Session XII-Leading (March 20, 2008)

8/3/2019 Session XII-Leading (March 20, 2008)

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Motivation

Motivation

The processes that account for an individual’swillingness to expert high levels of effort toreach organizational goals, conditioned by the

effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need.

Need

A need is an internal state that makes certainoutcomes appear attractive.

An unsatisfied need creates tension, which an

individual reduces by exerting effort.



Motivation

Motivation Process

(Need-Satisfying Process)

Unsatisfied

Need

Tension

ReductionTension Effort

Satisfied

Need

Intensity

Direction Persistence



Early Theories of Motivation

Three early theories (probably the most widely

known approaches to employee motivation)They are

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs McGregor’s Theories X and Y

Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory

Better know these early theories because(1) they represent the foundation from which

contemporary motivation theories weredeveloped, and(2) practicing managers continue to regularly use

these theories and their terminology inexplaining employee motivation.



Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

The best-known theory of motivation isprobably Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of

needs theory.

Maslow was a psychologist who proposedthat

within every person is hierarchy of five needs.



The hierarchy of five needs1. Physiological needs: Food, drink, shelter, sexual

satisfaction, and other physical requirements.

2. Safety needs: Security and protection fromphysical and emotional harm, as well asassurance that physical needs will continue to bemet.

3. Social needs: Affection, belongingness,acceptance, and friendship.

4. Esteem needs: Internal esteem factors such asself-respect, autonomy, and achievement andexternal esteem factors such as status,recognition, and attention.

5. Self-actualization needs: Growth, achieving one’spotential, and self-fulfillment; the drive tobecome what one is capable of becoming.



Maslow argued that each level in the needs hierarchy must be substantially

satisfied before the next is activated once a need is substantially satisfied it no longer

motivates behaviour.

Maslow separated the five needs into higher andlower levels.

physiological and safety needs were considered lower- order needs ;

social esteem, and self-actualization needs wereconsidered higher-order needs .

The difference was that higher-order needs are satisfiedinternally while lower-order needs are predominantly

satisfied externally.



McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X – The assumption that employees dislikework, are lazy, avoid responsibility, and must be

coerced to perform.

Theory Y – The assumption that employees arecreative, enjoy work, seek responsibility, andcan exercise self-direction.

What did McGregor’s analysis imply aboutmotivation?

Theory X assumed that lower-order needs dominatedindividuals, and

Theory Y assumed that higher-order needs dominated.



Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygience Theory

The motivation theory that intrinsic factors

are related to job satisfaction andmotivation, whereas extrinsic factors are

associated with job dissatisfaction.

Hygiene factors – Factors that eliminate jobdissatisfaction, but don’t motivate.

Motivation – Factors that increase jobsatisfaction and motivation.



Motivators Hygiene Factors

Extremely Satisfied Neutral Extremely Dissatisfied

Achievement SupervisionRecognition Company PolicyWork Itself Relationship with SupervisorResponsibility Working ConditionsAdvancement Salary

Growth Relationship with PeersPersonal LifeRelationship with Subordinates

StatusSecurity



Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygience Theory

Herzberg proposed:

the opposite of “satisfaction” is “no satisfaction”, and

the opposite of “dissatisfaction” is “no dissatisfaction”

The factors that led to job satisfaction were separate anddistinct from those that led to job dissatisfaction.

Managers who sought to eliminate factors that created jobdissatisfaction could bring about workplace harmony butnot necessarily motivation.

The extrinsic factors that create job dissatisfaction werecalled hygiene factors.

When these factors are adequate, people won’t bedissatisfied, but they won’t be satisfied (or motivated)either.

To motivate people on their jobs, Herzberg suggestedemphasizing motivators, the intrinsic factors that increasejob satisfaction.



Traditional View

Motivators

Satisfaction No Satisfaction

Hygiene Factors

Dissatisfaction No Dissatisfaction

Satisfied Dissatisfied

Herzberg’s View



Contemporary Theories of Motivation

Six contemporary motivation approaches:

1. Three-Needs Theory

2. Goal-Setting Theory

3. Reinforcement Theory

4. Designing Motivating Jobs

5. Equity Theory

6. Expectancy Theory



1. Three-Needs Theory by David McClelland

The motivation theory that says

three acquired (not innate) needs

– achievement, power, and affiliation – are major motives in work

Need for achievement

the drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set ofstandards, and to strive to succeed;

Need for power

the need to make others behave in a way that they wouldnot have behaved otherwise;

Need for affiliation

the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships



2. Goal-Setting Theory

There is substantial support for the

proposition that specific goals increaseperformance and that difficult goals, whenaccepted, result in higher performance

than do easy goals.

The proposition is known as goal-setting

theory.



Goals

Committed toAchieving

Accepted

Higher Performanceplus

Goal Achievement

-Goals arepublic

-Individual hasinternal locus ofcontrol

-Self-set goals

-Specific-Difficult

Participationin Setting

Motivation(intention towork toward

goal)

Self-Efficacy

NationalCulture

Self-GeneratedFeedback on

Progress



The key to reinforcement theory is that

it ignores factors such as goals,

expectations, and needs. Instead, it focuses solely on what happens

to a person when he or she takes someaction.

this idea helps explain why publisherssuch as Pearson Education may includeincentive clauses in authors’ contracts. If

every time an author submits a completedchapter, the company sends an advancecheck against future royalties, the personis motivated to keep submitting chapters.



Following reinforcement theory,

managers can influence employees’ behaviour

by reinforcing actions they deem desirable.

Because the emphasis is on positivereinforcement, not punishment, managersshould ignore, not punish, unfavorablebehaviour.

Even though punishment eliminates undesired

behaviour faster than non-reinforcement does,its effect is often only temporary and may laterhave unpleasant side effects includingdysfunctional behaviour such as workplace

conflicts, absenteeism, and turnover.




Job design refers to the way tasks arecombined to form complete jobs.

The jobs that people perform in anorganization should not to form by chance.

Managers should design jobs deliberately andthoughtfully to reflect the demands of thechanging environment, the organization’s

technology, and its employees’ skills,abilities, and preferences.

When jobs are designed with those things inmind, employees are motivated to work hard.

S th t d i ti ti j b



Some ways that managers design motivating jobs

Job Enlargement – The horizontal expansion of a

job by increasing job scope.

Job Scope – The number of different tasksrequired in a job and the frequency with which

those tasks are repeated.

For instance – a dental hygienist’s job could be

enlarged so that in addition to dental cleaning,

he or she is pulling patients’ files, re-filing themwhen finished, and cleaning and storinginstruments.





Job Enrichment – The vertical expansion of a job

by adding planning and evaluating responsibilities.

Employees are empowered to assume some of thetasks typically done by their managers.

The tasks in an enriched job should allow workers todo a complete activity with increased freedom,

independence, and responsibility. These tasks should also provide feedback so that

individuals can assess and correct their ownperformance.

Job enrichment increases job depth. Job depth – The degree of control employees have

over their work.



Job Enrichment – The vertical expansion of a job

by adding planning and evaluating responsibilities.

Employees are empowered to assume some ofthe tasks typically done by their managers.

The tasks in an enriched job should allowworkers to do a complete activity with increased

freedom, independence, and responsibility. These tasks should also provide feedback so

that individuals can assess and correct theirown performance.

Job enrichment increases job depth.

Job depth – The degree of control employeeshave over their work.



Job Characteristics Model – neither of these jobdesign

approaches, job enlargement and job enrichment,

provided a conceptual framework for analyzing jobsor for

guiding managers in designing motivating jobs.Job Characteristics Model (JCM) offers such a

framework.

It identifies five primary job characteristics,their relationships, and their impact onemployee productivity, motivation, and

satisfaction.

According to JCM, any job can be described interms of five core dimensions, defined asfollows:




i. Skill variety: The degree to which a job requires a variety ofactivities so that an employee can use a number of differentskills and talents.

ii. Task identity: The degree to which job requires completion of awhole and identifiable piece of work.

iii. Task significance: The degree to which a job has a substantial

impact on the lives or work of other people.iv. Autonomy: The degree to which a job provides substantial

freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual inscheduling the work and determining the procedures to beused in carrying it out.

v. Feedback: The degree to which carrying out work activitiesrequired by a job results in the individual’s obtaining direct andclear information about the effectiveness of his or herperformance.



High InternalWork Motivation

High SatisfactionWith the Work

Personal and WorkOutcomes

Low AbsenteeismAnd Turnover

Skill VarietyTask IdentityTask Significance

Autonomy

Feedback

Core JobDimensions

Experiencedmeaningfulnessof the work

Experienced responsibilityfor outcomes of the work

CriticalPsychological States

Knowledge of the actualResults of the workactivities

Low AbsenteeismAnd Turnover



Job Characteristics Model

Strength of Employee Growth Need




JCM provides specific guidance to managers for job design.

The following suggestions, which are based on the JCM, specify

the types of changes in jobs that are most likely to lead toimprovement in each of the five core job dimensions.

Combine tasks . Managers should put fragmented tasks backtogether to form a new, larger module of work (job

enlargement) to increase skill variety and task identity.

Create natural work units . Managers should design tasks thatform an indefinable and meaningful whole to increaseemployee “ownership” of the work and encourage employeesto view their work as meaningful and important rather than as

irrelevant and boring.



Establish client relationships . The client is the externalor internal user of the product or service that theemployee works on. Whenever possible, managersshould establish direct relationships between workersand their clients to increase skill variety, autonomy,and feedback.

Expand jobs vertically . Vertical expansion (jobenrichment) gives employees responsibilities and

controls that were formerly reserved for managers. Itpartially closes the gap between the “doing” and the“controlling” aspects of the job and increasesemployee autonomy.

Open feedback channels . Feedback lets employees

know how well they’re performing their jobs andwhether their performance is improving, deteriorating,or remaining constant. Ideally, employees shouldreceive performance feedback directly as they do theirjobs rather than from managers on an occasionalbasis.

5 Equity Theory



5. Equity Theory

The term equity is related to the concept of fairnessand equal treatment compared with others who

behave in similar ways. Equity theory – developed by J. Stacey Adams,

proposes that employees perceive what they getfrom a job situation (outcomes) in relation to what

they put into it (inputs) and then compare theirinputs-outcomes ratio with the inputs-outcomesratios of relevant others.

If an employee perceives that her situation is fair –

that justice prevails. However, if the ratio isunequal, inequity exists and she views herself asunderrewarded or overrewareded.

When inequities occur, employees attempt to do

something about it.

What will employees do when they perceive an



What will employees do when they perceive aninequity?

Equity theory proposes that employees might

distort either their own or others’ inputs or

outcomes,

behave in some way to induce other to change

their inputs or outcomes, behave in some way to change their own inputs

or outcomes,

choose a different comparison, or

quit their job.

6 Expectancy Theory




The most comprehensive and widely accepted

explanation of employee motivation to date

by Victor Vroom.

The theory that an individual tends to act in a

certain way base do the expectation that theact will be followed by a given outcome andon the attractiveness of that outcome to the

individual.

It includes three variables or relationships:



It includes three variables or relationships:

i. Expectancy or effort-performance linkage is theprobability perceived by the individual that exertinga given amount of effort will lead to a certain levelof performance..

ii. Instrumentality or performance-reward linkage is

the degree to which the individual believes thatperforming at a particular level is instrumental inattaining the desired outcome.

iii. Valence or attractiveness of reward is the

importance that the individual places on thepotential outcome or reward that can be achievedon the job. Valence considers both the goals andneeds of the individual.



Contemporary Theories of Motivation


Individual EffortIndividual

PerformanceOrganizational

Rewards Individual Goals

A B C

A

B

C

Simplified Expectancy Model

= Effort-performance linkage

= Performance-reward linkage

= Attractiveness of reward



The key to expectancy theory is understanding anindividual's goal and the linkage between effort andperformance, between performance and rewards, and finallybetween rewards and individual goal satisfaction.

It emphasizes payoffs, or rewards. As a result, we have tobelieve that the rewards an organization is offering alignwith what the individual wants.

The theory recognizes that there is no universal principle forexplaining what motivates individuals and thus stresses thatmanagers understand why employees view certain

outcomes as attractive or unattractive.

Also expectancy theory emphasizes expected behaviours.

Documents

Session XII-Leading (March 20, 2008)