasreservesof639trillioncubicfeet(18.1 1012m3)comparedwithAmerica's862trillioncubicfeet(24.4 1012m3),butitsgeologyismorecomplicatedandtheoilandgasmoreexpensivetoextract,withawelllikelytocostasmuchasthreeandahalftimesmorethanoneintheUnitedStates.[37]

Environment

Theextractionanduseofshalegascanaffecttheenvironmentthroughtheleakingofextractionchemicalsandwasteintowatersupplies,theleakingofgreenhousegasesduringextraction,andthepollutioncausedbytheimproperprocessingofnaturalgas.Achallengetopreventingpollutionisthatshalegasextractionsvarieswidelyinthisregard,evenbetweendifferentwellsinthesameprojecttheprocessesthatreducepollutionsufficientlyinoneextractionmaynotbeenoughinanother.[2]
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In2013theEuropeanParliamentagreedthatenvironmentalimpactassessmentswillnotbemandatoryforshalegasexplorationactivitiesandshalegasextractionactivitieswillbesubjecttothesametermsasothergasextractionprojects.[38]

Climate

BarackObama'sadministrationhassometimespromotedshalegas,inpartbecauseoftheirbeliefthatitreleasesfewergreenhousegas(GHG)emissionsthanotherfossilfuels.Ina2010lettertoPresidentObama,MartinAppleoftheCouncilofScientificSocietyPresidentscautionedagainstanationalpolicyofdevelopingshalegaswithoutamorecertainscientificbasisforthepolicy.Thisumbrellaorganizationthatrepresents1.4millionscientistsnotedthatshalegasdevelopment"mayhavegreaterGHGemissionsandenvironmentalcoststhanpreviouslyappreciated."[39]

Inlate2010,theU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency[40]issuedanewreport,thefirstupdateonemissionfactorsforgreenhousegasemissionsbytheoilandgasindustrybytheEPAsince1996.Inthisnewreport,theEPAconcludedthatshalegasemitslargeramountsofmethane,apotentgreenhousegas,thandoesconventionalgas,butstillfarlessthancoal.Methaneisapowerfulgreenhousegas,althoughitstaysintheatmosphereforonlyonetenthaslongaperiodascarbondioxide.Recentevidencesuggeststhatmethanehasaglobalwarmingpotential(GWP)thatis105foldgreaterthancarbondioxidewhenviewedovera20yearperiodand33foldgreaterwhenviewedovera100yearperiod,comparedmasstomass.[41]However,theU.N.IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC),apreeminentauthorityonthisissue,ascribesaGWPofonly72tomethaneovera25yearperiod,andonly25overa100yearperiod.[42]

Severalstudieswhichhaveestimatedlifecyclemethaneleakagefromshalegasdevelopmentandproductionhavefoundawiderangeofleakagerates,fromlessthan1%oftotalproductiontonearly8%.[43]UsingdatafromtheEnvironmentalProtectionAgencysmostrecentGreenhouseGasInventory[44]yieldsamethaneleakagerateofabout1.4%,downfrom2.3%fromtheEPAspreviousInventory.[45]

Themostcomprehensivestudyofmethaneleakagefromshalegastodate,initiatedbytheEnvironmentalDefenseFund(EDF)andreleasedintheProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofScienceson16September2013,[46]findsthatfugitiveemissionsinkeystagesofthenaturalgasproductionprocessaresignificantlylowerthanestimatesintheEPAsnationalemissionsinventory(whicharealreadyquitelow).Thestudyreportsdirectmeasurementsfrom190onshorenaturalgassitesacrossthecountryandestimatesaleakagerateof0.42%forgasproduction.AlthoughtheEDFstudydidnotcoverallstagesofnaturalgassupplychain,subsequentstudiesareplannedtoestimateleakageratesinotherspartsofthesystem.

A2011studypublishedinClimaticChangeLetterscontroversiallyclaimedthattheproductionofelectricityusingshalegasmayleadtoasmuchormorelifecycleGWPthanelectricitygeneratedwithoilorcoal.[47]Inthatpeerreviewedpaper,CornellUniversityprofessorRobertW.Howarth,amarineecologist,andcolleaguesclaimedthatoncemethaneleakandventingimpactsareincluded,thelifecyclegreenhousegasfootprintofshalegasisfarworsethanthoseofcoalandfueloilwhenviewedfortheintegrated20yearperiodafteremission.Onthe100yearintegratedtimeframe,thisanalysisclaimsshalegasiscomparabletocoalandworsethanfueloil.However,numerousstudieshavepointedoutcriticalflawswiththatpaperand/orcometocompletelydifferentconclusions,includingassessmentsbyexpertsattheU.S.DepartmentofEnergy,[48]peerreviewedstudiesbyCarnegieMellonUniversity[49]
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andtheUniversityofMaryland,[50]andeventheNaturalResourcesDefenseCouncil,whichconcludedthattheHowarthetal.paper'suseofa20yeartimehorizonforglobalwarmingpotentialofmethaneis"tooshortaperiodtobeappropriateforpolicyanalysis."[51]

InJanuary2012,Howarth'sowncolleaguesatCornellUniversity,LawrenceCathlesetal.,respondedwiththeirownpeerreviewedassessment,notingthattheHowarthpaperwas"seriouslyflawed"becauseit"significantlyoverestimate[s]thefugitiveemissionsassociatedwithunconventionalgasextraction,undervalue[s]thecontributionof'greentechnologies'toreducingthoseemissionstoalevelapproachingthatofconventionalgas,base[s]theircomparisonbetweengasandcoalonheatratherthanelectricitygeneration(almostthesoleuseofcoal),andassume[s]atimeintervaloverwhichtocomputetherelativeclimateimpactofgascomparedtocoalthatdoesnotcapturethecontrastbetweenthelongresidencetimeofCO2andtheshortresidencetimeofmethaneintheatmosphere."Theauthorofthatresponse,LawrenceCathles,concludesthat"shalegashasaGHGfootprintthatishalfandperhapsathirdthatofcoal,"basedupon"morereasonableleakageratesandbasesofcomparison."[52]

InApril2013theU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgencydramaticallylowereditsestimateofhowmuchmethaneleaksfromwells,pipelinesandotherfacilitiesduringproductionanddeliveryofnaturalgasby20percent.AccordingtotheAssociatedPress,theEPAreportongreenhouseemissionscreditedtighterpollutioncontrolsinstitutedbytheindustryforcuttinganaverageof41.6millionmetrictonsofmethaneemissionsannuallyfrom1990through2010,areductionofmorethan850millionmetrictonsoverall.TheAPnoted,"TheEPArevisionscameeventhoughnaturalgasproductionhasgrownbynearly40percentsince1990."[53]

Lifecyclecomparisonformorethanglobalwarmingpotential

A2014studyfromManchesterUniversitypresentedthe"Firstfulllifecycleassessmentofshalegasusedforelectricitygeneration."Byfulllifecycleassessment,theauthorsexplainedthattheymeantheevaluationofnineenvironmentalfactorsbeyondthecommonlyperformedevaluationofglobalwarmingpotential.Theauthorsconcludedthat,inlinewithmostofthepublishedstudiesforotherregions,thatshalegasintheUnitedKingdomwouldhaveaglobalwarmingpotential"broadlysimilar"tothatofconventionalNorthSeagas,althoughshalegashasthepotentialtobehigheriffugitivemethaneemissionsarenotcontrolled,orifperwellultimaterecoveriesintheUKaresmall.Fortheotherparameters,thehighlightedconclusionswerethat,forshalegasintheUnitedKingdomincomparisonwithcoal,conventionalandliquefiedgas,nuclear,windandsolar(PV).

Shalegasworsethancoalforthreeimpactsandbetterthanrenewablesforfour.Ithashigherphotochemicalsmogandterrestrialtoxicitythantheotheroptions.Shalegasasoundenvironmentaloptiononlyifaccompaniedbystringentregulation.[54][55]

DrJamesVerdonhaspublishedacritiqueofthedataproduced,andthevariablesthatmayaffecttheresults.[56]

Waterandairquality

Chemicalsareaddedtothewatertofacilitatetheundergroundfracturingprocessthatreleasesnaturalgas.Fracturingfluidisprimarilywaterandapproximately0.5%chemicaladditives(frictionreducer,agentscounteringrust,agentskillingmicroorganism).Since(dependingonthesizeofthearea)millionsoflitersofwaterareused,thismeansthathundredsofthousandslitersofchemicalsareofteninjectedintothesubsurface.[57]About50%to70%oftheinjectedvolumeofcontaminatedwaterisrecoveredandstoredinabovegroundpondstoawaitremovalbytanker.Theremainingvolumeremainsinthe
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subsurface.Hydraulicfracturingopponentsfearthatitcanleadtocontaminationofgroundwateraquifers,thoughtheindustrydeemsthis"highlyunlikely".However,foulsmellingodorsandheavymetalscontaminatingthelocalwatersupplyabovegroundhavebeenreported.[58]

Besidesusingwaterandindustrialchemicals,itisalsopossibletofrackshalegaswithonlyliquifiedpropanegas.Thisreducestheenvironmentaldegradationconsiderably.ThemethodwasinventedbyGasFrac,ofAlberta,Canada.[59]

HydraulicfracturingwasexemptedfromtheSafeDrinkingWaterActintheEnergyPolicyActof2005.[60]

AstudypublishedinMay2011concludedthatshalegaswellshaveseriouslycontaminatedshallowgroundwatersuppliesinnortheasternPennsylvaniawithflammablemethane.However,thestudydoesnotdiscusshowpervasivesuchcontaminationmightbeinotherareasdrilledforshalegas.[61]

TheUnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)announced23June2011thatitwillexamineclaimsofwaterpollutionrelatedtohydraulicfracturinginTexas,NorthDakota,Pennsylvania,ColoradoandLouisiana.[62]On8December2011,theEPAissuedadraftfindingwhichstatedthatgroundwatercontaminationinPavilion,Wyomingmaybetheresultoffrackinginthearea.TheEPAstatedthatthefindingwasspecifictothePavilionarea,wherethefrackingtechniquesdifferfromthoseusedinotherpartsoftheU.S.DougHock,aspokesmanforthecompanywhichownsthePaviliongasfield,saidthatitisunclearwhetherthecontaminationcamefromthefrackingprocess.[63]Wyoming'sGovernorMattMeadcalledtheEPAdraftreport"scientificallyquestionable"andstressedtheneedforadditionaltesting.[64]TheCasperStarTribunealsoreportedon27December2011,thattheEPA'ssamplingandtestingprocedures"didntfollowtheirownprotocol"accordingtoMikePurcell,thedirectoroftheWyomingWaterDevelopmentCommission.[65]

A2011studybytheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologyconcludedthat"Theenvironmentalimpactsofshaledevelopmentarechallengingbutmanageable."Thestudyaddressedgroundwatercontamination,noting"Therehasbeenconcernthatthesefracturescanalsopenetrateshallowfreshwaterzonesandcontaminatethemwithfracturingfluid,butthereisnoevidencethatthisisoccurring".Thisstudyblamesknowninstancesofmethanecontaminationonasmallnumberofsubstandardoperations,andencouragestheuseofindustrybestpracticestopreventsucheventsfromrecurring.[66]

Inareportdated25July2012,theU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgencyannouncedthatithadcompleteditstestingofprivatedrinkingwaterwellsinDimock,Pennsylvania.Datapreviouslysuppliedtotheagencybyresidents,thePennsylvaniaDepartmentofEnvironmentalProtection,andCabotOilandGasExplorationhadindicatedlevelsofarsenic,bariumormanganeseinwellwateratfivehomesatlevelsthatcouldpresentahealthconcern.Inresponse,watertreatmentsystemsthatcanreduceconcentrationsofthosehazardoussubstancestoacceptablelevelsatthetapwereinstalledataffectedhomes.Basedontheoutcomeofsamplingafterthetreatmentsystemswereinstalled,theEPAconcludedthatadditionalactionbytheAgencywasnotrequired.[67]

ADukeUniversitystudyofBlacklickCreek(Pennsylvania),carriedoutovertwoyears,tooksamplesfromthecreekupstreamanddownstreamofthedischargepointofJosephineBrineTreatmentFacility.Radiumlevelsinthesedimentatthedischargepointarearound200timestheamountupstreamofthefacility.Theradiumlevelsare"aboveregulatedlevels"andpresentthe"dangerofslowbioaccumulation"eventuallyinfish.TheDukestudy"isthefirsttouseisotopehydrologytoconnectthe
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dotsbetweenshalegaswaste,treatmentsitesanddischargeintodrinkingwatersupplies."Thestudyrecommended"independentmonitoringandregulation"intheUnitedStatesduetoperceiveddeficienciesinselfregulation.[68][69]

Whatishappeningisthedirectresultofalackofanyregulation.IftheCleanWaterActwasappliedin2005whentheshalegasboomstartedthiswouldhavebeenprevented.IntheUK,ifshalegasisgoingtodevelop,itshouldnotfollowtheAmericanexampleandshouldimposeenvironmentalregulationtopreventthiskindofradioactivebuildup.

AvnerVengosh[68]

AccordingtotheUSEnvironmentalProtectionAgency,theCleanWaterActappliestosurfacestreamdischargesfromshalegaswells:

"6)DoestheCleanWaterActapplytodischargesfromMarcellusShaleDrillingoperations?Yes.Naturalgasdrillingcanresultindischargestosurfacewaters.ThedischargeofthiswaterissubjecttorequirementsundertheCleanWaterAct(CWA)."[70]

InChina,shalegasdevelopmentisseenasawaytoshiftawayfromcoalanddecreaseseriousairpollutionproblemscreatedbyburningcoal.[71]

Earthquakes

Hydraulicfracturingroutinelyproducesmicroseismiceventsmuchtoosmalltobedetectedexceptbysensitiveinstruments.Thesemicroseismiceventsareoftenusedtomapthehorizontalandverticalextentofthefracturing.[72]However,asoflate2012,therehavebeenthreeinstancesofhydraulicfracturing,throughinducedseismicity,triggeringquakeslargeenoughtobefeltbypeopleintheUnitedStates.[73]

On26April2012,theAsahiShimbunreportedthatUnitedStatesGeologicalSurveyscientistshavebeeninvestigatingtherecentincreaseinthenumberofmagnitude3andgreaterearthquakeinthemidcontinentoftheUnitedStates.Beginningin2001,theaveragenumberofearthquakesoccurringperyearofmagnitude3orgreaterincreasedsignificantly,culminatinginasixfoldincreasein2011over20thcenturylevels.AresearcherinCenterforEarthquakeResearchandInformationofUniversityofMemphisassumeswaterpushedbackintothefaulttendstocauseearthquakebyslippageoffault.[74][75]

Over109smallearthquakes(Mw0.43.9)weredetectedduringJanuary2011toFebruary2012intheYoungstown,Ohioarea,wheretherewerenoknownearthquakesinthepast.Theseshockswereclosetoadeepfluidinjectionwell.The14monthseismicityincludedsixfeltearthquakesandculminatedwithaMw3.9shockon31December2011.Amongthe109shocks,12eventsgreaterthanMw1.8weredetectedbyregionalnetworkandaccuratelyrelocated,whereas97smallearthquakes(0.4



mayindicatethattheearthquakesweredirectlycausedbythepressurebuildupandstoppedwhenpressuredropped.On19June2012,theUnitedStatesSenateCommitteeonEnergy&NaturalResourcesheldahearingentitled,"InducedSeismicityPotentialinEnergyTechnologies."Dr.MurrayHitzman,theCharlesF.FogartyProfessorofEconomicGeologyintheDepartmentofGeologyandGeologicalEngineeringattheColoradoSchoolofMinesinGolden,COtestifiedthat"About35,000hydraulicallyfracturedshalegaswellsexistintheUnitedStates.OnlyonecaseoffeltseismicityintheUnitedStateshasbeendescribedinwhichhydraulicfracturingforshalegasdevelopmentissuspected,butnotconfirmed.GloballyonlyonecaseoffeltinducedseismicityatBlackpool,Englandhasbeenconfirmedasbeingcausedbyhydraulicfracturingforshalegasdevelopment."[76]

Therelativeimpactsofnaturalgasandcoal

Humanhealthimpacts

AcomprehensivereviewofthepublichealtheffectsofenergyfuelcyclesinEuropefindsthatcoalcauses6to98deathsperTWh(average25deathsperTWh),comparedtonaturalgas1to11deathsperTWh(average3deathsperTWh).Thesenumbersincludebothaccidentaldeathsandpollutionrelateddeaths.[77]CoalminingisoneofthemostdangerousprofessionsintheUnitedStates,resultinginbetween20and40deathsannually,comparedtobetween10and20foroilandgasextraction.[78]Workeraccidentriskisalsofarhigherwithcoalthangas.IntheUnitedStates,theoilandgasextractionindustryisassociatedwithonetotwoinjuriesper100workerseachyear.Coalmining,ontheotherhand,contributestofourinjuriesper100workerseachyear.Coalminescollapse,andcantakedownroads,waterandgaslines,buildingsandmanyliveswiththem.[79]

Averagedamagesfromcoalpollutantsaretwoordersofmagnitudelargerthandamagesfromnaturalgas.SO2,NOx,andparticulatematterfromcoalplantscreateannualdamagesof$156millionperplantcomparedto$1.5millionpergasplant.[80]CoalfiredpowerplantsintheUnitedStatesemit1740timesmoreSOxemissionsperMWhthannaturalgas,and117timesasmuchNOxperMWh.[81]LifecycleCO2emissionsfromcoalplantsare1.82.3timesgreater(perKWh)thannaturalgasemissions.[82]

TheairqualityadvantagesofnaturalgasovercoalhavebeenborneoutinPennsylvania,accordingtostudiesbytheRANDCorporationandthePennsylvaniaDepartmentofEnvironmentalProtection.TheshaleboominPennsylvaniahasledtodramaticallyloweremissionsofsulfurdioxide,fineparticulates,andvolatileorganiccompounds(VOCs).[12]

NotedphysicistRichardA.Mullerarguesthatthepublichealthbenefitsfromshalegas,bydisplacingharmfulairpollutionfromcoal,faroutweighitsenvironmentalcosts.Ina2013reportfortheCentreforPolicyStudies,Mullerwritesthatairpollution,mostlyfromcoalburning,killsoverthreemillionpeopleeachyear,primarilyinthedevelopingworld.Thereportstatesthat"Environmentalistswhoopposethedevelopmentofshalegasandfrackingaremakingatragicmistake."[13]

Landscapeimpacts

Coalminingradicallyalterswholemountainandforestlandscapes.Beyondthecoalremovedfromtheearth,largeareasofforestareturnedinsideoutandblackenedwithtoxicandradioactivechemicals.Therehavebeenreclamationsuccesses,buthundredsofthousandsofacresofabandonedsurfaceminesintheUnitedStateshavenotbeenreclaimed,andreclamationofcertainterrain(includingsteepterrain)isnearlyimpossible.[83]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_for_Policy_Studieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_A._Muller



Wherecoalexplorationrequiresalteringlandscapesfarbeyondtheareawherethecoalis,abovegroundnaturalgasequipmenttakesupjustonepercentofthetotalsurfacelandareafromwheregaswillbeextracted.[84]Theenvironmentalimpactofgasdrillinghaschangedradicallyinrecentyears.Verticalwellsintoconventionalformationsusedtotakeuponefifthofthesurfaceareaabovetheresource,atwentyfoldhigherimpactthancurrenthorizontaldrillingrequires.Asixacrehorizontaldrillpadcanthusextractgasfromanundergroundarea1,000acresinsize.

Theimpactofnaturalgasonlandscapesisevenlessandshorterindurationthantheimpactofwindturbines.Thefootprintofashalegasderrick(35acres)isonlyalittlelargerthanthelandareanecessaryforasinglewindturbine.[85]Butitrequireslessconcrete,standsonethirdastall,andispresentforjust30daysinsteadof2030years.Between7and15weeksarespentsettingupthedrillpadandcompletingtheactualhydraulicfracture.Atthatpoint,thedrillpadisremoved,leavingbehindasinglegaragesizedwellheadthatremainsforthelifetimeofthewell.Astudypublishedin2015ontheFayettevilleShalefoundthatamaturegasfieldimpactedabout2%ofthelandareaandsubstantiallyincreasededgehabitatcreation.Averagelandimpactperwellwas3hectares(about7acres)[86]

Water

Withcoalmining,wastematerialsarepiledatthesurfaceofthemine,creatingabovegroundrunoffthatpollutesandalterstheflowofregionalstreams.Asrainpercolatesthroughwastepiles,solublecomponentsaredissolvedintherunoffandcauseelevatedtotaldissolvedsolids(TDS)levelsinlocalwaterbodies.[83]Sulfates,calcium,carbonatesandbicarbonatesthetypicalrunoffproductsofcoalminewastematerialsmakewaterunusableforindustryoragricultureandundrinkableforhumans.[87]Acidminewastewatercandrainintogroundwater,causingsignificantcontamination.Explosiveblastinginaminecancausegroundwatertoseeptolowerthannormaldepthsorconnecttwoaquifersthatwerepreviouslydistinct,exposingbothtocontaminationbymercury,lead,andothertoxicheavymetals.

Contaminationofsurfacewaterwaysandgroundwaterwithfrackingfluidscanbeproblematic.Shalegasdepositsaregenerallyseveralthousandfeetbelowground.Therehavebeeninstancesofmethanemigration,impropertreatmentofrecoveredwastewater,andpollutionviareinjectionwells.

Inmostcases,thelifecyclewaterintensityandpollutionassociatedwithcoalproductionandcombustionfaroutweighthoserelatedtoshalegasproduction.CoalresourceproductionrequiresatleasttwiceasmuchwaterpermillionBritishthermalunits(mmBTU)comparedtoshalegasproduction.[88]AndwhileregionslikePennsylvaniahaveexperiencedanabsoluteincreaseinwaterdemandforenergyproductionthankstotheshaleboom,shalewellsactuallyproducelessthanhalfthewastewaterperunitofenergycomparedtoconventionalnaturalgas.[84]

Coalfiredpowerplantsconsumetwotofivetimesasmuchwaterasnaturalgasplants.Where5201040gallonsofwaterarerequiredperMWhofcoal,gasfiredcombinedcyclepowerrequires130500gallonsperMWh.[81]Theenvironmentalimpactofwaterconsumptionatthepointofpowergenerationdependsonthetypeofpowerplant:plantseitheruseevaporativecoolingtowerstoreleaseexcessheatordischargewatertonearbyrivers.[89]Naturalgascombinedcyclepower(NGCC),whichcapturestheexhaustheatgeneratedbycombustingnaturalgastopowerasteamgenerator,areconsideredthemostefficientlargescalethermalpowerplants.OnestudyfoundthatthelifecycledemandforwaterfromcoalpowerinTexascouldbemorethanhalvedbyswitchingthefleettoNGCC.[90]



Alltold,shalegasdevelopmentintheUnitedStatesrepresentslessthanhalfapercentoftotaldomesticfreshwaterconsumption,althoughthisportioncanreachashighas25percentinparticularlyaridregions.[91]

Economics

Althoughshalegashasbeenproducedformorethan100yearsintheAppalachianBasinandtheIllinoisBasinoftheUnitedStates,thewellswereoftenmarginallyeconomic.Advancesinhydraulicfracturingandhorizontalcompletionshavemadeshalegaswellsmoreprofitable.[92]Improvementsinmovingdrillingrigsbetweennearbylocations,andtheuseofsinglewellpadsformultiplewellshaveincreasedtheproductivityofdrillingshalegaswells.[93]AsofJune2011,thevalidityoftheclaimsofeconomicviabilityofthesewellshasbeguntobepubliclyquestioned.[94]Shalegastendstocostmoretoproducethangasfromconventionalwells,becauseoftheexpenseofthemassivehydraulicfracturingtreatmentsrequiredtoproduceshalegas,andofhorizontaldrilling.[95]

ThecostofextractingoffshoreshalegasintheUKwereestimatedtobemorethan$200perbarrelofoilequivalent(UKNorthSeaoilpriceswereabout$120perbarrelinApril2012).However,nocostfiguresweremadepublicforonshoreshalegas.[96]

NorthAmericahasbeentheleaderindevelopingandproducingshalegas.TheeconomicsuccessoftheBarnettShaleplayinTexasinparticularhasspurredthesearchforothersourcesofshalegasacrosstheUnitedStatesandCanada,

SomeTexasresidentsthinkfrackingisusingtoomuchoftheirgroundwater,butdroughtandothergrowingusesarealsopartofthecausesofthewatershortagethere.[97]

AVisiongainresearchreportcalculatedthe2011worthoftheglobalshalegasmarketas$26.66billion.[98]

A2011NewYorkTimesinvestigationofindustrialemailsandinternaldocumentsfoundthatthefinancialbenefitsofunconventionalshalegasextractionmaybelessthanpreviouslythought,duetocompaniesintentionallyoverstatingtheproductivityoftheirwellsandthesizeoftheirreserves.[99]Thearticlewascriticizedby,amongothers,theNewYorkTimesownPublicEditorforlackofbalanceinomittingfactsandviewpointsfavorabletoshalegasproductionandeconomics.[100]

Infirstquarter2012,theUnitedStatesimported840billioncubicfeet(Bcf)(785fromCanada)whileexporting400Bcf(mostlytoCanada)bothmainlybypipeline.[101]AlmostnoneisexportedbyshipasLNG,asthatwouldrequireexpensivefacilities.In2012,priceswentdownto$3/MMBtuduetoshalegas.[102]

ArecentacademicpaperontheeconomicimpactsofshalegasdevelopmentintheUSfindsthatnaturalgaspriceshavedroppeddramaticallyinplaceswithshaledepositswithactiveexploration.Naturalgasforindustrialusehasbecomecheaperbyaround30%comparedtotherestoftheUS.[103]Thisstimulateslocalenergyintensivemanufacturinggrowth,butbringsthelackofadequatepipelinecapacityintheUSinsharprelief.[104]

Oneofthebyproductsofshalegasexplorationistheopeningupofdeepundergroundshaledepositsto"tightoil"orshaleoilproduction.By2035,shaleoilproductioncould"boosttheworldeconomybyupto$2.7trillion,aPricewaterhouseCoopers(PwC)reportsays.Ithasthepotentialtoreachupto12
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Visiongain&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Timeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_fracturinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appalachian_Basinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_cubic_foothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illinois_Basinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barnett_Shalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada



percentoftheworldstotaloilproductiontouching14millionbarrelsadayrevolutionizingtheglobalenergymarketsoverthenextfewdecades."[18]

Accordingtoa2013Forbesmagazinearticle,generatingelectricitybyburningnaturalgasischeaperthanburningcoalifthepriceofgasremainsbelow$3/mmBTU($3/mcf).[23]Alsoin2013,KenMedlock,SeniorDirectoroftheBakerInstitute'sCenterforEnergyStudies,researchedUSshalegasbreakevenprices."Somewellsareprofitableat$2.65perthousandcubicfeet,othersneed$8.10themedianis$4.85,"Medlocksaid.[105]EnergyconsultantEuanMearnsestimatesthat,fortheUS,"minimumcosts[are]intherange$4to$6/mcf.[ormmBTU]."[106][107]

Seealso

BiogasOilsandsPeakoilTightgasUndergroundcoalgasification

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Categories: Shalegas

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