Shackman Psyc210 Module20 SemesterRecapAndFinalExamReview

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When a scientist doesnt know the answer to a problem, he is ignorant. When he has a hunch as to what the result is, he is uncertain. And when he is pretty damn sure of what the result is going to be, he is still in some doubtScientific knowledge is a body of statements of varying degrees of certaintysome most unsure, some nearly sure, but none absolutely certain.

Richard Feynman (1955), Nobel LaureatePSYC 210: Temperament and PersonalityDevelopmental Origins,Biological Bases,and Implications for Psychopathology

Dr. Alex ShackmanUniversity of MarylandSpring 2015

Semester RecapAJ Shackman08 December 2014How many people here are funded directly or indirectly by the NIH?

3Where Did We Begin Our Adventure?Where Did We Begin Our Adventure?For most of us, we started from a place of ignorance, informed by some combination of

Prior training and course work in psychology and biology (e.g., hazy recollections from Intro to Psyc)

Attitudes and ideasabout traits, personality, temperament, heritability, mental illness, and the brain that we passively absorb from our culture, from friends and family, and from the media. Folk psychology, in other wordsWhere Did We Begin Our Adventure?For most of us, we started from a place of ignorance, informed by some combination of


Attitudes and ideasabout traits, personality, temperament, heritability, mental illness, and the brain that we passively absorb from our culture, from friends and family, and from the media. Folk psychology, in other wordsWhere Did We Begin Our Adventure?For most of us, we started from a place of ignorance, informed by some combination of


Attitudes and ideasabout traits, personality, temperament, heritability, mental illness, and the brain that we passively absorb from our culture, from friends and family, and from the media. Folk psychology, in other words

Use Science to Dispel IgnoranceUse Science to Dispel IgnoranceLeverage recent scientific research in humans and other species in order to

Understand the core dimensions of T&P

Become experts on how T&P influence our daily lives and some of the mechanisms that link T&P to important outcomes (e.g., temptation and self-control, academic attainment, divorce, dieting, depression, drug and alcohol abuse, and death)

Develop a working knowledge of the psychological and neurobiological mechanisms that underlie T&P

Understand the strengths and limitations of a broad spectrum of biological, behavioral, and statistical tools

Broaden the way you think about connections between the mind, brain, genes, and behavior

Become a more critical consumer of psychological and neurobiological research

Become a more thoughtful and informed patient, tax payer, voter, and citizenUse Science to Dispel IgnoranceLeverage recent scientific research in humans and other species in order to


Know how T&P influence our daily lives and some of the mechanisms that link T&P to important outcomes (e.g., temptation and self-control, academic attainment, divorce, dieting, depression, drug and alcohol abuse, and death)








































Become a more thoughtful and informed patient, tax payer, voter, and citizenWhat did we actually learn?

A ton!What did we actually learn?

A ton!ModelsModelsBIS/BAS (Gray)Behavioral Inhibition (Kagan/Fox)Big 3 (Caspi)Big 5 (OCEAN; Costa & McCrae)Scientific ConceptsScientific ConceptsAffective chronometry (e.g., time-to-peak, recovery, etc.)Appetitive motivationApproach/WithdrawalBiomarkers, Endophenotypes & Intermediate PhenotypesEpigenetics and Non-genomic transmission of acquired traitsFear vs. AnxietyGarbage In/Garbage OutG * E interactionsHedonic hotspotsHeritability (common misconceptions)Incentive sensitization modelLiking vs. WantingNatural language hypothesisPavlovian fear conditioning (and the conditioned emotional response/CER)Scientific skepticismSelf-stimulationSensitivity, Specificity, and ReliabilitySerotonin transporter (5-HTT) polymorphism Statistical Tools and ConceptsStatistical Tools and ConceptsCorrelation (vs. causation)Construct validityFactor analysisMeta-analysisReliability (Internal-consistency, Test-Retest)Brain Regions and SystemsBrain Regions and SystemsBasal forebrain cholinergic systemExtended amygdala (including the BNST)Lateral prefrontal cortex (PFC)Midcingulate cortex (MCC)Orbitofrontal cortex (OFC)HPA axisMedial forebrain bundleMesocorticolimbic dopamine systemVentral striatum/Nucleus accumbensMethods and MeasuresMethods and MeasuresASL MRIBARTCortisolDaily diaryDeep brain stimulation (DBS)EDA/SCR/GSRERP (including N2, ERN, FRN, and P3b)Eriksen flanker taskExcitotoxic lesionsExperience samplingFDG-PETFear-potentiated startlefMRI (task-related and resting-state)Frontal EEG asymmetryGWASLimitations of introspective measures and self-report (e.g., peak-end rule)NeuroSynthPharmacological methods (e.g., benzodiazepines)Stop-signal task DisordersDisordersAnxietyDepressionImpulse control disordersSubstance abuseParkinsons

PeopleFamous and Not-So-Famous Patients

Famous and Not-So-Famous ScientistsRalph Adolphs; Yair Bar-Haim; David Barlow; Kent Berridge; Jenni Blackford; Jack Block; Ryan Bogdan; Turhan Canli; Avshalom Caspi; Michelle Craske; Tony and Hannah Damasio; Richie Davidson; Mike Davis; Hans and Mike Eysenck; Nathan Fox; Jeffrey Gray; Christian Grillon; Dan Grupe; Amad Hariri; Jerry Kagan; Ken Kendler; Carl Lejuez; Joe Ledoux; Schmuel Lissek; Jerry Kagan; Ned Kalin; Ken Kendler; Roman Kotov; Seymour Gig Levine; Colin Macleod; Michael Meaney; Walt Mischel; Temi Moffitt; Jack Nitschke; Danny Pine; Diego Pizzagalli; Tony Rangel and Todd Hare; Terry Robinson; Kerry Ressler; Alex Shackman; Andy Tomarken; Mike Treadway; Peter Visscher; David Walker; David Watson; Paul Whalen; Tal Yarkoni; David Zald and many othersPeopleFamous and Not-So-Famous PatientsB-19, EVR/Eliot, SM, and Phineas Gage

Famous and Not-So-Famous ScientistsRalph Adolphs; Yair Bar-Haim; David Barlow; Kent Berridge; Jenni Blackford; Jack Block; Ryan Bogdan; Turhan Canli; Avshalom Caspi; Michelle Craske; Tony and Hannah Damasio; Richie Davidson; Mike Davis; Hans and Mike Eysenck; Nathan Fox; Jeffrey Gray; Christian Grillon; Dan Grupe; Amad Hariri; Jerry Kagan; Ken Kendler; Carl Lejuez; Joe Ledoux; Schmuel Lissek; Jerry Kagan; Ned Kalin; Ken Kendler; Roman Kotov; Seymour Gig Levine; Colin Macleod; Michael Meaney; Walt Mischel; Temi Moffitt; Jack Nitschke; Danny Pine; Diego Pizzagalli; Tony Rangel and Todd Hare; Terry Robinson; Kerry Ressler; Alex Shackman; Andy Tomarken; Mike Treadway; Peter Visscher; David Walker; David Watson; Paul Whalen; Tal Yarkoni; David Zald and many othersNew Answers to Fundamental QsNew Answers to Fundamental Qs

New Answers to Fundamental QsWhat is temperament?

What is personality?

Are temperament and personality fundamentally different?

Is T&P emotional, cognitive, or a blend of both?

Are dimensions of T&P comprised of more basic psychological or neural ingredients?

New Answers to Fundamental QsHow many dimensions or types of personality are there?

Where did these dimensions come from; how were they discovered?New Answers to Fundamental QsWhat exactly does it mean to be neurotic? What makes Woody Allen tick?

What is self-control? Where does it come from? What are the implications of my niece grabbing that marshmallow?

Is reward one thing? What motivates us to seek out pleasure and reward?New Answers to Fundamental QsIs The Situation the primary determinant of thoughts, feelings, and actions?

Is T&P predictive of meaningful outcomes? Is it impactful or can we safely ignore individual differencestreat them as noise or error in our equations? New Answers to Fundamental QsHow stable are trait-like individual differences in T&P across the life span?

How well can I predict your personality at age 70, knowing what you're like when you are 2 or 3 years old?

My son or daughter is extremely shy and reticent Should I hit the panic button? Is s/he destined to develop a debilitating emotional disorder?

New Answers to Fundamental QsHow are traits related to emotional states?

How does T&P interact with cues, challenges, and perturbations in the environment?

Do people tend to exert control over those challenges and the feelings they evoke or are they passive recipients?

Does T&P go away in the absence of challenges or is it discernible all the time? (Is our brain ever really at rest?)

Does T&P lead individuals to construct different environments for themselves?New Answers to Fundamental QsDoes T&P reflect nature, nurture, or both?

Does T&P breed true? Does it reflect a few genes or many?

Are heritable traits fixed and immutable or plastic? How informative is heritability is one group ALWAYS going to come out on top?

If T&P is somewhat malleable, should we intervene in the case of high-risk T&P? New Answers to Fundamental QsIs depression just being really sad?

Is addiction just an excess of approaching highs and avoiding lows?

Why do we so often succumb to temptation and immediate gratification? What mechanisms are involved?

Do drugs of abuse exert lasting consequences on reward circuitry?

Is dopamine a natural joy juice?

Some Broad Take Home PointsT&P Are Important, But Incompletely UnderstoodIndividual differences in temperament, which first emerge early in life, can exert a profound impact on disease and wellbeing, socioeconomic status, and academic and occupational attainmentOne important way in which temperament influences these diverse outcomes is by conferring risk for the development of psychopathology.

The challenge is to understand the psychological and biological mechanisms that link dispositional risk to positive and negative outcomes.

T&P Are Important, But Incompletely UnderstoodIndividual differences in temperament, which first emerge early in life, can exert a profound impact on disease and wellbeing, socioeconomic status, and academic and occupational attainmentOne important way in which temperament influences these diverse outcomes is by conferring risk for the development of psychopathology

The challenge is to understand the psychological and biological mechanisms that link stable differences in risk and resilience to important positive and negative outcomes in the real world

T&P Are Important, But Incompletely UnderstoodIndividual differences in temperament, which first emerge early in life, can exert a profound impact on disease and wellbeing, socioeconomic status, and academic and occupational attainmentOne important way in which temperament influences these diverse outcomes is by conferring risk for the development of psychopathology

The challenge is to understand the psychological and biological mechanisms that link trait-like differences in risk and resilience to important positive and negative outcomes in the real world

I am really proud of you guys and all that you have accomplished and learned this semester Be Proud of Your New Knowledge and New Ways of Thinking, But Not Too Proudhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zMxatjSLngc (546 to 7:37)Take Home Question (Just 1)Take Home Question (Just 1)Complete the course evaluation

https://www.courseevalum.umd.edu/

The numeric/quantitative portion ofthe evaluation directly impacts me, in terms of promotion and retention (tenure)

The narrative/free-response portion directly impacts students enrolled in future classes. I take your feedback and suggestions very seriously and use it to revise the class.

In CANVAS, submit a brief statement to the effect that

I, , pledge on my honor that I have truthfully completed the Course Evaluation for Psychology 612

Take Home Question (Just 1)Complete the course evaluation


















The End.

Good luck with your end of term responsibilities and the final examination

and

Have a great summer!Exam ReviewBased on fear conditioning studies in the psychophysiology lab, we can say that children and adults with extreme anxiety tend to showAmplified signs of anxiety (startle) in response to certain threat (CS+) Exaggerated anxiety to uncertain, ambiguous, unpredictable dangers (CS- , ITI; evidence of over-generalization or deficient safety learning) Anxiety-related responses which are strictly limited to immediate danger

Real-time fMRI neurofeedback studies demonstrate thatSubjects report that in order to increase activation, they were imagining engaging in different kinds of high arousal, negative activitiesSubjects can learn to regulate activation in the VS/NAcc, providing important mechanistic insights into the neural circuitry underlying reward Subjects who experienced the most intense positive affect showed the smallest increases in VS/NAcc activationA and BB and C

Family, twin, and adoption studies (aka behavioral genetics) teach us that: Psychiatric disorders and T&P are not heritablePsychiatric disorders and T&P aggregate in families Things that blood relatives share (e.g., SES, toxin exposure, stress, habits) are irrelevant to understanding psychopathology or T&P A and C B and C

Many or most individuals with diagnosable major depression or an anxiety disorder Fail to receive high-quality, evidence-based treatment (under-treated) Receive high-quality pharmacological or cognitive-behavioral treatment

T&P reflect trait-like individual differences in emotional and cognitive (and neural) biases that:First emerge in mid-lifeAre fixed at a relatively young ageAccount for consistency and biases in behavior, inner experience, and risk across time and contextsA and BB and C

Mechanistic studies in animal models tell us absolutely nothing aboutMechanism/Causation, as this can only be achieved in studies of human patients with circumscribed brain damageSubjective experience and feelings

Are there pleasure centers in the brain? Yes! Hedonic hotspots; opioid and endocannabinoid signaling No! Yes! Medial forebrain bundle Yes! Dopamine

Orbitofrontal cortex Signals value, such as tastinessSignals value, such as healthinessAppears to be regulated by lateral prefrontal cortex (i.e., attend to health, downweight taste)All of the above

Individuals who show increased activation in the ventral striatum/nucleus accumbens (VS/NAcc) when looking at yummy foods in the scanner, tend to Experience more intense food desires in daily life and are more likely to give in to their temptations to eat b. Experience less intense food desires in daily life and are less likely to give in to their temptations to eat

fMRI signals in the ventral striatum areHighly specific to particular kinds of rewardsNonspecificPredictive of reward-motivated behavior in real life (sex, food consumption)A and CB and C

Substance abuse disorders are associated withHigh N/NELow C/SCBoth

Which is the more correct statement?Nearly every aspect of human behavior is somewhat heritable and reflects the activity of the brain, suggesting that all behaviors are biologicalVery few aspects of human behavior are heritable; heritable behaviors are especially biological; biologically mediated behaviors are special

Which is FALSE: Height is Among the most heritable mammalian traits, although offspring show considerable variation (probabilistic, not deterministic) A trait-like phenotype that is associated with variation in a small number of genetic polymorphisms Cannot be markedly affected by interventions (diet, nutrition, and healthcare access), underscoring that public policy and other kinds of interventions can have a huge impact on highly heritable traits A and B B and C

Substance abuse disorders reflectIncentive sensitization (permanent changes) in the mesolimbic dopamine system that creates Motivational MagnetsProblems bringing regulatory circuits centered on the lateral prefrontal cortex on-line (inhibitory failure); activity in this braking system predicts real life impulse control problems (e.g., giving in to food temptations)Both

Which statement is MORE scientifically TRUE, based on the latest evidence (through 2015) discussed in class?Today few neuroscientistsassertthat dopamine causes pleasureFor example Wisewas recently quoted [as saying], I no longer believe that the amount of pleasure felt is proportional to the amount of dopamine floating around in the brain, and pleasure is not a necessary correlate of dopamine elevationsToday most neuroscientistsassertthat dopamine causes pleasureFor example Wisewas recently quoted [as saying], the dopamine junctions represent a synaptic way station . . . where sensory inputs are translated into the hedonic messages we experience as pleasure, euphoria or yumminess

Amygdala damage/lesions is associated with a. Attenuated (but not abolished) signs of fear/anxiety in the presence of learned threats (CS+) and unlearned threats (snakes, spiders), suggesting a causal role in N/NE b. A profound increase in fear/anxiety elicited by naturalistic threat (haunted houses, armed muggers, scary film clips), suggesting a causal role in N/NE c. Elevated levels of self-reported N/NE and trait anxietyd. All of the above e. None of the above

Some Parkinsons patients on the dopamine augmenting agent PramipexolDisplay impulse control disorders (e.g., hypersexuality, compulsive shopping)This appears to reflect problems turning dopamine off in the ventral striatumBoth, suggesting that the mesolimbic dopamine system can play a causal role in impulse disorders such as substance abuse

Recent meta-analyses demonstrate that A variety of anxiety disorders, much like N/NE, are associated with heightened amygdala activation to potential threat Depression, much like N/NE, is associated with increased amygdala reactivity to aversive cues Both A and B, providing evidence for a common or overlapping biological substrate Neither A nor B, suggesting dissociable substrates

Which is more TRUE: Addiction involvesThe development of long-lasting changes in the brainFleeting processes that rapidly subside after a transient period of acute withdrawal

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) provides important mechanistic (causal) clues about the neurobiology of E/PE. In particular, DBS of the human ventral striatum (VS) / nucleus accumbens a. Attenuates the VS response during reward anticipation b. Ameliorates depression and increases behavioral engagement, suggesting a causal role in behavioral approach and reward responsivenessc. Increases resting metabolic activity in the VS d. A & B e. B & C

Are there pleasure centers in the brainYesNo

Which is more TRUE: Reward, addiction, fear, anxiety and other key emotional features of T&P emerge fromThe activity of isolated brain regionsThe coordinated activity of widely distributed brain circuits

Is the neurotransmitter dopamine the source of pleasure and reward?YesNo

Which is FALSE: The amygdala: Helps to orchestrate states of fear and anxiety via connections to brainstem and subcortical regionsIs a fear hotspot in the brain and is uniquely and specifically associated with fearShows enhanced activation in response to drug-related cues in addicts, consistent with the idea that it helps to prioritize the processing of emotionally and motivationally salient cues in the environment

In rodents, increasing dopamine transmission or signaling in a circuit centered on the nucleus accumbensIncreases liking (oro-facial expressions of pleasure) Increases wanting (e.g., bar pressing) Both A and BNeither A nor B

Is RewardOne thingA set of processes that normally work together to support adaptive behavior (e.g., foraging for food)

Self-control in the face of temptation reflects interactions betweenA wanting/approach/go circuit centered on the amygdalaInhibitory/stop circuitry encompassing the right posterior parietal cortexRegions of the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) that are sensitive to overall value and preferences and that integrate information about long-term health and short-term reward Regions of the lateral prefrontal cortex that help to represent impulsive preferences (yummy!) All of the above

Is the neurotransmitter dopamine the source of pleasure and reward?YesNo

Is RewardOne thingA set of processes that normally work together to support adaptive behavior (e.g., foraging for food)

Deep brain stimulation of the ventral striatum / nucleus accumbensAmeliorates depressionIncreases metabolic activity in the VSPotentiates the VS response during reward anticipationAll of the above, suggesting a causal role for this system in the wanting component of E/PE/BAS as well as depression

Which is more true of liking and wanting?They represent the same underlying constructThey are difficult to tease apart with self-report and behavioral (reaction time) assays

In humans, pharmacological manipulations that increase dopamine transmission in the ventral striatumIncrease willingness to work for rewardDecrease willingness to work for reward

Depression is associated with blunted activation in the ventral striatum/nucleus accumbens. Manipulations (ketamine, deep brain stimulation) that increase VS/Nacc activation ameliorate depression. Collectively, these observations are consistent with the idea that Major depression reflects sensitization of the psychological function of this circuit (e.g. wanting) Blunted VS/NAcc activation in the face of reward is a proximal cause of depression

In humans, nucleus accumbens / ventral striatum activation is Is trait-like Associated with N/NEBothNeither

Sensory pleasure appears to reflect the action ofSo called hedonic hotspots in the medial shell of the nucleus accumbens and other brain regions; stimulation increases liking facial expressionsHedonic hotspots that rely on dopamineHedonic hotspots that rely on opioids (opium) and endocannabinoids (marijuana)A and BA and C

Which is FALSE? Reduced reward responsivenessShows good test-retest stability; is trait-likeIs a candidate endophenotype for depressionIs not heritableProspectively predicts symptoms & treatment responseAvoids the limitations of self-report (mnemonic distortions, biases, lying)

Increasing dopamine levels in the circuit centered on the nucleus accumbensIncreases liking (facial expressions)Increases wanting (e.g., bar pressing)Both

Michael Meaneys group has provided evidence that the impact of experimenter handling on rodent temperament (N/NE or stress reactivity) is Reflects decreased expression of benzodiazepine receptors in the amygdalaProximally mediated by a maternal behavior, underscoring the importance of early nurture for adult T&P and highlighting the fact that parents can regulate the development of their offsprings brains Mediated by genes that increase maternal LG-ABN and decrease offspring reactivity (i.e., a common genetic cause)

Dopamine isNecessary for experiencing sensory pleasureSufficient for experiencing sensory pleasureNeither

Which is TRUE: Behavioral Activation therapy for depression: Focus on cognitive and emotional change; attempt to directly regulate thoughts and feelingsIs an evidence-based treatment for depression with a large effect sizeProvides mechanistic evidence that high levels of behavioral activation and increased engagement with reward serve to maintain pathological depressionA and BB and C

Blockade or disruption of the mesolimbic dopamine system Disrupts liking (facial expressions)Disrupts wanting (e.g., bar pressing)Both

Increasing dopamine levels in the circuit centered on the nucleus accumbensIncreases liking (facial expressions)Increases wanting (e.g., bar pressing)Both

Dopamine isNecessary for experiencing sensory pleasureSufficient for experiencing sensory pleasureNeither

Rats, chimps, and humansShow similar emotional facial expressions in response to liked and disliked food and drinkThese oro-facial expressions provide a direct behavioral read-out of likingBoth

The mesolimbic dopamine systemIs activated by natural rewards and all major drugs of abuseWhen blocked (pharmacologically, lesions, genetic engineering), radically amplifies reward-motivated behavior (e.g., bar pressing for cocaine)

Attentional biases to threat: Attentional bias modification is not clinically effective, according to the meta-analyses reviewed in class Retraining the attentional bias produces a lasting diminution in anxiety in the lab (e.g. in a public speaking task), suggesting that it is an "active ingredient" in the development of extreme anxiety. Both A and BNeither A nor B

Which is true of depressed individuals?They express blunted liking of rewards and positive stimuli in the labThey under-invest in meh (low-reward) activities in daily lifeThey are more willing to work for rewardA and BB and C

The mesolimbic dopamine systemUnderlies hedonic pleasure and consummatory rewardSupports wanting and appetitive behaviors aimed at getting rewards

Activation of the medial forebrain bundleSupports robust, frequent self-stimulation in rodents and humansActivates pleasure centers in the brain

T&P predicts: Motivated behavior: Approach or avoidance in the absence of trait-relevant challenges Emotion regulation & recovery following challenges Anticipatory thoughts and feelings (e.g., worry) before challengesAll of the above (A-C)None of the above

Which is FALSE: Over time, the repeated experience of social failure among individuals with high levels of BI mayTrain them to interpret ambiguous social situations as threateningCause them to believe that poor social outcomes are their faultPromote excessive anxiety about social situations and public performanceReduce the risk of developing depression and substance abuse

FILL IN THE BLANKS: ______s (or their absence) do not hard-wire people for certain behaviors. There is no _____ for understanding calculus [or extraversion or neuroticism or self-control] Specific behaviors are [not biologically] hard-wired. M.I.T. math majors arent born doing calculus Its not just ______s make brain make behavior. You have ___________ too. Experience; Experience; Experience; Gene Gene; Gene; Gene; Experience

Individuals with elevated N/NE are: Less likely to be exposed to daily conflicts in their relationships More likely to de-escalate negative affect during conflict More likely to express toxic social behaviors (criticism, contempt, defensiveness, & stonewalling), perhaps contributing to increased marital dissatisfaction and higher rates of divorce among highly neurotic individualsAll of the above None of the above

Rewards are liked (hedonic pleasure during consumption) and wanted. Liking and wantingAre challenging to tease apartReflect dissociable neural substratesAre differentially related to substance abuse, according to rodent models (Berridge & Robinson)All of the above

Reduced reward responsiveness. Which is false?Is a candidate endophenotype for depressionProspectively predicts symptoms & treatment responseNot heritable

Depressed individuals Show blunted liking of positive stimuli and rewardsAre less willing to invest effort in obtaining rewards and overinvest in low-reward activitiesAre more responsive to rewards in the lab and in daily lifeA & BB & C

(Tomarken:) Measures of T&P need to: Exhibit adequate construct validity (sensitivity and specificity) Show adequate internal-consistency reliabilityDisplay sufficient test-retest stability (trait-like) All of the above (A-C)None of the above (A-C)

In humans, nucleus accumbens / ventral striatum (VS) Activation during reward anticipation is trait-like Activation is associated with trait-like individual differences in E/PE and BAS Both A and B Neither A nor B

Electrical signals generated in the midcingulate cortex and measured on the scalp are trait-like and predictGreater caution and inhibition following negative feedback or errorsEnhanced avoidance of cues associated with punishment, loss, and negative feedbackBoth, suggesting that this circuit accounts for anxious individuals excessively risk- and threat-avoidant profile of choices and behaviors

When cumulated over many individuals or experiences (e.g. job interviews of a minority candidate), tiny or weak statistical effects (e.g. small correlations)Are never of any practical importanceCan be of substantial practical importance when cumulated over many individuals or experiences; they may also provide key clues about important therapeutic targets for drug development (as in the cholesterol example)

The Adaptive Control Hypothesis claims thatAnxiety and cognition engage a common territory in the MCCMCC uses punishment related information to bias behavior in the face of uncertaintyThese signals are enhanced in anxious, inhibition individualsAll of the above

The mesolimbic dopamine system Underlies hedonic pleasure and consummatory reward ("neural joy juice")Supports wanting and appetitive behaviors aimed at getting rewardsIs activated by natural rewards (food, sex) and all major drugs of abuseA & BB & C

Pete & Paul: With regard to anxiety, cognitive and behavioral avoidance is An adaptive coping mechanism that reduces short-term distress and arousalMaladaptive because it prevents exposure that might contradict inflated negative expectations (i.e., lost opportunity for extinction)

Which is FALSE?Individual common genetic polymorphisms (the SNPs measured by SNP chips) generally have strong effects on brain function, behavior, and T&P (e.g., 50+%)Such big effects are easy to reliably detect in small, inexpensive samplesBoth A and BNeither A nor B

Clinically effective anti-anxiety drugsSelectively decrease fear elicited by clear and imminent dangerSelectively attenuate anxiety elicited by uncertain threat

Substance use disorder has been linked to which of the following core dimensions of T&P Elevated E/PEAttenuated C/SC; indeed, low levels of self-reported Conscientiousness/Self-Control is among the strongest prospective risk factorsAmplified N/NEA and BB and C

Uncertainty, unpredictability, and ambiguityIncrease anxiety, indexed by fear-potentiated startle or ratingsDecrease anxiety, indexed by fear-potentiated startle or ratings

Unpredictable, neutral tones are sufficient toIncrease amygdala activation in the ratDecrease behavioral manifestations of anxiety in the ratAmplify amygdala reactivity in humansA & CB & C

Which is true?Anxiety and cognition (attention, inhibition, memory) are completely separable and different in kindAnxiety and cognition are deeply and intimately connected

Orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) Is sensitive to preferences and value, such as tastiness and healthiness Appears to be regulated by lateral prefrontal cortexDamage often leads to anhedonia A & B B & C

Which is correct? My friend, Dr. X, comes from a family of alcoholicsAlcoholism is not heritableDr. X is more likely to develop a substance use disorder (e.g. alcoholism)Dr. X can choose to abstain from alcohol and eliminate the riskBoth A and B Both B and C

In particularly tempting moments, subjects with low activation in the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG; as indexed using fMRI during the performance of simple go/no-go task) are less likely to give in to a food desire and actually eat than subjects with High IFG activation, suggesting that this region of the lateral PFC serves as an "accelerator" in situations demanding self-control more likely to give in to a food desire and actually eat than subjects with High IFG activation, suggesting that this region of the lateral PFC serves as a "brake" in situations demanding self-control

Which is true?The error related negativity (ERN) is an event-related potential (ERP) generated in the mid-cingulate cortex (MCC); bigger in individuals with an anxious T&PThe ERN is increased by clinically effective anti-anxiety drugs (anxiolytics) eg benzodiazepinesErrors (endogenous negative feedback ) are aversive and are associated with potentiation of the startle reflexA & CB & C

Negative life events & psychological pathogens such as stress tend to: Cause individuals to cross the diagnostic boundary and experience a depressive episode Increase the risk of developing a diagnosable anxiety disorderDecrease N/NE A and BB and C

Individuals with elevated N/NE and frank anxiety disorders tend to show Heightened avoidance of potential threat (I cross the street to avoid someone I know)Abnormally infrequent attempts to control or avoid distress by worrying

Heightened anxiety in response to uncertain, ambiguous, unpredictable dangers (CS- , ITI/context paired with shocks) Is observed in teens with a childhood history of stable, extreme behavioral inhibition (Fox lab) , suggesting that it confers increased risk and may contribute to disease etiologyRetrospectively predicts the first onset of a depressive disorder (i.e., who will get sick) [Craske lab] and is observed in many patients with bipolar disorder [Lissek lab] Appears to reflect alterations in the posterior parietal cortex Is selectively amplified by clinically-effective medications for anxiety, such as the benzodiazepines, as well as low doses of ethyl alcohol All of the above

Amygdala damage/lesions is associated with pathologically reduced trust and paranoiaincreased social approach (i.e. reduced social distancing), underscoring that the amygdala does much more than just orchestrate states of fear and anxiety Both A and BNeither A nor B

Individuals with high levels of N/NE are characterized byInflated estimates of threat likelihoodAbnormally low estimates of threat intensity

Anxious individuals tend to showHeightened anxiety (startle) in response to clear and imminent threat (CS+)Excess anxiety to uncertain and ambiguous danger (CS- , ITI)

About 10-20% of patients treated for Parkinsons disorder with Pramipexol exhibit severe impulse control problems (e.g., pathological gambling, hypersexuality, compulsive shopping, and binge eating). Recent research using PET indicates that these patients show (i) reduced expression of the dopamine transporter in the ventral striatum/VS (i.e., they are hypersensitive to Pramipexol-induced increases in VS dopamine signalling) as well as (ii) increased VS activation and enhanced dopamine release in the VS in response to reward cues. Behaviorally, their impulse control problems rapidly decline as soon as they stop taking the drug. Collectively, these pharmacological, clinical, and brain imaging findings provide unique and compelling evidence that Low C/SC and impulse control disorders likely reflect, at least in part, decreased magnitude and duration of DA transmission in the VSLow C/SC and impulse control disorders likely reflect, at least in part, increased magnitude and duration of DA transmission in the VS Low C/SC and impulse control disorders is unrelated to striatal dopamine transmission

Anxious individuals attentional bias to threat can be re-trained using computerized tasks. Which is the best answer?This is clinically effective, albeit weaklyRetraining the bias produces a lasting diminution in anxiety (e.g. in a public speaking task)Furthermore, CBT targeting excess anxiety reduces the attentional bias (reverse effect)Collectively, these mechanistic findings indicate a causal role

Anxious individuals tend toAllocate excess attention to threatAre faster to respond to the dot-probe when it occurs at the same location as a negative wordBoth

Amygdala reactivity to threat-related cues predicts N/NE and anxious temperament in humans and monkeys is increased in a dose-dependent manner by drugs, such as benzodiazepines, suggesting that it does not play a mechanistic (causal) role in N/NEretrospectively predicts the development of PTSD symptoms in individuals who lived through the Boston Marathon bombingAll of the above None of the above

Hypervigilance may reflectThe direct influence of the amygdala on sensory cortexRobust projections from the amygdala to the visual cortexAn indirect influence of the amygdala, mediated by acetylcholine neurons sitting in the basal forebrain (nucleus basalis of Meynert); wake up!All of the above

Anxious individuals tend toOvergeneralize anxiety to cues that resemble genuine dangers (e.g., Lisseks parametric rings)Show anxiety that is strictly limited to threat

Individuals with anxiety disordersHave difficulties tuning their anxiety and learning what is safe (safety learning deficit)This promotes to chronic, pervasive anxiety, arousal, and stress; they dont know when its safe to relaxAnd predicts who will develop an anxiety disorder All of the above

Individuals with a childhood history of extreme BI, a facet of N/NE, showHypervigilance on the dot-probe taskElevated startle during periods of objective safetyBoth

Exam Review: Material Covered During theMiddle Third of CourseThe (fear-potentiated or emotion-modulated) startle reflex isIs potentiated (increased) during periods of stress, fear, and anxietyCan be measured using similar techniques in rodents, monkeys, and humansIs a widely used, valence-sensitive measure of conditioned and unconditioned fearAll of the above

Conventional functional MRI (fMRI) pulse sequences measureBlood oxygenation (the hemodynamic BOLD signal); fMRI is an indirect measure of neuronal firingNeuronal firingThe release of neurotransmitter-filled vesicles into the synapse (synpaptic cleft)FDG metabolismElectrical activity generated by ensembles of neurons, providing exquisite temporal resolution

Which is true?There is one anxiety disorderThere is a whole family of anxiety disorders

The most common family of psychiatric disorders isAnxietyDepressionSchizophreniaSomatoform

Anxiety disorders tend to onsetLate in lifeMid lifeEarly in life

Depression tends to onsetEarly in lifeMid lifeLate in life

The most burdensome disorder (disability, illnes, death) in the US isDepressionHeart DiseaseCOPDCancerAlzheimers

Elevated N/NE is a risk factor forAnxiety disordersDepressive disordersBoth

Anxiety and depression symptomsForm a coherent, factor (internalizing)Are categorically distinctShould be thought of as natural kinds, discrete entities that exist in nature waiting to be discovered

Anxiety and depressionAre highly co-morbidRarely co-occur in the same individual

Treatments targeting one emotional disorderAmeliorate (decrease) the symptoms of other emotional disordersDecrease ratings of N/NEBoth, suggesting a common cause

Negative life events & psychological pathogens such as stress tend toCause individuals to cross the diagnostic boundary and experience a frank depressive disorderIncrease the risk of developing a diagnosable anxiety disorderIncrease N/NEAll of the above

Anxiety disorders, depression, and N/NEReflect completely separate genesAre inherited together (shared inheritance), suggesting a common genetic underpinning

Recent meta-analyses demonstrate thatA variety of anxiety disorders, like N/NE, are associated with heightened amygdala activation to potential threatDepression, like N/NE, is associated with increased amygdala reactivity to aversive cuesBoth, providing evidence for a common biology

Barlow argues that the development of a particular Dx (diagnostic specificity) reflectsN/NE and a disorder-specific learned vulnerability (e.g., fear dogs)N/NE and an innate vulnerabilityN/NE and other non-specific risk factors

N/NE is a Cause of emotional disordersSymptom of emotional disordersIdentical to or synonymous with the emotional disordersA symptom of too much anxiety

When confronted by potential threat (robot, intruder), children with high levels of behavioral inhibition (BI)Exhibit heightened avoidance and freezingCease playingBecome quiet Withdraw to the proximity of their caregiverAll of the above

Jenni Blackfords group uses a questionnaire to retrospectively assess childhood BI. This isMuch more practical than starting a new longitudinal study (waiting 20 years)Subject to the usual concerns about mnemonic biasesBoth

BI in toddlersParallels anxious temperament (AT) in young monkeysEchoes theoretical descriptions of the BIS (Jeffrey Gray)Is associated with R > L frontal EEG asymmetry, as in studies of monkeys and human adultsIs considered a facet of N/NEIs somewhat stable (test-retest)Is heritable (inherited)All of the above

Most preschoolers with high levels of BI __________Stick with itGrow out of itAre likely to develop an anxiety disorderJust have an age-appropriate fear of separation or strangersA and CB and D

Kids with _____ & ______ are at risk for developing ___________Consistent, high levels of BI, substance and emotional disorders Stable, high levels of BI, schizophrenia and personality disorders

Social anxiety disorder can be characterized by Heightened anxiety about people and performancePervasive worries about being judgedAvoidanceHyper-arousalA disconnect between what patients know to be rational vs what they feelAll of the above

BI is associated withLess effective ways of interacting with othersWorse social outcomesLower quality peer relationsA loss of opportunity to acquire critical social skillsChallenges forging strong relations with new peers and schoolmatesAll of the above

Over time, the repeated experience of social failure among individuals with high levels of BI mayTrain them to interpret ambiguous social situations as threateningCause them to believe that poor social outcomes are their faultPromote excessive anxiety about social situations and public performanceAll of the above

BI is a strong (candidate) _________ for ______________; but we still need to establish ______ .Intermediate phenotype, dysthmia, causationEndophenotype, social anx disorder, causationBiomarker, emotional disorders, heritabilityMarker, overactive insula, heritability

T&P reflectNatureNurtureBoth

Genes (nature) can influenceEnvironments and experienceNeither. Nature and nurture are distinct and independent forces

Nature (heritability) is Fixed and immutablePlastic and can change in response to growing autonomy or due to cumulative impact

Heritability is The proportion of variation in a trait, such as C/SC, that is accounted for by the pedigree (family tree)GV / Total PV = GV / GV + EVA and B

Estimates of heritabilityAre fixedCan be influenced by social and environmental influences (e.g., living in a conservative religious community) that increase or decrease the amount of variation in the trait (e.g., disinhibition, partying, smoking)

Heritability Is the % of variation in a trait, such as E/PE, that is passed down from your parentsReflects the inheritance of genes, not phenotypes or traits

Heritability describesThe % of my trait that is inherited (nature) vs. environmental (nurture)The % of phenotypic variation across a group of individuals that is influenced by genetic factorsIndividuals within a population (e.g., Alex)

Highly heritable traits, such as heightAre our destinyCan potentially be powerfully influenced by interventions (environment)

Ryan Bogdan: The neurogenetic strategyInvolves correlating variation in genetic polymorphisms (SNPs) with variation in intermediate phenotypes, such as differences in amygdala activationPromises to address WHY individuals differ in brain activation (e.g., why do individuals high in N/NE show heightened amygdala reactivity)Opens the door to discovering testable mechanisms for genetic influence on behaviorAll of the above

Which is false about the serotonin transporter genetic polymorphismAmygdala reactivity is correlated with variation in the serotonin-transporter linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) on the SLC6A4 geneThe L allele is bad: Individuals with the more transcriptionally-efficient long allele (more transporter proteins available to clear serotonin from the synapse) show heightened threat-related amygdala reactivity relative to individuals with the short alleleMeta-analyses suggest that this allele accounts for 20-50% of the variance in amygdala reactivityB and C

Which is false?Some have suggested that the neurogenetics strategy can address the molecular mechanisms linking genes to brain to traits, such as N/NESome have suggested that if we measure a genetic polymorphism with a known function (e.g., serotonin transporter) and we are willing to make some assumptions, then we can use SNPs as a proxy for individual differences in brain chemistry (serotonin in the amygdala). Which is awesome because we usually cannot measure neurochemistry in living human brains.In relation to the serotonin transporter allele, a key assumption of this strategy is that differences in the allele are actually associated with differences in the expression of the serotonin transporter in the brainSeveral groups (e.g., Kalin) have used PET to show that there is in fact an association between the allele transporter expression in the amygdala, confirming this key assumption

Which is trueThe HPA axis is involved in the release of cortisol, epinephrine/adrenaline, and norepinephrine/noradrenaline in response to physical and psychological stress, which increases the availability of energy for the brain as well as defensive behaviors (fight/flight)HPA = hippocampal, pituitary, amygdala

Which is falseRemarkable life-long changes happen to stress-reactivity when neonatal rats are exposed to experimenter handling, providing a nonhuman animal model of early experience & temperamentHandling leads to tighter, more precise regulation of cortisolHandling leads to increased expression of the glucocortisoid receptor in the hippocampus in adulthoodAs adults, rats who were handled as pups are less exploratory, more fearful, and more stress reactive (N/NE)

Which is false: Michael Meaneys group has provided evidence that the impact of handling on temperament (N/NE or stress reactivity) is Related to increased expression of benzodiazepine receptors in the amygdala Mediated by a social factor, namely, maternal style (LG-ABN: licking, grooming, and arched-back nursing)Mediated by genes that increase maternal LG-ABN and decrease offspring reactivityNot genetically transmitted (i.e., moms can alter adopted/cross-fostered pups)

Which is false about epigeneticsRefers to trait-like alterations in the transcriptional (protein-making) potential of a cell (such as a neuron) that are not due to changes in the genome (DNA); turning certain genes on/off, without changing the genes themselvesOften reflects methylation or histone modification of the DNAExplains cell differentiation (liver vs brain cell) & developmentally appropriate changes in the brain and bodyCan never be heritable (transmitted to subsequent generations)Can be heritable, violating a key tenet of modern biology (inherited traits, such as T&P, reflect the intergenerational transmission of DNA)

Which is false: How does maternal behavior produce lasting changes in (rodent) temperament (N/NE)Meaneys team showed that maternal behavior (LG-ABN) produces epigenetic changesEpigenetic changes lead to increased expression of glucocorticoid receptors in the hippocampus, supporting enduring changes in stress reactivityEpigenetic changes induced by maternal behavior only persist during the neonatal period

Can paternal experience be transmitted to offspring without a behavioral/social intermediary? Can we benefit (or suffer) from our parents experience without them teaching (or grooming) us? Can acquired characteristics be inherited, as Lamarck posited in the 18th century?

Yes!No!Ressler and others have provided tantalizing evidence suggesting that this is possible, but much remains unclear (e.g., how fear learning in the brain influences epigenetics in the sperm/gametes)

Which is false: Trait-like differences in T&P reflect the brain. Differences in brain structure and function reflect the influence of Genome/DNAEpigenomeExperience/EnvironmentExperience interacting with the genome and epigenomeNone of the above

Which is false: Trait-like differences in T&P reflect the brain. Nature (genome/DNA, epigenome) and nurture (experience) interact to changeProtein expressionDNA methylationNeurochemical receptor expression and bindingHippocampal structure and functionHistone statusNone of the above

How does early experience (abuse, stress, caregiver behavior) get into the brainChanges in the genetic codeChanges in the epigenome that alter the expression of genes, leading to changes in protein synthesis and, ultimately, activity

GWAS pretends thatAlleles (i.e., genetic variants) do not interact with or influence one another (only independent effects are considered)Alleles do interact with one another

* Taylors question in classGWAS genome-wide association studyBrute force approach to identifying correlations between alleles and phenotypes, such as N/NEOften relies on SNP chipsSuffers from low statistical sensitivity, because of the very large number of tests performedOpens the door to discovering new and potentially important molecular pathwaysAll of the above

Showing that a trait, such as E/PE, is heritable indicatesA single, coherent or unified biological causeNothing whatsoever with regard to the number or kind of substrates

Kagans model of BIShows a number of parallels with N/NE and Grays BIS, reinforcing the idea that childhood temperament and adult personality are closely relatedShows a number of important differences from N/NE and Grays BIS, reinforcing the idea that childhood temperament and adult personality are distinct kinds

An allele isA genetic polymorphismA genetic variantThe thing; that gives rise to genetically-determined individual differences in trait-like phenotypesAll of the above

Family, twin, and adoption studies (aka behavioral genetics) areCorrelationalMechanisticProvide a tool for discovering the molecular substrates of T&P

Family, twin, and adoption studies (aka behavioral genetics) teach us thatPsychiatric disorders, like T&P, aggregate in familiesAre heritableThings that blood relatives share (e.g., SES, toxin exposure, stress, habits) are important determinants of psychopathology

Which is trueIn humans, DNA is organized into 23 pairs of chromosomes, one descended from Mom and one from DadChromosomes are organized into genes, regions of DNA corresponding to the instructions for a proteinThese proteins form neurons, axons, the myelin sheath covering axons, neurochemicals, synapses and every other component of our brains, the wetware that gives rise to our T&PAll of the above

Developing a mechanistic understanding of the molecular neurobiology of T&P and associated psychiatric disorders promises toRedefine diagnostic categories and T&P traits in terms of quantifiable etiology (root causes)Accelerate the development of novel treatments or prevention efforts targeting links in the etiological chainIdentify at-risk individuals early (e.g., carriers of a particular polymorphism)Predict treatment response or more quickly pick the best treatment (e.g., carriers of a particular polymorphism)Enhance prognosis: You have 3 months to liveProvide a novel discovery tool for addressing some of the most fundamental question about the nature of T&PAll of the above

Children with elevated behavioral inhibition (BI)Are more likely to develop anxiety, mood, and co-morbid substance abuse disorders later in lifeAre more likely to develop psychopathology if they show stable, high levels of BI across developmentAre shy and reticent in the face of novelty and potential threat (e.g., scary robot, human intruder)May show elevated levels of the stress hormone cortisolShow a R > L pattern of frontal EEGShow heightened amygdala reactivity to novel faces in adulthood All of the above

If a trait is highly heritable, this means that group differences at one point in history will always be that wayYesNo

What are the long-term prospects for linking genes to intermediate neural phenotypes to traits, such as C/SC?Awesome!Terrible! What a waste of taxpayer money!It depends on the nature of the linkages, which we do not yet knowCurrent evidence suggests somewhere in between awesome and terrible, but we do not yet knowC and D

Which is trueCommon genetic polymorphisms (the SNPs measured by SNP chips) have, at most, weak effects on brain function and behavior (e.g., 2-5%)Such small effects are small and hard to reliably detect without using very large and expensive samplesSuch small effects have led to many non-replicationsSuch small effects have led many to wonder whether this research strategy is worth the moneyAll of the above

Which is trueHannah is a 6 y.o. boyMicah is an 18 m.o. girlBoth of Dr. Ss kids are cute as all get outAll of the above

The Big 3 superfactors are about10% heritable45% heritable90% heritable

In class, we discussed several arguments for why even these small effects are potentially importantSmall is mis-leading; a limited number (on the order of a few tens) of SNPs, each accounting for a small % of the variance, can add up to meaningful differences (as in the height example)The expense to date of this research is modest compared to military expenditures or even large-scale physics projects (colliders)The discoveries are truly novel, opening the door to models and treatments that we probably never would have predicted or developed based on our existing knowledge and intuitions

Which is inherited (heritable)?GenesTrait-like phenotypes, such as E/PEAll of the above

Heritability reflectsThe % of between-individual variation predictable from pedigreeThe % of a trait within an individual (you!) that is inherited from your forebears

A wide variety of environmental factors can Trigger genetic predispositions (e.g., to high levels of N/NE)Compensate for or regulate the expression of genetic predispositionsEnhance or accentuate genetic predispositionsAll of the above

Heritability Is probabilistic and predictive of average outcomesIs deterministic if you know the parents, you know exactly what to expect of the offspring regardless of environment or experience

Anxiety disorders, such as GAD, and major depression areCategorically differentOften co-morbid and show a number of other similarities, in terms of therapeutic response, heritability, and do on, suggesting that they are closely related to one another and form a spectrum

Treatments targeting anxiety disordersTend to influence N/NE as well as depressionSelectively influence the targeted disorderOnly help some patientsA and CB and C

Anxiety disorders, depression, and N/NE appear to shareGenesNeural substrates (e.g., amygdala hyper-reactivity)Both

Lesion studies in rodents, monkeys, and humans demonstrate that the amygdalaIs required for the normal acquisition of new fear learning (conditioned emotional response)Not required Is required for the retention of already learned fears

Elevated N/NEIs common among anxiety patientsIs common among depression patientsBoth

Psychological pathogens, such as stress and family conflictExert similar effects on depression, anxiety disorders, and N/NE, suggesting a common substrateHave distinct effects on T&P vs. depression vs. anxiety disorders

In a widely cited paper published in Science in 2003, Caspi and colleagues provided evidence that Individual differences in the serotonin transporter SNPpredicted depressioninteracted with life stress to predict depression, providing evidence of a G x E interaction and suggesting a neurochemical substrate for psychiatric riskWas completely and utterly unrelated to depression

Amygdala lesions in monkeys blockThe acquisition of new conditioned fearsInnate anxiety about snakesBoth

Height is Trait-likeAmong the most heritable traits, although offspring will show considerable variationCan be markedly affected by interventions (diet, nutrition, and healthcare access)

Jerry Kagan argues that the root cause of childhood behavioral inhibition (BI) isAn over-reactive amygdalaMaladaptive cognitive coping mechanismsWorryDisressSocial reticenceShyness

The administration of a benzodiazepine (anti-anxiety medication)Causes a dose-dependent reduction in amygdala activationCauses a dose-dependent increase in amygdala activation

Why do some individuals develop particular disorders, such as specific phobia of dogs?Learning and experienceCore vulnerability (heightened neuroticism, hyper-reactive amygdala, inadequate regulation of the amygdala)Both, neither is sufficient to explain the development of specific emotional disorders

The RoboGator Experiment: Amygdala lesions in rodents attenuateReticence to get the food pellet in the presence of the remote-control robogator, suggesting a substrate for the reticence demonstrated by BI kids, consistent with lesioned monkeys and the human intruderThe amount of time hiding in the nest area (outside the arena containing the Rgator)All of the above

Heritability Is informative about the nature and plasticity of group differences (men/women, black/white) in traitsIs not informative about such mean differences

Amygdala damageIncreases ratings of trust and approachability to faces that are normally deemed untrustworthyHas no consequence of social interactions or social cognition

N/NE isA specific risk factor for anxiety disordersA nonspecific risk factor for a broad range of psychiatric disease

Patient SM has circumscribed bilateral destruction of her amygdalae. ShePicks up snakes and spiders, despite professing anxietyShows no fear in the haunted houseIs unable to acquire new conditioned fears in the labQuickly returned to the park where she was assaulted

Is BI a viable intermediate phenotype for social anxiety disorderYesNo

Emotional disorders and N/NEAre fundamentally differentReflect a common causeAre categorically distinct

Exam Review: Material Covered During theFirst Third of CourseHow can we identify the cause(s) of T&P (e.g., low C/SC)?Forge a link between individual differences in a trait and variation in a relevant behavioral or biological measureCorrelate traits and fMRI activationCompute a regression (correlation) between task performance (e.g., BART) and traits of interest Directly manipulate the hypothesized cause.All of the above

What's the problem with reducing a complex, broad-band trait to a single number?Mixes distinct processesHinders our ability to clearly resolve the underlying substratesToo simplisticAll of the above

One strategy for discovering the cause of phenomenologically complex traits (and mental disorders) is to Decompose them into simpler, more manageable intermediate phenotypesGive upSearch for endophenotypesA and C

Which of the following can we plausibly model in nonhuman animal models (where we can perform mechanistic experiments to determine causation)Anti-social behaviorC/SCDelay of gratificationTurn-taking and emotional irritabilityHyper-sensitivity to reward-related cuesC and E

With respect to neurological soft signs (trait), elevated lead levels in the hair areNoncausal symptom/marker of the process that causes the trait or phenotypeMarker or scar of the trait or the organisms response to the traitEndophenotype

We discussed 2 kinds of intermediate phenotypes. Both kinds areCausalHeritableAggregate in familiesCo-segregate in families

Endophenotypes areSimpler than the trait one seeks to understandCausalA bridge between the genotype and phenotypeHeritableAll of the above

Which is trueIntermediate phenotypes cause traits, markers do notMarkers cause traits, intermediate phenotypes do notEndophenotypes cause traits, biomarkers do notA and CB and C

RemarkablyWe know quite a bit about the mechanisms linking genes to endophenotypesWe know quite a bit about the mechanisms linking endophenotypes to traits (and disorders)We know next to nothing about either mechanism for any established endophenotype

EEG/ERP affordsExquisite spatial resolutionExquisite temporal resolutionNeitherBoth

Conventional fMRI signals reflectBlood oxygenation levelsNeuronal firing

Conceptually, activation in both ERPs and event-related fMRI is estimated by Computing the average response evoked by a particular condition or kind of eventComputing the cross-correlation among sensors

Which is trueEEG is relatively cheap, tolerant of motion, and reflects neuronal electrical activity (EPSPs)fMRI is relatively expensive, sensitive to motion artifacts, and does not directly measure neuronal activityBoth

EEG and fMRI areCausal (like lesion studies)Mechanistic (like manipulating brain activity in rodents with drug infusions)Correlational (like longitudinal studies of behavior)

In his 1968 book Personality and Assessment, Walt Mischel argued that the primary determinant of moods, thoughts, and behavior isThe situation, because T&P at most predict outcomes r = .30 (9% variance)T&PBoth

But contemporary science suggests that moods, thoughts, and behavior are determined byThe situationT&PBoth

Trait-like individual differences in T&P are strongly predictive ofAcademic performance (above & beyond IQ)Marital stability & satisfactionMental & physical health and wellbeing (morbidity)Death (mortality)All of the above

Correlation and variance explained: If two variables are correlated R = .50, the amount of variance accounted for is:0.50 * 0.50 = .25 = 25%0.50 / 0.50 = 1 = 100%Sqrt(.50) = .7071 = 70%

Longitudinal research studiesProvide strong evidence that antecedants (childhood) predict consequences (adulthood), a precondition for establishing causationComplex, costly, and time-consumingCan not prove causation, because they do not manipulate the putative cause of the outcomeAll of the above

Moffitt et al PNAS: What is C/SC?Do things by the book; follow rulesPrefer order and neatnessPlanful; not impulsiveAble to delay gratification; self-disciplined (marshmallow test)Focused; not easily distractedAll of the above

Which features of modern culture tend to magnify the impact of individual differences in T&P, such as C/SC?LongevityRisk exposure (fast food nation)The relatively high prevalance of psychiatric disorders, such as depression, anxiety, and substance abuseAll of the above

Moffitt et al PNAS: Key results: Childhood C/SC predicted mid-lifeComposite measure of healthComposite measure of personal wealthIncarceration, criminal conviction and other indices of public safetyAll of the above

Moffitt et al PNAS: Key results: Which is true?Kids with low C/SC are prone to smoke, become parents, and drop out of school as teensTeen snares explain the negative adult outcomes experienced by many kids with low C/SCTeen snares are only part of the story. Might make more sense to target the root cause (low childhood C/SC) for intevention, rather than teen symptomsAll of the above

Moffitt et al showed that childhood self-control predicts health, wealth & public safety in midlife. What was one intervening mechanism during adolescence that partially explained the link from kid temperament to deleterious adult outcomes? SmokingBecoming a parentExcessive video game playingViolence in the mediaHigh-caffeine energy drinksA & BC & D

Correlation and variance explained: If two variables are correlated R = .50, the amount of variance accounted for is:0.50 * 0.50 = .25 = 25%0.50 / 0.50 = 1 = 100%Sqrt(.50) = .7071 = 70%

T&P reflect trait-like individual differences in emotional and cognitive biases thatFirst emerge early in lifeContinue to evolve for many yearsAccount for consistency in behavior, inner experience, and risk across time and contexts. Can be relatively simple (e.g., anxious distress) or complex and multiply determined (orderliness). Excessive video game playingCan be relatively simpleCan be complex and multidimensionalAll of the above

T&P are not different in kind (according to Shackman) because they are bothBiologicalEmotionalCognitiveSomewhat heritableAll of the above

What are the 3 fundamental dimensions of T&P?N/NEP/TAE/PES/REC/SCA, C, and EA, B, and C

N/NE can be dissected into which 2 facet traitsDistress (fear/anxiety) and Irritation (anger)Guilt and Shame

Which statistical test is used to quantify the continuity (temporal or test-retest stability) of traitsStudents t testANOVACorrelation

T&P isFixed and immutable Moderately stable (R = 0.4 to 0.6 over periods of one to several years)Completely plastic and malleable

Which features of modern culture tend to magnify the impact of individual differences in T&P, such as C/SC?LongevityRisk exposure (fast food nation)The relatively high prevalance of psychiatric disorders, such as depression, anxiety, and substance abuseAll of the above

The Five Factor Model (FFM) is predicated on the lexical hypothesis, the assumption that the deep structure of T&P is embedded in our natural language, waiting to be discovered. What are some concerns with this assumption?Meaningful aspects of T&P may not be captured by single word adjectives (e.g., relationships or processes). Key aspects of T&P might be too complex for single words, requiring phrases, sentences, or even whole paragraphs of wordsNo guarantee that words (natural language) will permit the expression of scientifically crucial aspects of personalityBoth

The FFM assumes that responses obtained from untrained lay individuals (e.g., military personnel, undergraduates) are an adequate means of uncovering the core dimensions of personality. What are potential concern with this assumption?Lay individuals are sloppy and inconsistent in their use of language (e.g. aggressive, critical) Untrained raters may not have sufficiently sophisticated mental models of T&PUntrained judges are more likely to be biased or even to lieAll of the above

Tomarken argued that biological measures of T&P need to beReliable: Show adequate internal consistency reliabilityReliable: Show adequate test-retest stability (trait-like)Reliable and Valid

Construct validity (functional significance) entails the assessment of a measures _______________ and ___________________ .Sensitivity and specificity, effectively the reverse and forward inferencePut simply, a measure should be very sensitive to the target construct and no other263Establishing the construct validity of a measure requires that we demonstrate that it is Sensitive to some process, such as fearSpecific to some process (fear & no other process)Sensitive and Specific

The FFM was derived using factor analysis. Factor analysis is a useful technique forReducing the dimensionality of a datasetCompressing dataIdentifying a relatively small number of factors that describe a datasetCreating new questionnairesAll of the above

Can factor analysis be used to objectively discover the nature of T&P?YesNo

In terms of discovery, potential limitations of factor analysis includeGarbage In/Garbage Out; Dependent on the kinds of inputs; Cant identify factors that are not sampled or represented in the dataSubjective decisions about the number of factors to retain (degree of acceptable lossiness); Splitter or lumperRequires the analyst to decide at the outset whether dimensions are independent or correlated (i.e., needs to pick the rotation technique)

267The FFM is largely based on factor analyses of adjectives. Was the pool of wordsrepresentative of the English languageselected on the basis of preconceived notions about the importance and understandability of particular words?

Were the methods that were used to reduce the ~400,000 words comprising the unabridged dictionary to a more manageable pool of adjectives (personality descriptors)replicable, objective, and atheoreticalsubjective, idiosyncratic, and theoretically biased?

The key take home point from Blocks critique is that the FFM Is a bunch of hooeyReflects the fundamental nature of T&PIs a convenient short-hand, a sometimes useful fiction that begs for additional research

Moffitt et al PNAS: Key results: Which is true?Kids with low C/SC are prone to smoke, become parents, and drop out of school as teensTeen snares explain the negative adult outcomes (reduced health, wealth, public safety) experienced by many kids with low C/SCTeen snares are only part of the story. All of the above

Establishing the construct validity of a measure requires that we demonstrate that it is Sensitive to some process, such as fearSpecific to some process (fear & no other process)Sensitive and Specific

Which item would NOT be found on a paper-and-pencil measure of N/NE?Emotionally labile (unstable)Bothered by changeProne to sadnessProne to anxietyBlue or depressedPunctual

While they tend to show good internal-consistency reliability and test-retest stability, self-report measures of T&P can be limited by biases and artifacts, includingSocial desirability (looking good)Lying or malingeringMnemonic distortions (e.g., peak-end rule)All of the above

Behavior is guided byConscious processesAutomatic habits and implicit attitudes that lie outside of awareness and which opaque to introspection, hence not measureable using standard paper-and-pencil measures of T&PBoth conscious and unconscious processes

Behavior is guided byConscious processesAutomatic habits and implicit attitudes that lie outside of awareness and which opaque to introspection, hence not measureable using standard paper-and-pencil measures of T&PBoth conscious and unconscious processes

Which is true? Amygdala lesions block the conditioned fear response (SCR)The Story We Tell Ourselves: Hippocampal lesions block self-reported contingency learningThis double dissociation provides direct evidence for separable substrates and indicates the need for using both ratings and other kinds of measures (e.g., physiological)All of the above

McNulty provided evidence thatImplicit & explicit attitudes toward spouses are uncorrelated, suggesting that they reflect distinct neural circuitryImplicit attitudes (measured behaviorally) predicted marital satisfaction 4 years later Whereas, explicit ratings of attitudes toward ones spouse did notAll of the above

There is considerableevidence thatTrait-like differences in T&P interact with trait-relevant cues to produce statesTrait measures predict state ratingsE/PE predicts pos affect elicited by humorous film clips; N/NE predicts fear and anxiety elicited by aversive film clipsAll of the above

Traits predict More intense states in the presence of relevant cuesThis reflects heightened peak activation in the underlying neural systemsBoth

But, T&P also predictsMotivated behavior: Approach or avoidEmotion regulation & recovery following challengesAnticipatory thoughts and feelings (e.g., worry) before challengesAll of the above; the common denominator is the ABSENCE of trait-relevant cues in the immediate environment; therefore, the T&P x Context = States model is true but incomplete

Moods, thoughts, and behavior are determined byThe situationT&PBoth

Longitudinal research studiesProvide strong evidence that antecedants (childhood) predict consequences (adulthood), a precondition for establishing causationComplex, costly, and time-consumingCan not prove causation, because they do not manipulate the putative cause of the outcomeAll of the above

The key take home point from Blocks critique is that the FFM Is a bunch of hooeyReflects the fundamental nature of T&PIs a convenient short-hand, a sometimes useful fiction that begs for additional research

The Five Factor Model (FFM) is predicated on the lexical hypothesis, the assumption that the deep structure of T&P is embedded in our natural language, waiting to be discovered. What are some concerns with this assumption?Meaningful aspects of T&P may not be captured by single word Key aspects of T&P might be too complex for single words, requiring phrases, sentences, or even whole paragraphs of wordsNo guarantee that words (natural language) will permit the expression of scientifically crucial aspects of personalityAll of the above

Are trait-like differences in T&P embodied in the on-going, spontaneous activity of the brain?No, traits interact with trait-relevant cues to produce more transient thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (i.e., states)Yes, individuals with elevated N/NE (dispositional anxiety) show increased FDG metabolism (indexed using PET) and perfusion imaging (ASL fMRI) in the amygdala, even at rest.

Oftentimes, physiological measures, such as EEG, PET, and functional MRI are collected "at rest" (i.e., when subjects are not asked to perform any particular task). Are subjects necessarily in an emotionally-neutral state of quiet quiescence?Yes, they're quietly lying in the scanner looking at a fixation crossNo, not necessarily. Many features of the scanning procedures could potentially elicit anxiety (e.g., novelty, confined conditions, absence of normal freedom of movement, claustrophobia, noise stress, etc.)

Can we discern temperament & personality when rewards and punishments are absent (at rest)?No, traits interact with trait-relevant cues to produce more transient thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (i.e., states)Yes, research using EEG, PET, and functional MRI demonstrate that differences in T&P are associated with systematic differences in the activity and functional connectivity of the brain in the absence of explicit rewards and punishments.

Is the brain ever really at rest?Yes.No, although it only comprises ~2% of the adult body mass, the brain consumes ~20% of the body's oxygen and glucose at rest. Importantly, this consumption is only modestly altered when subjects are actively engaged in performing mental tasks.

N/NE is correlated with variation in the serotonin-transporter linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) on the SLC6A4 gene. In particular, individuals with the __________ allele tend to be characterized by heightened N/NE.Short Long

Canli and colleagues used a special kind of functional MRI (arterial sping labeling or perfusion imaging) to demonstrate that individuals with the short ("bad") allele of the 5-HTTLPR (serotonin transporter polymorphism) show:Elevated amygdala reactivity to threat-related images.Elevated activity (perfusion) in the amygdala and hippocampus at rest.

Conventional functional MRI (blood oxygenation level dependent signal) is good for:Assessing differences in activity, because it's in arbitrary units that vary from subject to subjectAssessing trait-like differences in resting activity, because it's calibrated to a real physical scale.

Amygdala metabolism predicts individual differences in N/NE (anxious temperament or negative affectivity) inYoung rhesus macaque monkeysHuman adultsBoth

We reviewed FDG-PET studies of dispositional anxiety that were conducted in young monkeys by Ned Kalin's lab. In these studies, the monkeys are allowed to respond naturally to various mild stressors (e.g., novel testing cage, human intruder's profile), anesthetized, and then positioned in the PET scanner. Activity in the PET scanner reflectsThe anesthetized brain. Therefore, activity does not reflect a reaction to the scanner environment.Regions that were more metabolically active and, hence, took up more of the radiolabeled glucose, during the preceding 30-minute behavioral testing period.

Resting-state functional MRI (rs-fMRI) can be used to quantify individual differences in functional connectivity (co-activation over time). In humans, rs-fMRI is collected at rest. In monkeys, it is typically collected under light anesthesia. Unlike FDG-PET, fMRI measures of functional connectivity acquired under anesthesia reflectThe anesthetized brain. Therefore, differences functional connectivity does not reflect a reaction to the scanner environment, they reflect the brain's intrinsic organization or architecture.Regions that were more or less connected during the 30-minute period before the rs-fMRI scan commenced.

Anxious temperament (AT; increased freezing, increased levels of the stress hormone cortisol, and less frequent coo vocalizations) in young monkeys shows a number of parallels with _______________. Indeed, individual differences in AT and __________ can be assayed using similar experimental procedures.Childhood behavioral inhibition (BI)Behavioral Activation System (BAS)Conscientiousness/Self-Control (C/SC)

Drew Fox and colleagues in the Kalin lab demonstrated that amygdala metabolism predicted differences in dispositional anxiety (anxious temperament) when it was collectedIn stressful contexts (alone in the novel testing cage, human intruder)In more secure contexts (home cage alone, home cage with usual cagemate)Both stressful and secure contexts

These results suggest that the "Traits x Trait-Relevant Cues = States" model isTrueFalseTrue but incomplete

Individuals high in N/NE tend toShow elevated reactions to threat (bigger peak, slower recovery)Show chronically elevated metabolism in regions of the brain that help to orchestrate states of anxiety and arousalBoth

Trait-like differences in N/NE reflect [pick the most correct & complete response]The amygdalaThe amygdala and other regions (e.g., the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST), hippocampus, and periaqueductal gray (PAG)).Elevated metabolism in the amygdala and other regions (e.g., the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST), hippocampus, and periaqueductal gray (PAG)) as well as altered functional connectivity between the amygdala and prefrontal cortex (PFC).

T&P potentially reflectsDifferences in the peak response to perturbationDifferences in the threshold, rise time, peak amplitude, and recovery to baseline.

Jeffrey Gray outlined 2 fundamental dimensions of T&P, one based on sensitivity to reward-predicting cues ('incentives'), the other based on sensitivity to punishment or threat-predicting cues. These reflect differences in the BAS and BIS, respectively. High-BAS individuals tend toBe more sociable, socially dominant, and enjoy social attentionAre predisposed to engage in appetitively-motivated (approach) behaviors.Experience less anger when their goals are thwarted.

In principle, high-BAS individuals tend to experience more intense"Wanting" related emotional states (excitement, joy, anger)"Liking" related emotional states (contentment, hedonic or sensual pleasure)

BAS and BIS have been linked to stable individual differences in frontal EEG asymmetry. High-BIS individuals tend to show ______, whereas High-BAS individuals tend to show ________ .Right >> Left asymmetry and Left >> Right asymmetry.Right

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Shackman Psyc210 Module20 SemesterRecapAndFinalExamReview