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SESRC 2019 Book of Abstracts
Theme: Informing 21st Century Teaching Practices through Science Education Research.
Edited by Odwora Patrick Jaki
ii
FOREWORD
Dear Delegates,
Welcome to the first UJ Science Education Student Research Conference (SESRC). This
conference provides a great opportunity for you to learn about some of the research that is
being conducted by students who are pursuing Masters and Doctoral studies. Science
Education at UJ has a proud reputation of doing research that is meaningful and relevant to
the South African educational landscape. This is underlined in our conference theme
“Informing 21st Century teaching practices through science education research.” At this
conference, we encourage you to interact with participants and academic staff. You are
valued members of the UJ Science Education Community of Practice! We would like to
introduce you to the UJ Science Education Team:
Prof Umesh Ramnarain
The Science and Technology Departmental HOD
His research is on inquiry-based science education, with a
particular focus on its uptake in South African classrooms,
where the unequal funding policies of the previous Apartheid
education system have resulted in learning contexts that are
complex and diverse in terms of physical resources, the
educational and cultural backgrounds of learners and teachers.
and school ethos. The importance of his work has been recognized internationally. His work
has been published in top tier journals such as the Journal of Research in Science Teaching,
International Journal of Science Education, Research in Education, Teaching and Teacher
Education, and Journal of Curriculum Studies. He has also disseminated his work at NARST
and ESERA conferences. He is the associate editor of the international journal, Research in
Science Education, and a member of the Editorial Board of Journal of Research in Science
Teaching. He has received best paper awards at international conferences such as
International Science Education conference in Singapore, and International Conference for
Science Educators and Teachers in Thailand. Prof Ramnarain is an NRF rated researcher.
SESRC Book of Abstracts 3rd August 2019
iii
Dr Lydia Mavuru
The coordinator for the Science Education unit
Dr Mavuru is a Senior Lecturer in science education at
the Department of Science and Technology Education
(SCITECHED) specialising in Life Sciences. Dr Mavuru
teaches in both the undergraduate and postgraduate
programmes in the UJ Faculty of Education. Her main
research interest is socio-cultural perspectives in science
education focusing on social constructivist pedagogies
and consideration of equity and diversity in making
science comprehensible and relevant in life. Currently she is spearheading an Indigenous
Knowledge Systems (IKS) project entitled: Fostering the advancement of Indigenous
Knowledge and skills development in high school science teachers and learners, which is funded
by Research Grant from University of Johannesburg Research Committee: Faculty Strategic
Intervention. Her current postgraduate supervision in research is on: creating constructivist
learning environments in science classrooms; addressing socio-scientific issues using inquiry-
based approaches; classroom communicative and interaction patterns; and language issues in
science teaching and learning. Dr Mavuru’s recent publication is a book chapter entitled:
Teaching evolution to Grade 12 learners: Teachers’ views and pedagogical practices, published in
the 2019 Education Applications & Development IV: Advances in Education and Educational
Trends Series.
SESRC Book of Abstracts 3rd August 2019
iv
Dr Sam Ramaila
Senior Lecturer in the Department of Science and Technology Education (SCITECHED).
Dr Ramaila obtained his PhD from the University of
Johannesburg, MSc from the University of the
Witwatersrand, BSc Hons, BSc and Higher Education
Diploma from the University of the North. He currently
serves as the Chairperson of Physics Education Division of
the South African Institute of Physics. He successfully
coordinated the award-winning Teacher Professional
Development Project as well as the Review of Undergraduate Physics Education in Public
Higher Education Institutions Project on behalf of the South African Institute of Physics. The
Review of Undergraduate Physics Education in Public Higher Education Institutions Project
culminated in the development of the Strategic Plan on the Enhancement of Physics Training
in South Africa. In addition to teaching in both the undergraduate and postgraduate
programme in the UJ Faculty of Education, he supervises a number of postgraduate students
at both Masters and PhD level. His research interests include nature of science, inquiry-based
learning and teacher education.
Dr Thasmai Dhurumraj
Lecturers in undergraduate and postgraduate in the Department of Science and Technology Education.
Her qualifications are: BSc–majoring in chemistry and
physiology, PGCE majors Physical Sciences & Natural
Sciences, HBed majoring in educational leadership and
management, Med & PhD focus in Science Education –
with a focus on teacher beliefs and its influence in the
teaching of Sciences.
SESRC Book of Abstracts 3rd August 2019
v
Mr Aviwe Sondlo
Assistant Lecturer Department of Science and Technology Education
He holds an MSc, BSc and Bachelor of Education degree
from the University of the Witwatersrand and presented
many papers at different conferences both national and
international. He is currently enrolled for a PhD in Science
Education in the Faculty of Education at the University of
Johannesburg. Mr Sondlo is involved in both undergraduate
and postgraduate programmes as a lecturer. His research
interest includes science communication, Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS), in-service
and pre-service teacher’s Pedagogical Orientations. His PhD dissertation (on-going) titled:
Exploring science pre-service teachers’ pedagogical orientations towards their own teaching.
Mafor Penn
Assistant Lecturer in the Department of Science and Technology Education.
She moved to University of Johannesburg after teaching for
the Department of Basic Education as Physical Sciences
teacher. She holds a BSc. Hon Biochemistry (2nd Class
Upper) University of Buea, Cameroon; A PGCE (Cum-
laude), BEd Science Education (Cum-Laude) and has just
completed a MEd in Science Education at the University of
Johannesburg, South Africa. Her research interest includes
Inquiry-Based Science Education and the affordances of
Virtual Reality (VR) in science learning.
REVIEW COMMITTEE
Prof Umesh Ramnarain (University of Johannesburg)
Dr Sam Ramaila (University of Johannesburg)
Dr Lydia Mavuru (University of Johannesburg)
Dr Thasmai Dhurumraj (University of Johannesburg)
Mr Aviwe Sondlo (University of Johannesburg)
SESRC Book of Abstracts 3rd August 2019
vi
Table of Content/Programme
Page
Forward ii
Review Committee v
Keynote Speaker 1
Our Sponsors: Mercure Hotel 2
CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS
CHAIRPERSON: DR. LYDIA MAVURU
08:00-08:30 Registration
08:30-08:40 Welcome by Prof Umesh Ramnarain
08:40-08:45 Introduction of keynote speaker: Mr Aviwe
Sondlo
08:45-09:30 Keynote address: Dr Femi Otulaja 3
SESSION 1
CLASSROOM INTERACTION, CHAIRPERSON: DR SAM RAMAILA
09:30-9:45 Using a Learning Progression for the Particle
Model of Matter as a Scaffold for Teachers in
Enacting Classroom Formative Assessment
Practices
Manzini Hlatswayo
4
09:45-10:00 Life Sciences Teachers’ Practices of
Formative Assessment in Inquiry-based
Teaching
Dlamini Thandiwe
9
10:00-10:15 Classroom Interaction Patterns in Grade 11
Life Sciences English-Second- Language
Learners’ Classes
Kamati Vuyo
14
10:15-10:30 Performance Differences of Grade 8 Natural
Sciences Learners Taught in Home Language
and Second Language
Mundoza Nomthandazo
21
10:30-10:45
Investigating the Extent to Which Science
Teachers Create Constructivist Learning
Environments in their Classrooms
Mbonane Sezanele
25
vii
11:00-11:15 Teachers’ Perceptions and Experiences in
Teaching Life Sciences Using their Second
Language Motloung Amos
37
11:15-11:30 Life Sciences Teacher’s Experiences in the Use
of Interactive Whiteboards When Teaching
Grade 10 Cell Division
Ndlovu Phumelele
43
11:30 - 12:30 LUNCH
SESSION 3
SOCIO-SCIENTIFIC ISSUES & TEXTBOOK ANALYSIS, CHAIRPERSON: MRS. MAFOR PENN 12:30-12:45 Life Sciences Teachers’ Views on Teaching
Socio-Scientific Issues in Genetics Using an
Inquiry Approach
Ngwenya Portia
50
12:45-13:00 South African Natural Sciences Township
Teachers’ Views on the Nature of Indigenous
Knowledge
Ngcobo Lindiwe
55
SESSION 3 Continued,
TEXTBOOK ANALYSIS, CHAIRPERSON: PROF UMESH RAMNARAIN
13:00-13:15 The Representation of the Nature of Science in
South African Grade 12 Life Sciences
Textbooks
Masilela Themba
62
13:15-13:30 An analysis of Grade 12 Physical Sciences
Textbooks for the Inclusion of Science
Practices
Ndumanya Emma
71
SESSION 2
TEACHERS’ & 21 CENTURY CLASSROOM, CHAIRPERSON: DR. THASMAI DHURUMRAJ
10:45-11:00 How Life Sciences Teachers’ Beliefs about
Cloning Influence their Teaching of the Topic.
Umme Kalsum Anjum
31
viii
CLOSING PROGRAMME
Activity Presenter Time
Introduction of a speaker who will make final remarks Mr Aviwe Sondlo
13:35-13:40
Final remarks Prof Hsin-Kai Wu 13:40-14:10
Award presentation Ms Shobha Dhurumraj 14:10-14:25
Vote of thanks Dr Lydia Mavuru 14:25-14:35
Photo shooting 14:40
SESRC Book of Abstracts 3rd August 2019
1
Keynote Speaker: Biography
Dr Femi Otulaja
Femi Otulaja holds a PhD in Urban Science Education
from the City University of New York (CUNY). He is a
science educator and researcher at the Faculty of Science
at Wits University. His research focuses on science
teaching and learning, teacher induction (professional
development and pre-service training) and mentoring
(teachers and learners), socio-cultural perspectives in
science education; and integrating of indigenous
knowledge (IK) and westernized science (WS). He is a founding member and Past President
of the African Association for the Study of Indigenous Knowledge Systems (AASIKS). He is
a director on the National Association for Research in Science Teaching (NARST).
SESRC Book of Abstracts 3rd August 2019
2
SESRC Book of Abstracts 3rd August 2019
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3
SESSION 1: KEYNOTE SPEECH
Informing 21st Century Teaching Practice through Science Education Research at the 2nd University Of Johannesburg, Science Education Students’ Research
Conference
Femi Otulaja
Abstract
I use this forum to challenge the current notion that the 21st Century teaching practice still
needed to be informed by science education research. What then was done in science
education research in the last few centuries? Has not science and how to teach and learn
science been researched and informing all along? Has not science education research, as we
know it, been informing teaching practice all along, worldwide? Has not Eurocentric,
westernized science been informing us? You may say no, not in Africa or not in South Africa,
as the newest democracy. If not, as we have been learning since, we have either been fooled
or we have been fooling ourselves. As we are ending the 2nd decade of the 21st Century, and
in the 3rd Millennium, let us transform ourselves, our paradigms, goals, aspirations, and our
practices. Instead of our science education research informing, let us, in Africa, in South
Africa, conduct science education research that will transform, not just teaching practice
alone but teaching and learning practices through not just science education research but
indigenous science knowledge and education research. The time is here to become, not just
informers but reformers and transformers.
SESRC Book of Abstracts 3rd August 2019
4
USING A LEARNING PROGRESSION FOR THE PARTICLE MODEL OF MATTER AS A
SCAFFOLD FOR TEACHERS’ IN ENACTING CLASSROOM LEVEL FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT PRACTICES
Manzini Hlatshwayo
BACKGROUND
The rapid transformation of the world’s industry, technology, communication, agriculture and
medicine has brought the increasing need for science at individual as well as the wider socio-
economic and political level, both locally and internationally (Amir, Mohamed, & Mnjokava,
2016). The need for scientifically literate citizens who understand and be able to use science
in all spheres of life, has placed greater demand for countries to present internationally
comparative science curriculum, and for teachers to employ effective teaching strategies to
encourage as many learners as possible to study science and improve learners’ performance in
science (Anwer, Iqbal & Harrison, 2012).
The greatest concern in comparative studies done to compare learners’ performance across
continents, is that while poor performance of learners in science subjects in secondary schools
across continents is an issue that has been researched, documented and discussed by many
researchers for a long time, with numerous research findings and recommendations output,
learners’ poor performance remains a dominant factor (King'aru, 2014).
In the 2015 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), South African
Grade 9 learners ’ science performance was ranked 39th out of 39 participating countries.
South Africa has always been ranked amongst the lowest performing countries since the
initial study in 1995 (Human Sciences Research Council, 2017). Consequently there are
fewer learners enrolling for Physical Sciences in Grade 10 to 12 (School Subject Report,
2017). From the few that enrols for Physical Sciences up to Grade 12, even fewer pass with
high marks to enter the high skills programmes like engineering and computer science
(School Subject Report, 2017).
In the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) which compared the
performance of learners in science in Spain to those from OECD countries (Austria, the
Czech Republic, France, Latvia, Norway, Russia, Sweden and the United States, above
Iceland, Italy and Luxembourg, and below Estonia, Ireland, Poland and Portugal), learners in
Spain were found to perform at the same level with learners from the OECD countries were
21% of the learners failed to reach the baseline level of proficiency in science (PISA, 2015).
In the National Trends in K-12 Student Achievement, which looks at trends in U.S. learners’
achievement in mathematics and science, in 2015 found that only 34% of the eight graders
and only 22% of the twelfth graders achieve a level of proficient (solid academic
performance) or higher on the science assessment (NSF, 2018). However two international
assessments, the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), and the
Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), which compared U.S. learners’
achievement in mathematics and science with that of learners of other countries, place the
5
U.S. with a low 22%, at a relatively higher position (NSF, 2018). Therefore poor performance
by secondary school learners in sciences subjects remains an international challenge.
Factors contributing to the poor performances include: teaching strategies, teachers’ content
knowledge and understanding, teachers’ and learners’ motivation (King'aru, 2014; Makgato
& Mji, 2006). The quality and effectiveness of the teaching strategy characterised by both the
level of coherency in the presentation of the subject topics (curriculum) and the role of
learners during the teaching and learning process, exerts greater influence on learner
performance than any of the other factors (Steven, Shin, & Peek-Brown, 2013; Darling-
Hammond, 1999).
A common factor in all high performing countries in TIMSS was found to be the presence of
a coherent curriculum framework (Duschl, Maeng, & Sezen, 2011). Learning progressions
which articulate cognitive models of the development of learner understanding, offer a
promising framework to introduce coherence within a subject and between subjects, to inform
the design of learning goals, classroom assessments, and teacher professional development
(Gotwals & Alonzo, 2012).
Traditional teaching methods present science as a rigid body of facts, rules to be memorised
and practised and absolute theories (Furtak, Kiemer, Swanson & Circi, 2015), do not help
learners develop these ideas (Kennedy, 1998). Learners are reduced to be passive recipients
of information which they must memorise and reproduce without reasoning when required.
Reforms in science education promotes that learning can be improved if teachers can use
instructional strategies that allow for frequent and ongoing assessment of learners’
understanding as it develops and is restructured over time during learning (Treagust,
Jacobowitz, Gallagher, & Parker, 2001). Formative assessment embedded in instruction
offers teachers with opportunities to constantly prompt learners’, which is critical in
developing learners’ science understanding and providing teachers with the opportunity to
gain insight into learners’ science thinking (Suurtamm, Koch, & Arden, 2010). Learning
progression and formative assessment both hold the promise to transform teaching and
learning experiences, where teachers become more effective, learners become actively
engaged, and they both become intentional learners (Duschl, Maeng, & Sezen, 2011). It is
therefore important to investigate the effectiveness of using learning progressions to scaffold
teachers in enacting formative assessment in science classrooms, in response to the continued
learners’ poor performance in sciences subjects.
TEACHING FOR IMPROVED LEARNER PERFORMANCE
Science lessons that do not recognise and attend to the need for scientific literacy are mainly
overly content-driven, have been found to be very unpopular among learners, are ineffective
in promoting higher-order cognitive skills, and results in learners’ poor performance (Eilks &
Marks, 2009). Teaching strategies that uses formative assessment to assess learners’ learning
and to gain information about learners’ developing understanding in order to adapt
instruction, has potential to help both teachers and learners (Furtak and Ruiz-Primo, 2008,
Black & William, 1998).
6
The effectiveness of formative assessment, as a teaching and learning strategy, can be
enhanced if learning goals during any lesson are clearly stated (Demirdag, 2014). Learning
progressions can help teachers identify learning goals focussing on what the learner will learn
rather that what the learner will do (Gengle, Abel, & Mohammed, 2017; Furtak & Heredia,
2014). There is a need to investigate how learning progressions can be effectively used to
support the enactment of formative assessment in science classrooms to maximise the
benefits promised by both learning progressions and formative assessment.
RESEARCH DESIGN
An exploratory multiple case study design (Merriam, 1998; Yin, 2003) involving three
conveniently selected schools are chosen for this study. All the selected schools are rural
schools situated within the same education circuit, and classified as quintile 1 schools.
Learners in rural schools have been found to perform poorly especially in Mathematics,
Natural Sciences and Physical Sciences compared to learners in urban schools and private
schools (National Senior Certificate Diagnostic Report, 2016), so, rural schools provide a
fertile ground to assessing the impact of enacting learning progression supported formative
assessment.
A questionnaire on the particle model of matter consisting of multiple choice questions, will
be administered to all the grades 8 and 9 Natural Sciences and Grade 10 Physical Sciences
learners of the participating schools to assess learners’ understanding of the particle model of
matter. Learners’ responses will be analysed using the Rasch Analysis model to determine
learners understanding of the different aspects of the particle model of matter.
To assess teachers’ views and understanding of the use of learning progressions to support
formative assessment as teaching strategy, semi-structured interviews will be conducted with
all the teachers whose learners took part in the questionnaire, twice during the study and after
engaging in teacher development programme. Teacher development programme will be to
empower teachers in the development and enactment of formative assessment supported by a
learning progression for the particle model of matter, will follow the five-stage, iterative
Formative Assessment Development Cycle (FADC) (Furtak, Morrison, & Kroog, 2014).
Interviews will be video recorded, transcribed, coded and analysed. Teachers’ lesson
presentations will be observed, video recorded, and transcribed, instructional tasks and
assessment activities will be analysed to assess the extent to which teachers incorporate
formative assessment in their instructional planning.
REFERENCES
Amir, K., Mohamed, H. C., and Mnjokava, C. E. (2016). Learners’ attitudes and performance
in Science subjects in A-Level in Secondary Schools, in Mbarara, Uganda. The
Journal of Educational Research, 2(5), 10-25.
Anwer, M., Iqbal, H. M., and Harrison, C. (2012). Students’ Attitude towards Science: A
Case of Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 10(1), 3-9.
Black, P., and Wlliam, D. (1998). Assessment and Classroom Learning. Assessment in
Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 5(1), 7-74.
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Darling-Hammond, L. (1999). How teacher education Matters. Journal of Teacher Education,
51(3), 166-173e
Demirdag, S. (2014). Effective teaching strategies: science learning and students with
learning disabilities. International Journal of Teaching and Education, 2(2), 45-52.
Duschl, R., Maeng, S., and Sezen, A. (2011). Learning progressions and teaching sequences:
a review and analysis. Studies in Science Education, 47(2), 123-182.
Eilks, I., and Marks, R. (2009). Promoting scientific literacy using a socio-critical and
problem-oriented approach to chemistry teaching: concept, examples, experiences.
International journal of environmental & science education, 4(3), 231-245.
Furtak, E. M. (2012). Linking a learning Progression for natural selection to teachers’
enactment of formative assessment. Journal of research in science teaching, 49(9),
1181-1210.
Furtak, E. M., and Heredia, S. C. (2014). Exploring the Influence of Learning Progressions in
Two Teacher Communities. Journal of research in science teaching, 51(8), 982-
1020.
Furtak, E. M., Kiemer, K., Swanson, R., and Circi, R. (2015). Learning progressions,
formative assessment, and professional development: results of a longitudinal study.
paper presented at the national association of research in science teaching Annual
Meeting, Chicago, IL.
Furtak, E. M., Morrison, D., & Kroog, H. (2014). Investigating the link between learning
progressions and classroom assessment. Science Education, 98(4), 640-673.
Furtak, E. M., Roberts, S., Morrison, D., Henson, K., and Malone, S. (2010). Linking an
educative learning progression for natural selection to teacher practice: Results of
an exploratory study. Paper presented at 2010 Annual Conference of the American
educational Research Association, Denver, CO.
Furtak, E. M., and Ruiz-Primo, M. A. (2008). Making students’ thinking explicit in writing
and discussion: An analysis of formative assessment prompts. Science Education,
92(5), 799-824.
Gengle, H. I., Abel, M. A., and Mohammed, B. K. (2017). Effective Teaching and Learning
Strategies in Science and Mathematics to Improve Students’ Academic Performance
in Nigeria. Journal of Education, Society and Behavioural Science, 19(1), 1-7.
Gotwals, A. W., and Alonzo, A. C. (2012). Introduction: Leaping into learning progressions
in science. In A. C. Alonzo & A. W. Gotwals (eds.), Learning progressions in
science: Current challenges and future directions. Rotterdam, the Netherlands:
Sense Publishers (3-12).
Heeralal, P. J. H., Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC), (2017). Media
Statement.www.timss-sa.org.za
Kennedy, M. M. (1998). Education reform and subject matter knowledge. Journal of
Research in Science Teaching, 35 (3), 249-263.
King’aru, J. M. (2014). Factors contributing to poor performance of science subjects: A case
of secondary schools in Kawe Division, Kinondoni Municipality. Unpublished MED
Dissertation, Open University of Tanzania.
Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Mji, A., and Makgato, M. (2006). Factors associated with high school learners’ poor
performance: a spotlight on mathematics and physical science. South African Journal
of Education, 26(2), 253-266.
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National Science Foundation (NSF). (2018). Science & Engineering Indicators 2018.
Elementary and Secondary Mathematics and Science Education.
National Senior Certificate: Diagnostic report 2016.
Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). (2016). Country Note- Results from
PISA 2015. OECD. www.oecd.org.edu/pisa.
2017 School Subject Report, 2016 Diagnostic report. UCT
Steven, S. Y., Shin, N., and Peek-Brown, D. (2013). Learning progressions as a guide for
developing meaningful science learning: A new framework for old ideas. Education
quimica, 24(4), 381-390.
Suurtamm, C., Koch, M., and Arden, A. (2010). Teacher’s assessment practices in
mathematics: classroom in the context of reform. Assessment in Education: Principle,
Policy & Practices, 17(4), 399-417.
Treagust, D. F., Jacobowitz, R., Gallagher, J. L., and Parker, J. (2001). Using Assessment as a
Guide in Teaching for Understanding: A Case Study of a Middle School Science
Class Learning about Sound. Science Education, 85, 137-157.
Yin, R. K., (2003). Case Study Design and Research: Design and Methods (3rd ed.). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
SESRC Book of Abstracts 3rd August 2019
9
Life Sciences Teachers’ Practices of Formative Assessment in Inquiry-Based Teaching
Dlamini Thandiwe
Background
Around the world, there has been a call for science reforms, as a result a lot of research has
been conducted to examine the influence of inquiry-based teaching and learning in science
education. In South Africa, the importance of inquiry-based learning is emphasised in Aim 2
of the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS), where it is stated that “learners
must be able to plan and carry out investigations as well as solve problems that require some
practical ability”, Department of Basic Education (DBE) (2011:15). Inquiry-based teaching
promotes active learning since learners are able to ask questions, design models, conduct
investigations on their own, and even engage in science discussions and debates; it
encourages critical thinking and learners become active participants (National Research
Council (NRC), 2011). Inquiry-based teaching is important in learning because it stimulates
interest in science (Deboer, 2002); it improves understanding of concepts (Gott & Duggan,
2002); it leads to understanding the nature of science (Gaigher, Lederman, & Lederman,
2014); and it leads to the development of higher order thinking (Conklin, 2012).
However, the effective implementation of inquiry learning poses some instructional
challenges to teachers due to its constructivist underpinning. Anderson (2007:821) describes
inquiry learning as synonymous with constructivist learning where students “construct
meaning for themselves, such meanings are dependent upon prior constructions”. This means,
the teacher needs to continuously monitor learners’ current level of understanding, and then
modify their teaching in order to support learners’ concept formation (Mosher, 2011). This
underlines the importance of formative assessment in inquiry-based teaching (Black &
Harrison, 2001).
Formative assessment is the process of gathering evidence on learners’ progress and it
enables teachers to improve instructions and support learning (Harlen, 2013). This is done
through discussions, practical demonstrations, informal classroom interactions, etc., it affords
teachers the opportunity to pause during a lesson to observe learners or to discuss how their
learning is progressing (DBE, 2011). Formative assessment assesses learning; it is usually
spontaneous, quick and findings are usually not recorded. However, findings are essential for
instructional purposes (for instance class activities, homework, quizzes or projects) may be
used to gather information. The information gathered can be used to inform instruction and
the teacher can therefore improve on her instructions to support learning (Sezen-Barrie &
Kelly, 2017). In contrast summative assessment assesses learning, where learners write tests,
practicals, or exams. Summative assessment focuses on learner achievement, grading or
promotion; its purpose is to summarise and report what has been learned at a particular time
(Harlen, 2013).
10
Rationale
Research has been conducted around the world on teachers’ practices of formative
assessment focusing on inquiry-based teaching. Most studies focused on the impact of
formative assessment on students’ learning of science and the challenges to effective
implementation (Sezen-Barrie & Kelly, 2017; Ruiz-Primo & Furtak, 2006). In South African,
there has been research conducted on inquiry-based teaching and learning but few studies
have examined Life Sciences teachers’ practices of formative assessment in inquiry-based
teaching.
Therefore, there is need for understanding (daily) teaching practices and assessment strategies
used by teachers during learning and teaching. There is still much that needs to be understood
about what teachers know or do not know about inquiry-based teaching and learning, and its
practise in the classroom. By exploring teachers’ practices of formative assessment, this
study seeks to determine the types of decisions made by teachers concerning their practices in
formative assessment in Life Science for grade 10. In the CAPS curriculum, there is a strong
focus on examination training than on the development of learners understanding (Academy
of Science South Africa (ASSA), 2011). This study investigates the integral role of formative
assessment in inquiry-based Life Sciences teaching. The study is guided by the following
research question: What are the formative assessment practices of Life Sciences teachers
within the context of inquiry-based teaching?
Research Question
The aim of this research is to investigate the formative assessment practices of Life Sciences
teachers when enacting an inquiry-based pedagogy. The following objectives are set:
1. To describe the formative assessment practices of Life Sciences teachers in the
context of inquiry-based teaching.
2. To classify formative assessment practices into levels.
3. To seek elaboration from Life Sciences teachers on their formative assessment
practices.
Problem Statement
The implementation of inquiry-based teaching in formative assessments remains a challenge
to most teachers. Some teachers neither have a clear understanding of how to use inquiry-
based teaching nor understand inquiry-based teaching. Other teachers are not even sure of
what to do in their classrooms to foster this type of education (Dobber, Zwart, Tanis, & van
Oers, 2017). According to Lederman (2004), some teachers believe that inquiry teaching is a
single skill that is investigations.
In South Africa, there are teacher development workshops conducted throughout the year for
all grades, but the focus of these workshops is on summative rather than formative
assessment. Most teachers still use outdated teaching practices, this method makes learners to
be passive participants and less in charge of their own learning. This research will assist in
11
gaining insight of teachers’ practices of formative assessment and the strategies they use to
promote teaching and learning.
Conceptual Framework
This study adopts the conceptual framework of Ruiz-Primo and Furtak (2006), namely the
ESRU cycle. It consists of four elements: Elicit, Student respond, Recognizes and Uses. So
the teacher Elicits a question, the Student responds, the teacher recognizes the student’s
response, and Uses the information collected to support student learning.
The ESRU cycle consist of complete and incomplete cycles. A cycle is “complete” if all four
elements of ESRU feature (i.e., elicit, student response, recognize and use) or “incomplete”
(e.g., elicit, student response, and recognize; or only elicit and student response). This
framework is useful because “each step in the ESRU cycle serves a purpose toward collecting
information about student learning, comparing it to the teacher’s expectations, and taking
action to move students toward learning goals” (Ruiz-Primo & Furtak, 2006:208).
Methodology
This study adopted the qualitative research methodology since it allows the researchers to
observe participant’s behaviour during their engagement in activities (Merriam, 2009;
Creswell, 2014). This study sought to investigate the formative assessment practices of five
Grade 10 Life Sciences teachers. These teachers are purposively selected based on their
teaching of the subject, and conveniently sampled due to their proximity to where the
researcher is located.
In this research, patterns in the formative assessment practices of teachers that is evident from
classroom observations and lessons plans will be uncovered by drawing upon four elements
in the ESRU cycle developed of Ruiz-Primo and Furtak (2006). Two Life Sciences lessons
will be observed per teacher. The lessons will be video-recorded and transcribed. The ESRU
cycle will serve as a coding system in the analysis of speaking turns involving exchanges
between the teacher and learners. In this analysis of transcripts, each speaking turn will be
given a code that correspond to an element of the ESRU cycle. In addition, a speaking turn
will be coded as complete or incomplete. After the lessons have been analysed, the researcher
will conduct individual interviews with teachers to seek elaboration on the trends in formative
assessment practices that have been identified. Interviews will be analysed by means of a
theming technique. This technique is suitable for this study because “theming data is more
applicable to interviews and it allows data collected to be categorised by means of
commonalities” (Saldana, 2009:142).
Validity and Reliability
Inter-coder reliability in the coding of the lesson transcripts will be determined by having
another researcher independently code these transcripts, and then calculating the inter-coder
12
reliability coefficient. In accordance with Merriam (2009), the following strategies will be
used to enhance internal validity.
a) Triangulation: I will use different sources of data to confirm emerging findings. These
sources include interviews with the teachers, lesson plans and class observations.
b) Member checks: I will check data and tentative interpretations with the teachers in
order to avoid any misinterpretations.
c) Peer review: There will be continuous dialogue and critical reflection with other
researchers regarding the research process and tentative findings as they emerge.
d) Reflexivity: I will do a critical self-reflection regarding anything that may bias my
interpretation.
e) Audit trails: I will provide a detailed account of methods, procedures and reasons for
decisions.
f) Rich description: I will provide step by step description of events to make it easy for
the readers to contextualise the study.
References
Academy of Science South Africa (ASSA). (2011). Increasing participation of girls in
Science in sub-Saharan Africa . 1-20. Retrieved March 20, 2019, from
http://www.interacademies.net/File.aspx?id=25087
Anderson, R. D. (2007). Inquiry as an organising theme for science curricula. In S. Abell, &
N. Lederman, Handbook of Research on Science education (pp. 807-830). Mahwah
NJ: Earlbaum Associates. .
Black, P., and Harrison, C. (2001). The science teachers's role in formative assessment. Paper
presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association,
Seattle, WA.
Conklin, W. (2012). Higher order thinking skills to develop 21st Century learners.
Huntington Beach, CA: Shell Education.
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research Design: Qualitatative Quantitative and Mixed Methods
Appproaches (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, Califonia: SAGE Publications.
Deboer, G. E. (2002). Student-centred teaching in a standard-based world: finding a sensible
balance. Science and Education, 11, 405-417.
Department of Basic Education (DBE). (2011). Curriculum and assessment Policy
Statements: grade 10-12 Life Sciences.
Dobber, M., Zwart, R., Tanis, M., and van Oers, B. (2017). Litarature review: The role of a
teacher in inquiry-based education. Educational Research Review, 22, 194-214.
Gaighter, E., Lederman, N., and Lederman, J. (2014). Knowledge about Inquiry: A study in
South African high school. International Journal of Education, 36(18), 3125-3147.
Gott, R., & Duggan, S. (2002). Problems with the assessment of performance in practical
science: Which way now? Cambrigde Journal of Education, 32(2), 183-201.
Harlen, W. (2013). Assessment & inquiry-based Science Education:issues in policy and
practice. Trieste, Italy: Global network of Science Academics (IAP) Science
Education Programme (SEP).
Lederman, N. (2004). Scientific inquiry and science education reform in the United States. In
F. Abd-Elkhalick, S. Bougaoude, N. Lederman, A. H. Mamok-Naaman, M. Nioz, D.
13
Treagrest, & H. Tusan, inquiry in science education: international perspective (pp.
402-404).
Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and Implementation. San
Francisco, Calif: Jossey-Bass.
Mosher, F. A. (2011). The role of learning progressions in standard-based education reform.
Philadelphia, PA: Constortium for Policy Research in Education, Graduate School of
Education: University of Pennsyvania.
National Research Council (NRC). (2011). A framework for K-12 science education:
practices crosscutting concepts and ideas.
Ruiz-Primo, M. A., & Furtak, E. M. (2006). Informal Formative Assessment and Scientific
Inquiry: Exploring Teachers’Practices and Student Learning. Educational Assessment,
11(3 & 4), 205-235.
Saldana, J. (2009). The coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers. Thousand Oaks,
California: SAGE Publications.
Sezen-Barrie, A., and Kelly, G. J. (2017). From the teacher's eyes: facillitating teachers
noticing on informal formative assessments (IFAs) and exploring the effective
implementation. International Journal of Science Education, 39(2), 181-212.
SESRC Book of Abstracts 3rd August 2019
14
Classroom Interaction Patterns in Grade 11 Life Sciences English-Second- Language Learners’ Classes
Kamati Vuyo
Introduction
Classroom interactions are crucial in shaping the teaching and learning process (Aguiar,
Mortimer, & Scott, 2010). Brown (2001) defines classroom interaction as the interaction
between teachers and learners in the classroom. Classroom interaction began in the 1960s
with the aim to evaluate effectiveness of interaction in language acquisition. Interaction is the
heart of communicative competence within the classroom, when the learner interacts with the
teacher and other learners, the learner receives input and produces output. Interactions in the
classroom are not random, the matter of who speaks and when is often governed by certain
regulations. The concept of communicative approach lies at the heart of the teaching and
learning, focusing on the ways in which the teacher works with the students to address the
different ideas that emerge during the lesson (Mortimer & Scott, 2003). Despite the
increasing investment in South African basic education aimed at improving classroom
interactions, improvement is still slow among South African township schools and its
learners who still learn Sciences in English, a language which is second if not third to them
(Prinsloo, Rodgers & Harvey, 2018). This negatively affects the classroom interaction in the
township schools and result in less classroom interaction.
The Department of Basic Education (2011) postulates that by studying Life Sciences, learners
will develop the ability to critically evaluate and debate scientific issues and process. It does
not take into consideration that township school learners learn Life Sciences in English,
which is spoken as a second or third language. It is problematic because township school
learners, most of their times, communicate using their mother tongue and not English. So,
having to critically evaluate and debate scientific issues and processes in English will be a
challenge since they will lack the right words and phrases to demonstrate understanding.
Greenfield (2010) asserts that the language of learning and teaching in all schools from Grade
3 is either Afrikaans or English, this automatically makes grades 10, 11 and 12 Life Sciences
learners to be taught in either English or Afrikaans. This law/policy disadvantages township
school learners since neither English nor Afrikaans is their mother tongue.
Despite great investment in the teaching and learning of Life Sciences through programs such
winter camps, extra classes and Saturday classes, township school learners continue to
struggle in demonstrating an understanding of certain scientific issues and processes in the
English language (Rollnick, 2000). Question papers are only written in English or Afrikaans,
this obviously caters only for first speakers of English and Afrikaans while disadvantaging
the second and third speakers of the language of instruction, who mostly hail from township
schools. Greenfield (2010) stresses that the textbooks used by both the teachers and learners
of townships schools are written in English, which is also problematic for learners in
constructing meaning and ensure understanding knowledge from the textbook. Granted that
township school learners lack vocabulary in English, it will be difficult for them to
15
understand some of the meanings conveyed by the Life Sciences textbooks and other
information sources. Research in South Africa reveals that poor performance in science and
mathematics education is related to language deficiencies (Howie, 2001; Skolverket, 2010).
Webb and Mayaba (2010) revealed that not only do South African township learners find it
difficult to read, write, and critically demonstrate understanding of sciences when learning
through an additional foreign language, but they are generally exposed to very little writing in
the sciences classrooms. Learning Life Sciences has many negative bearings that include poor
and little classroom interaction, failing to do exceptionally well in the subject itself and
learners having little or no interest in the subject.
Research Aim and Questions
The study seeks to determine the nature of classroom interaction patterns in Grade 11 Life
Sciences classrooms where English is spoken as a second language. The study is guided by
the following research questions to develop learners’ linguistic skills and engagement with
science concepts in the Life Sciences classrooms:
a) What is the nature of classroom interaction patterns in Grade 11 Life Sciences
classroom with English- second- language learners?
b) How do teachers assist learners in enhancing meaningful interaction in these Life
Sciences classrooms?
Various positions on the issue of classroom interaction patterns in grade 11 Life
Sciences English-second- language learners’ classes.
a) Code-switching when teaching Grade 11 Life Sciences English-second-language
learners.
Effective science teaching recognises the role of learners’ prior knowledge and experience,
and the social environment during the process of knowledge construction. Science classrooms
are culturally and socially constructed contexts which are not neutral in nature (Wee, 2012).
This means that science classrooms consist of learners from various cultural backgrounds and
interact with one another. Concepts acquired through everyday life experience influence what
is learnt at school and vice versa (Amin, Smith & Wiser, 2014). In addition, learners bring
ideas and experiences which present different opportunities for the design of teaching and
learning activities. This is in line with social constructivists and it posit that teachers should
recognise the socio-cultural background of learners in order to ensure meaningful learning
(Calabrese-Barton, Tan, & O’Neill, 2014). In support, Mavuru and Ramnarain (2017) argued
that effective science teaching recognises the role of learners’ prior knowledge and
experience, and the social environment during the process of knowledge construction. This
emphasizes that when teaching Life Sciences to township school learners, their native
language as part of their socio-cultural background must be taken into account and be allowed
in the construction of new knowledge to ensure good and effective classroom interaction.
Allowing learners to code-switch when explaining certain life sciences concepts will enable
them to effectively demonstrate understanding.
16
The social constructivist theory posits that learners learn best when the content relates to their
socio-cultural context (Vygotsky, 1986). This means learning becomes more effective when
related to what learners do, experience and observe in their everyday lives. The argument by
Vygotsky (1986) supports the claim made by this study that township learners will learn best
if their native language is incorporated in the construction of Life Sciences knowledge. In so
doing, learning will become effective and relate to the learners; this will result in good
classroom interaction between teacher-learner and learner-learner. Code-switching will
enable learners to use their utmost tool which is their native language in constructing new
knowledge and that could improve classroom interactions between teacher-learner and
learner-learner to be interactive dialogic interaction. Code Switching (also called language
mixing) is the “use of elements from two languages in the same utterance or in the same
stretch of conversation” (Paradis, Genesee, & Crago, 2011). Code-switching occurs when
children or adults alternate between two or more languages.
Furthermore, Numan and Carter (2001) define code switching as a phenomenon of switching
from one language to another in the same discourse. Usually the languages that are switched
are the mother tongue and a foreign language. Sert (2005) state that code-switching is used by
the teacher in order to build solidarity and intimate relations with the learners, expansion and
clarify meaning. This is common in instances where the language of instruction is different
from the learners’ home language. Code-switching enables the learners to easily understand
what the teacher is saying and know what is expected of them. However, one of the major
pitfalls for code-switching is that learners do not share the same native language. This may
create problems since some of the students will be neglected. Perhaps code-switching would
be of benefit if the learners and the teacher shared the same native language.
b) Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)
A position concerning the issue of classroom interaction patterns is the importance of Content
and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) which involves teaching a particular subject such
as Life Sciences through the medium of a language that is not the first language of learners.
The key issue in CLIL is that learners gains new knowledge about the subject while using and
learning the second language. The methodologies and approaches used are often linked to the
subject area with the content leading the activities. Ferreira (2011) argues that English
(second language), as a subject, has the largest number of learners, so learners are not only
communicating in class in a second language, but also have to use it as a medium for learning
all the other subjects. Learning sciences involves learning the particular language of sciences
(Lemke, 1990; Mortimer & Scott, 2003; Oyoo, 2017). This language is distinguished from
everyday language by technical terms such as. In addition, this language is also
photosynthesis, molecule, and deoxyribose nucleic acid, protein synthesis distinguished by
non-technical terms with scientific meanings attached to everyday English terms such as
table, current, force, and cell. However, Wellington and Osborne (2001) postulates that these
technical and Non-technical terms with their scientific meanings relate to the English
language. Therefore learning Life Sciences in English will also enable township learners to
learn and master the language itself. For example ‘cell’ could refer to a small room as in a
17
prison, in Life Sciences the word “cell” is a biological term which refers to the functional
basic unit of life, ‘energy’ refers to the ability to do work and in Life Sciences it is a
biological term which refers to an attribute in living organisms that is required for
metabolism. The difference is meaning of words in different contexts, this will benefit the
English-second language-learners to develop fluency in the English language. Studies in
second language acquisition have repeatedly shown that a second language is best learned
through content when learners have a purpose for learning and when language use is
authentic, rich and meaningful (Ren Dong, 2002). Non-native English-speaking learners
benefit more from learning the second language and academic content knowledge
simultaneously rather than separately (Ren Dong, 2002).
Research Rationale
The research study argues that township schools’ learners will learn best if their native
language is incorporated in the construction of Life sciences knowledge. In doing so, learning
will become effective and relate to the learners and this will result in good classroom
interaction between teacher-learner and learner-learner. Taylor and Prinsloo (2005) also point
out that after poverty, language, and in particular proficiency in the medium of instruction, is
the largest single factor that affects learner performance at school. This means that language
as a medium of instruction is the great contributor to English-second language learners’ poor
performances at township schools since English is spoken as a second language. As
mentioned above, Life Sciences is composed of specialized language: technical terms and
non-technical terms. The non-technical terms relate to everyday use of the English language.
The non-technical terms pose greatest learning difficulty because their meaning depends on
prior experience and understanding. Since most township school learners are second or third
speakers of the English language, they do not have previous experiences of English words
and their meaning. This then affects the classroom interactions since learners in most cases do
not participate simply given that they do not understand the non-technical terms and their
meaning. So, learners end up being passive participants in the teaching and learning process.
The positive aspect of incorporating township schools learner’s native language in teaching
and learning Life Sciences is that it will encourage learners to actively participate during
teaching and learning. This will result in good positive classroom interactions, interaction
which Mortimer and Scott (2003) refer to as dialogic interaction. According to Scott,
Mortimer and Aguiar (2006), dialogic discourse in the classroom involves teachers and
learners bringing, exploring and working on ideas together. In this case, the dialogic
discourse compares views from everyday knowledge and scientific knowledge. During dialogic
interaction ideas from individual learners and teacher may also be compared and
differentiated. This develops new ideas since in dialogic discourse, learners work together
whilst contributing different views that are used to construct a single, satisfactory scientific
explanation. Such interaction can be achieved if the learner’s native language is taken into
consideration when constructing new Life Sciences knowledge during teaching and learning.
SESRC Book of Abstracts 3rd August 2019
18
Empirical Research Method
The study will use a mixed method research design, a combination of both quantitative and
qualitative research designs (Creswell, 2014). This design is appropriate, it combines the
strengths of both quantitative and qualitative methods to compensate for their limitations
(Pluye & Hong, 2014). Every five minutes of each lesson will indicate a phase or episode,
communicative approaches that occurred in every episode will be coded as
Interactive/Authoritative (IA), Non-interactive/Authoritative (NA), Interactive/Dialogic (ID)
and Non-interactive/Dialogic (ND) to indicate the classroom communicative approaches.
The researcher, by using the quantitative method, will first record each communicative
approach which occurred during each phase of the lesson and count which communicative
approach occurred the least and which one occurred the most throughout the phases of the
lessons. This will be followed by a structured face-to-face interviews with the two
participating teachers from the respective schools. In addition, qualitative data will be
collected through classroom observations of the four lessons (two per school), the lesson
observations will be video and audio recorded. Using purposive sampling (Patton, 2002),
from the population of Kanana township high Schools in Klerksdorp, two high schools and
two grade 11 classes from the high schools identified will be selected for the study. In total,
the sample will include four grades 11 classes and 2 teachers. The two township schools enrol
learners of different home languages, one Setswana/Sesotho and the other isiXhosa/isiZulu.
Both schools use English as a medium of instruction. The nature of the sample is suitable for
the study because of the diversity of both learners and teachers in terms of home languages,
values, economic status and culture, which may influence the degree of the classroom
interactions (collaborative, individual, authoritative and dialogic interactions).
Data collection will involve two lesson observations for each of the two schools to determine
the nature of the classroom communicative approaches described by Mortimer and Scott
(2003) and how teachers assist in enhancing meaningful interactions. The four
communicative approaches espoused by Mortimer and Scott (2003) are
Interactive/Authoritative (IA), Non-interactive/Authoritative (NA), Interactive/Dialogic (ID)
and Non-interactive/Dialogic (ND). The researcher will be observing how the learners
respond to the teachers’ questions and how teachers respond to learners’ questions and use
learners’ responses to enhance further communication in terms of authoritative or dialogic
approaches. Each of the 2 teachers will then be interviewed once using a structured interview
schedule to seek clarity on matters observed. Furthermore, teachers will be asked to elaborate
and justify the nature of communicative approaches emerging from the analysis of the lesson
observations. Trustworthiness and reliability of data will be assured by using data recorder
during interviews with teachers, video recordings of lesson observations to assure the correct
recording of lesson transcripts
Data analysis will use a T-chart tool to record both the teacher’s and learner’s utterances to
depict who dominates and centres the classroom interactions (Malu, 2015). The tallies will be
counted and the one with more tallies recorded between the teachers and the learners will be
the one who dominates the lesson. In addition, the communicative approaches which were
19
coded as IA, NA, ID, ND and recorded in every episode will be counted to indicate the
classroom communicative approaches which dominates the lessons.
References
Amin, T.G., Smith, C., and Wiser, M. (2014). Student conceptions and conceptual change:
Three overlapping phases of research. In N. Lederman and S. Abell (Eds), Hand book
of research in science education. New York: Routledge (57–81).
Aguiar, O. G., Mortimer, E. F., & Scott, P. (2010). Learning from and responding to students’
questions: The authoritative and dialogic tension. Journal of Research in Science
Teaching, 47(2), 174-193.
Calabrese-Barton, A., Tan, E., & O’Neill, T. (2014). Science education in the urban context:
New conceptual tools and stories of possibilities. In N. Lederman and S. Abell (Eds),
Handbook of Research in Science Education. Routledge: New York (246– 265).
Creswell, J. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, mixed methods approach. (4th
ed). Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications.
Department of Basic Education. (2011). Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement: Life
Sciences grade 10-12. http://www.education.gov.za
Ferreira, G. (2011). Teaching Life Sciences to English second language learners: What do
teachers do?. South African Journal of Education, 1(31), 102-113.
Greenfield, D. (2010). When I hear Afrikaans in the classroom and never my language, I get
rebellious: linguistic apartheid in South African higher education. Language and
Education, 24(6), 517–534.
Howie, S. J. (2001). Mathematics and science performance in Grade 8 in South Africa
1998/1999: TIMSS-R 1999 South Africa. Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council.
Lemke, JL. (1990). Talking science: Language, learning and values. Norwood: Ablex
Publishing Corporation.
Mavuru, L., and Ramnarain, U. (2017). Teachers’ knowledge and views on the use of
learners’ socio-cultural background in teaching Natural Sciences in Grade 9 township
classes. African Journal of Research in Mathematics, Science and Technology
Education, 21 (2), 176‒186. doi: 10.1080/18117295.2017.1327239.
Mortimer, E.F. Scott, P.H. (2003). Meaning making in secondary sciences classrooms.
Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Oyoo, S.O. (2017). Learner Outcomes in Science in South Africa: Role of the Nature of
Learner Difficulties with the Language for Learning and Teaching Science. Journal of
Science Education. 47, 783–804.
Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods. Thousand Oaks: Sage
Pluye, P., and Hong, Q. N., (2014). Combining the Power of Stories and the Power of
numbers: Mixed Methods Research and Mixed Studies Reviews. Annual review
Public Health.
Prinsloo, C.H. Rodgers, S.C. Harvey, J.C. (2018). The impact of language factors on learner
achievement in Science. South African Journal of Education. 38(1), 1-14.
Rollnick, M. (2000). Current issues and perspectives on second language learning of science.
Studies in Science Education, 35, 93–122.
Sert, O. (2005). The Functions of Code Switching in ELT Classrooms. Turkey. Hacettepe
University.
Taylor, N., and Prinsloo, C. (2005). The quality learning project — lessons for high school
improvement in South Africa. Commissioned by the Department of Education. HSRC
Library, Shelf 3985.
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Webb, P., and Mayaba, N. (2010). The effect of an integrated strategies approach to
promoting scientific literacy on grade 6 and 7 learners’ general literacy skills. African
Journal of Research in Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 14(3), 35–
50.
Wee, B. (2012). A cross-cultural exploration of children’s everyday ideas: Implications for
science teaching and learning. International Journal of Science Education, 34(4),
609–627.
Wellington, J., and Osborne, J. (2001). Language and literacy in science education.
Buckingham: Open University Press.
SESRC Book of Abstracts 3rd August 2019
21
Performance Differences of Grade 8 Natural Sciences Learners Taught in Home Language and Second Language
Mundoza Nomthandazo
Introduction
This paper reports on a study to investigate the performance differences of Grade 8 Natural
Sciences learners taught in home language and second language. There is evidence, according
to (Mayaba, Otterup, & Webb, 2013), that problems of poor performance in science education
are linked to language deficiencies that include writing skills. Mayaba et al. (2013) claimed
that when learning science, writing for assessments is a critical skill that is not easy to acquire
especially for learners learning in a second language. Despite the fact that there are eleven
official languages in South African, the medium of science learning is largely English and
Afrikaans. This poses a significant challenge to most learners as they struggle not only to
comprehend science content but also grasp the second language and in some cases the third
language. The importance of language proficiency to academic performance is emphasized by
Racca and Lasaten (2016) who studied Grade 8 learners. The findings concluded that there is
a significant relationship between learners’ English language proficiency and their academic
performance in science. They concluded that the higher their academic performance levels in
science the better the English language proficiency levels of the learner.
Research Methods
The study employed what is known as a sequential mixed method research design whereby a
quantitative study is followed by qualitative study (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009). The study
was conducted at a high school in the Johannesburg’s East district. Consistent with Patton's
(2002) work, the school has been purposefully and conveniently selected because it enrols
both Afrikaans-speaking coloured learners and African learners. The Afrikaans classes are
made up of Afrikaans speaking coloured learners while the other classes are made up of both
African learners and coloured learners whose home language is different from the medium of
instruction, English. From a population of eight Grade 8 Natural Sciences classes, four
classes were randomly selected, two classes taught in Afrikaans (home language) and two
classes taught in English (second language). The classes have an average of 50 learners each.
The researcher first collected quantitative data, analysed the data and then collected
qualitative data to further explore the quantitative results using fewer individuals (Creswell,
2003). This research design is suitable for this study because, by combining both qualitative
and quantitative methods, the strengths of both methods are tapped into (Teddlie &
Tashakkorri, 2009). To collect quantitative data four assessment tasks on the content taught
was administered to Grade 8 learners taught Natural Sciences in their home language and
those taught in their second language during first and second term to obtain learner scores.
The first task was a test and two tasks were based on matter and material while one is based
on life and living. The assumption is that four assessment tasks are reasonable enough to
22
enable the researcher to determine learners' levels of performance in the Natural Sciences
content taught, regardless of the leaners being taught by different teachers. The content and
structure of the different assessment tasks will be the same for the two groups of learners. The
learners were chosen by performance the top learners, medium and below average. The
percentage for the top learners differed from activity to activity but on average 70- 80 plus as
top learners 50-60 as average and 20-39 as below average.
To ensure reliability or dependability of the qualitative data from learners’ responses in the
assessments, coding of the same data was repeated at various stages and results compared to
check on consistency (Fereday & Muir-Cochrane, 2006). Quotes from the learners’ responses
were used to authenticate analysis and interpretation of the data.
Results
Performance differences of grade 8 Natural Sciences learners taught in home language
(Afrikaans) and second language (English).
English
classes
% Curriculum
completed
Number in
subject
Number
wrote
Number
pass
Number fail Pass
mark
% pass Subject
average
Exam mark 50% 100 100 57 43 40 57 38
Assessment
mark 50% 100 100 75 25 40 75 52
Term mark 50% 100 100 70 30 40 70 48
English
classes
0-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-100
Levels Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6 Level 7
Exam Mark 28 15 33 12 6 3 3
Assessment
mark
14 11 13 14 26 20 2
Term mark 16 14 21 22 19 6 2
Afrikaans
classes
% Curriculum
completed
Number in
subject
Number
wrote
Number
pass
Number
fail
Pass
mark
% pass Subject
average
Exam mark 50% 100 100 27 73 40 27 28
Assessment
mark
50% 100 100 50 50 40 50 42
Term mark 50% 100 100 44 56 40 44 38
Afrikaans
classes
0-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-100
Levels Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6 Level 7
Exam Mark 35 38 10 8 8 1 0
Assessment
mark
29 21 12 7 19 10 2
Term mark 29 27 15 12 11 6 0
Pass mark- 40-100 (level 3-7) Fail – 0-39 (level 1&2)
23
Qualitative data indicates that the Natural Science learners learning in English were able to
express themselves better than those learning in Afrikaans. Reviewing the scripts of the
learners it can be seen that Natural Science learners who learn in English were able to answer
all questions in English throughout from the well performing learners to the below average
learners. However, on the other hand it was noted that the Afrikaans learners tended to use
English words when explaining concepts. This was more pronounced in scripts for
underperforming learners who used more English words to try and explain complex concepts.
In one question, the learners were asked to explain a herbivore and to give two examples from
the image that was given. The Afrikaans learner with an average mark of 50 was able to
define the term herbivore, but would not identify the animals given in Afrikaans, and instead
named them in English. This trend was not seen in learners who use English as a medium of
instruction. Moreover, even when the answers were wrong they expressed them in English.
Discussion
The results indicate that learners in the natural science classes using English perform better
than learners in the natural science classes using Afrikaans. The exam percentage pass for
English natural sciences classes is 57% which is 30% better compared to the Afrikaans
natural sciences classes pass average of 27%. The average mark for the school-based
assessment is 75% for the English natural sciences learners and this average is still more than
the average of Afrikaans natural sciences learners which is at 50%. The average mark for
term work for the English natural sciences learners is 70% while that of Afrikaans natural
sciences learners is 44.
These results defies the view that "there is a strong justification for the focus on language if
formal education is to be a major contributor to citizenship and the public understanding of
science" (Wellington & Osborne, 2001: 5). These results indicate that there could be other
factors other than language that influence the understanding of science. The results above
show that English learners who are not learning in their home language are performing better
than the Afrikaans learners who are learning in their home language.
Analysis of quantitative data also indicated that learners who learn in their home language
which is Afrikaans seem not to have an advantage over learners who learn in English which is
a second language. This is seen in the learners’ responses. The trend of using English words
in Afrikaans activities is an indication that the learners still find some concepts difficulty to
express in their home language.
Conclusion
The researchers’ hypothesises was that there is no significant difference between the
performance of learners taught and assessed in home language and in second language. It
should be noted however that there are challenges associated with the use of learners’ home
language in science teaching. One of the challenges is that science is an international subject
with its own language which enables scientists across the world to communicate effectively
(Racca & Lasaten, 2016). According to Oyoo (2017), teachers play a role in the difficulties
learners encounter with the language of teaching and learning science. The two sets of
24
English and Afrikaans classes were taught by different teachers who may have a different
understanding of interpreting technical and non-technical terms in the Grade 8 natural
sciences class. Difficulty with language in the classroom, in addition to general proficiency is
often due to a shift in meaning making for different words when they are used in a science
context (Oyoo, 2017). The results of this research give a different perspective to the notion
held by some scholars such as Racca and Lasaten (2016) who have previously asserted that
language proficiency is highly related to good academic performance for science learners.
References
Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approaches (2nd ed.). London, UK: SAGE Publications.
Fereday, J., and Muir-Cochrane, E. (2006). Demonstrating Rigor Using Thematic Analysis: A
Hybrid Approach of Inductive and Deductive Coding and Theme Development.
International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 5(1), 80-92.
Mayaba, N., Otterup, T., and Webb, P. (2013). Writing in science classrooms: Some case
studies in South African and swedish second-language classrooms. African Journal of
Research in Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 17(1-2), 74-82.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10288457.2013.826972
Patton, M. . (2002). Qualitative reserch and Evaluation Methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage Publications.
Racca, R. M. A. B., and Lasaten, R. C. S. (2016). English Language Proficiency and
Academic Performance of Philippine Science High School Students. International
Journal of Languages, Literature and Linguistics, 2(2), 44–49.
https://doi.org/10.18178/ijlll.2016.2.2.65
Teddlie, C., and Tashakkori, A. (2009). Foundation of Mixed Methods Research: Integrating
Quntitative and Qualitative Approaches in Social and Behavioral Sciences. Los
Angeles: Sage.
Wellington, J. J., and Osborne, J. (2001). Language and literacy in science education.
Buckingham ; Phildelphia : Open University. https://doi.org/00055061
SESRC Book of Abstracts 3rd August 2019
25
Investigating the Extent to which Science Teachers Create Constructivist Learning Environments in Their Classrooms
Mbonane Sezanele
Introduction
In South Africa, like in other countries, people have an expectation that the education system
prepares learners who have knowledge and skills that will improve their everyday lives and
prepare them for their future careers (Department of Basic Education, 2011). In addition,
there is a dire need for scientifically literate citizens (DeBoer, 2000; Miller, 2004; Llewellyn
2013). Science subjects are associated with the knowledge that is important for the creation of
wealth and economic prosperity (Muzah, 2011). Since a direct correlation between a nation’s
wealth and its scientific and technological capacity exists (World Science Forum, 2007),
emphasis should be placed on ensuring quality teaching and learning of science from an early
stage in order to realise the goal of scientific and technological advancement.
Aim and Research Questions of this Study
The focal point of this study was to explore the extent to which science teachers create
constructivist learning environments in their classrooms. The aim of the study is realized in
the following research sub-questions:
a) How do science teachers perceive their teaching environments in their science
classrooms?
b) How do science teachers implement constructivist teaching strategies in their
classrooms?
The theoretical framework guiding this study is social constructivism. It was developed by
Vygotsky (1978) who argued that meaning is socially constructed through interaction and
cooperation between individuals. In a social constructivist classroom, learners learn by
building personal interpretations of the world based on their experiences and interactions with
the environment (Ertmer & Newby, 2013; McKinely 2015). More emphasis is put on social
context of learning. The learning activities are characterised by active engagement, inquiry,
problem solving and collaboration with others. The education policies that were developed
after the dismantling of apartheid place emphasis on learner-centred instruction (Du Toit,
2009; Skosana & Monyai, 2013). The current Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statements
(CAPS) has retained the principles of learner-centred education. CAPS encourage learner-
centred instruction in all subjects, an active and critical approach to learning as opposed to
rote and uncritical learning (DBE, 2011). These principles are derived from constructivism
(Killen, 2007; Du Toit, 2009).
Research Methods
This research adopted an explanatory mixed method. A mixed method is a procedure
whereby data is collected, analysed and integrated both quantitatively and qualitatively at
some stage of the research process within a single study for the purpose of gaining a better
understanding of the research problem (Tashakkori and Teddlie, 2003). This design method
26
is appropriate because it combines the strengths of both qualitative and quantitative and
compensates for limitations associated with each method (Green & Caracelli, 1997;
Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998; Pluye & Hong, 2014). Ivankova, Creswell and Stick (2006) note
that the reason for mixing both kinds of data within a study is that neither quantitative nor
qualitative methods are sufficient by themselves to capture the trends and details of the
situation. In the first phase, the researcher collects quantitative data and analyses it. In the
second phase, using few individuals, qualitative data is collected and analysed to elaborate the
quantitative results (Creswell, 2003). The qualitative data in this instance explain the
statistical results obtained from quantitative data by exploring participants’ views in more
depth (Tashakkori and Teddlie, 1998; Creswell, 2003).
Instrument
The researcher collected quantitative data using the Constructivist Learning Environment
Survey (CLES) questionnaires. It was originally developed by Taylor and Fraser (1991). The
CLES has been utilised both nationally (Alridge, Fraser & Sebela, 2004) and internationally
(Alridge, Fraser & Chen 2000; Johnson & McClure, 2004; Fazio & Volante, 2011). It has
been validated in studies conducted in many countries including Korea, United States,
Taiwan and Australia (Alridge, et al., 2004). The CLES is designed to determine whether the
learning environment adheres to constructivist approaches in science classrooms (Taylor,
Fraser & Fischer, 1997). It gives feedback to teachers on their attempt to change their
classroom learning environments in accordance with constructivist epistemology (Taylor, et
al., 1997). It has five scales relevant to the constructivist principles namely, personal
relevance, uncertainty, critical voice, shared control, and student negotiation (Taylor, Fraser
& White, 1994; Taylor, et al., 1997).
Sampling
Purposive sampling technique will be employed to select participants in this study. Purposive
sampling according to Teddlie and Yu (2007) and McMillan and Schumacher (2010) may
include selecting participants out of convenience in order to achieve purposed objective. The
CLES (teacher actual perceived form) was administered to 50 life sciences and physical
sciences teachers from 10 different public schools in Johannesburg. These schools are
convenient because of their geographical location and proximity to the researcher’s place of
residence and employment. Using Patton (2002) purposive sampling, five grades 10 and 11
physical and life sciences were selected from each school to make a sample size of 50 science
teachers. The criteria used to select teachers were those with teaching experience from three
years onwards as they are considered to be familiar with the dictates of both the curriculum
and the nature of science classroom environments. The researcher is still in the process of
collecting qualitative data which are collected through semi-structured interviews. Five
participants were selected for this data. The interviews are audio-recorded and transcribed
verbatim to allow the researcher to properly analyse the data at a later stage (Patton, 1990).
27
Data Analysis
Descriptive statistical analysis was used to analyse quantitative data from questionnaires
(Pietersen & Maree, 2010). The data was analysed manually for now, as data were still
collected. Responses from each category were then grouped to obtain the mean score for each
section. Clason and Dormody (1994) found out that such average scores from Likert scale are
more reliable than scores obtained from a single item. The qualitative data will be analysed
manually through codes and then compared, interpreted and conclusions to be drawn (Leech
and Onwuegbuzie, 2007). Similar codes and categories from one data set will be merged with
those from other data sets. Any discrepancies identified will require that the researcher recode
the data or even engage the participants to ascertain what they meant in the interviews.
Results
The CLES has a 5-point Likert-type response with the following categories: strongly agree (5
points), agree (4 points), neutral (3 points), Disagree (2 points) and strongly disagree (1
point). The minimum score obtainable per category is 1(strongly disagree) and the maximum
score is 5 (strongly agree). Only 16 questionnaires had been returned thus far that is why the
number of participants is 16 (n = 16). The CLES results are summarised in Table 1.
Table 1: Descriptive statistics
Personal
relevance
Uncertainty Critical voice Shared control Negotiation
Mean 4.35 3.44 4.49 3.25 3.95
Standard deviation
(SD) 0.83 1.02 0.81 1.24 1.01
Mode 5 4 5 4 4
Minimum score = 1; Maximum score = 5; n = 16
Table 1 above indicates the means of critical voice (mean = 4.49, mode = 5, SD = 0.81); and
personal relevance (mean = 4.35, mode = 5, SD = 0.83); were above 4 points (between agree
and strongly agree) which means the teachers reported that they frequently implement these
two aspects in their classrooms. The means of uncertainty ((mean = 3.44, mode = 4, SD =
1.02), negotiation (mean = 3.95, mode = 4, SD = 1.01); and shared control (mean = 3.24,
mode = 4, SD = 1.24); were lower than four points (between neutral and disagree). The charts
below depict the information summarised in Table 1.
Discussion
This study examined the extent to which science teachers create constructivist learning
environment in their classrooms. Studies suggest there are challenges to teach from a
constructivist perspective as it takes time to let learners voice themselves and share
management of classroom (Brooks & Brooks, 1999; Anagun & Anilan, 2013). The
participating teachers perceived their leaners had high degree of freedom to express
themselves in classes according to highest mean score of critical voice. The lowest mean
amongst the five categories was received by shared control. This is consistent with previous
studies that indicated that shared control was a challenge to incorporate to instruction
28
(Taylor, et al, 1994; Haney & Arthur, 2002; Puacharearn, 2004), while personal relevance,
uncertainty, and student negotiation were considered by many teachers as core constructivist-
based instruction (Dryden and Fraser,
1998). These studies indicated that it
was due to traditional system of learner
assessment. A study conducted by
Beck, Czerniak, and Lumpe (2000),
show that even if teachers believed in
constructivist teaching, they did not
necessarily implement it due to various
reasons. Johnson and McClure (2004)
compared learners’ and teachers’
perceptions of their classroom
environments. They discovered that the
teachers’ perceptions were generally
29
higher than those of their learners. This could be a limitation in this study as learners’
perceptions were not investigated.
Conclusion and Recommendations
The current study undertook to investigate the extent to which science teachers create
constructivist learning environment in their classrooms. The results show that the participants
fairly understood the constructivist learning environment. However further investigations
would verify these findings.
References
Aldridge, J. M., Fraser, B. J., and Sebela, M.P. (2004). Using teacher action research to
promote constructivist learning environments in South Africa. South African Journal
of Education, 24(4), 245-253.
Aldridge, J. M., Fraser, B. J., Taylor, P. C., and Chen, C. C. (2000). Constructivist learning
environments in a cross-national study in Taiwan and Australia. International Journal
of Science Education, 22(1), 37–55.
Anagun, S. S., and Anilan, H. (2013). Development and validation of a modified Turkish
version of the Teacher Constructivist Learning Environment Survey (TCLES).
Learning Environments Research, 16(2), 169-182.
Beck, J., Czerniak, C.M., and Lumpe, A. T. (2000). An exploratory study of teachers’ beliefs
regarding the implementation of constructivism in their classrooms. Journal of
Science Teacher Education, 11(4), 323-343.
Brooks, J.G., and Brooks, G. M. (1999). In search of understanding: The case for
constructivist classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development.
Clason, D. L., and Dormody, T. L. (1994). Analysing data measured by individual Likert-type
items. Journal of Agricultural Education, 35(4), 31-35.
Creswell, J.W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approaches. Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications.
DeBoer G.E. (2000). Scientific literacy:Another look at its historical and contemporary
meanings and its relationship to science education reform. Journal of Research in
Science Teaching. 37 (6), 582-601.
Department of Basic Education, (2011). Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement, Further
Education and training Phase, Grades 10-12. Pretoria, South Africa.
Dryden, M., and Fraser, B. J. (1998). The impact of systematic reform efforts in promoting
constructivist approaches in high school science. Paper presented at the annual
meeeting of the American Educational Research Asssociation, San Diego, CA.
Du Toit, E.R. (2009). Expert Educator Series. Powerful learning environment. Macmillan
South Africa.
Ertmer, P. A., and Newby, T. J. (2013). Behaviourism, Cognitivism, Constructivism:
Comparing Critical Features from an instructional Design Perspective. Performance
Improvement Quarterly, 26(2), 43-71
Faxio, X. Volante, L. (2011). Preservice Science teachers’ perceptions of their practicum
classrooms. Teacher Educator, 46(2), 126-144.
Haney, J. J., and McArthur, J. (2002). Four case studies of prospective science teachers’
beliefs concerning constructivist teaching practices. Science Education, 86(6), 783-
802.
30
Ivankova, N. V., Creswell, J. W., and Stick, S.L. (2006). Using mixed methods sequential
explanatory designs. From Theory to Practice. 18(3), 1-19.
Johnson, B., and McClure, R. (2004). Validity and reliability of a shortened, revised version
of the Constructivist Learning Environment Survey (CLES). Learning Environments
Research, 7(1), 65-80
Leech, N.L. and Onwegbuzie, A. J. (2007).An array of qualitative data analysis tools. A call
for data analysis triangulation, American Psychological Association, 22(4), 557-584
Llewellyn, D. (2013). Teaching High School Science through Inquiry and Argumentation.
Sage: Corwin
McMillan, J. H., and Schumacher, S. (2010). Research in Education, Evidence-based inquiry
(7th ed). Essex: Pearson Education, Ltd.
Miller, J,D. (2004). Public understanding of, and attitudes towards, scientific research: what
we know and what we need to know. Public Understanding of Science, 13(3) 273-
294.
Muzah, P. (2011). An exploration into the school related factors that causes high
matriculation failure rates in physical science in public high schools of Alexandra
township. Unpublished masters of Education Dissertation. Pretoria: University of
South Africa.
Puacharearn, P. (2004). The effectiveness of constructivist teaching on improving learning
environments in Thai secondary school science classrooms. Unpublished doctoral
thesis. Perth: Curtin University of Technology.
Skosana, P.S., and Monyai, R.B. (2013). Learner-centered policies with reference to
constructivism in the implementation of the curriculum. International Journal of
Humanities and Social Science Invention, 2 (9), 51-58.
Taylor, P.C., and Fraser, B.J. (1991, April). CLES: An instrument for assessing constructivist
learning environments. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National
Association for Research in Science Teaching, Lake Geneva, Wis., USA.
Taylor, P. C., Fraser, B. J., and White, L.R. (1994). CLES: An instrument for monitoring the
development of constructivist learning environment. Paper presented at the annual
meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans.
Taylor, P. C., Fraser, B. J., and Fisher, D. L. (1997). Monitoring constructivist classroom
learning environments. International Journal of Educational Research, 27(4), 293–
302.
Tashakkori, A., and Teddlie, C. (1998). Mixed methodology: Combining qualitative and
quantitative approaches. Applied Social Research Methods Series, 46. Thousand Oaks,
CA: SAGE
Patton, M. (1990). Qualitative evaluation research methods (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA:
Sage Publications, Inc
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
SESRC Book of Abstracts 3rd August 2019
31
SESSION 2: TEACHERS’ BELIEFS AND 21ST CENTURY CLASSROOM
How Life Sciences Teachers’ Beliefs about Cloning Influence Their Teaching of
the Topic
Umme Kalsum Anjum
Background to the Study
Research illustrates when a teacher employs a controversial issue to classroom instruction,
their arguments and reasoning are often wittingly or unwittingly misleading (Owens, Sadler
& Zeidler, 2017). Teachers’ reasoning emerges from their beliefs on what they believe to be
true (Cobern, 2003). Beliefs stem from deeply rooted personal experiences (Keys, 2005). In
the South African Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) document
controversial issues range from a wide variety of topics such as the use of stem cells,
genetically modified organisms (GMO), evolution and cloning (Boerwinkel, Yarden, &
Waarlo, 2017; Siani & Ben-Zvi Assaraf, 2016). However, the curriculum is unable to direct
Life Sciences teachers and students to scientifically reliable sources for the teaching of such
topics (Mnguni, 2017). This study focuses on the importance of teacher beliefs on the
controversial topic of cloning and how it influences their teaching practice. The teachers’
knowledge of a subject and their beliefs about teaching a certain topic plays a significant role
in shaping teaching practices. So, exploring Life Sciences teachers’ beliefs on cloning and the
influence it has on coherent teaching practice is essential.
According to Oulton, Dillon and Grace (2004) teachers are poorly prepared to teach topics in
Life Sciences, which may be linked to controversial issues. Most of these controversial issues
are central to genetic education (Sadler & Zeidler, 2004). Such controversial issues include,
yet are not limited to cloning, GMO, stem cell research and genetic disorder testing
(Boerwinkel, Yarden, & Waarlo, 2017; Siani & Ben-Zvi Assaraf, 2016). These issues have
been included in many curricula including the Grade 12 CAPS curriculum in South Africa,
(Stern & Kampourakis, 2017; Department of Basic Education, 2011). Debatably, teacher
beliefs are important factors in whether teachers embark on discussions of controversial
issues (Cotton, 2006).
A study by Bahcivan and Cobern (2016) focused on teachers’ belief systems, pedagogical
content knowledge and practice found that teachers hold pre-existing beliefs about science
content and instructional practices. These beliefs can influence classroom practice, which in
turn affects student learning (Bahcivan & Cobern, 2016). Noticeably, Pajares (1992) and
Rokeach (2003) also claim that teachers’ beliefs influence their decisions and practice in the
classroom. Although such study has not been conducted in the South African context in
which teachers and learners come from diverse background such as cultures and religions.
Therefore, this study indicates a desperate call for additional research to discover teacher
beliefs on cloning and its impact on their classroom practice in South African schools.
SESRC Book of Abstracts 3rd August 2019
32
Discussion and Analyses of Various Positions
Beliefs are defined as a group of psychological constructs that make up human cognition
where they drive human actions (Bryan, 2012). Additionally, the construct of belief systems
are defined by Owens, Sadler and Zeidler (2017:2), as “an inference made by an observer
about underlying states of expectancy”. These are among the most valuable psychological
constructs in teacher education research (Anderson, 2015). Beliefs are generated by
individuals through formal and informal experiences, and contribute to teachers’
epistemological systems about science, and how students learn science as it relates to their
classroom practice (Bryan, 2012). Literature indicates that every individual has beliefs about
different aspects that develop in their lifetime; it plays a vital role once it is expressed.
Many studies postulate that teacher beliefs have a direct impact on the teacher’s practice in
the classroom (Zakeel, Safeena & Marikar 2016; Wallace & Kang, 2004). Beliefs impact on
the way teachers adopts their teaching objectives, lesson planning, pedagogical approach and
attitudes towards the students (Richardson, 1996; Levitt, 2002). Hodson (2003) and Owens,
Sadlrer and Zeidler (2017) reveal that teachers find it difficult to teach topics which are
controversial or have ethical implications. This may be due to the fact that the curriculum is
unable to direct teachers with scientifically reliable resources. Teachers therefore refer to
textbooks, field guides or the internet (Mnguni, 2018). Alternatively, some teacher’s state that
education programs are too theoretical in nature (Cook & Amatucci, 2006), which makes it
difficult to teach such topics effectively.
Life Sciences teachers are known to have a low interest when controversial topics are taught,
especially when little is known about the content used to deliver the lessons. This translates
into their teaching practice (Aivelo & Uitto, 2019). Teachers avoid discussing sensitive or
controversial topics as it may clash with different beliefs of the learners (Aivelo & Uitto,
2019). Individuals with stronger religious beliefs are less likely to support topics which are
viewed as interfering with questions of faith in god (Drummond & Fischhoff, 2017).
However, there is a positive attitude from teachers about agricultural biotechnology which
include genetically modified crops (Zakeel. et al., 2016). Teachers advocate for this because
they believe it is a future source of sustainable economic growth (Aerni, 2005). It is te case
that individuals may have a strong disagreement with the application of biotechnology for
medical purposes (Zakeel. et al., 2016). This may be due to lack of knowledge about the latest
biotechnology or their beliefs which strongly reject such notions. So as teachers, classroom
practice is influenced by beliefs about the subject matter (Falk, Brill & Yarden, 2008). This
study submits that there is need to understand the beliefs of Grade 12 Life Science teachers in
the South African schools where the topic of cloning is largely covered in Grade 12.
Therefore, the focus of this study is to explore teacher’s beliefs on cloning and the influence it
has on the on their teaching practices.
Discussion and Analysis of my Position
Controversial topics can be defined as those issues which society considers as conflicting due
to diverse religious beliefs (Stradling, 1985). Cloning is one of the topics found in Life
33
Sciences which is deemed to be controversial due to ethical and moral issues that arise
(Sadler & Zeidler, 2004). Individuals’ views on cloning vary vastly from human reproductive
cloning being unacceptable for some and ethically permissible for others which give rise to
the disputes amongst individuals (Strong, 2005).
The controversial nature of cloning, makes teachers hesitant to willingly involve learners in
the lesson. Teachers’ lack of attitude and content knowledge about a controversial issue may
lead to less engagement of learners in a topic (Leslie & Schibeci, 2003). It is therefore
important for teachers to have sufficient knowledge, to be aware of the latest developments,
and ethical implications on cloning. This equips them to easily help learners with the skills of
becoming well-informed decision makers (Surmeli & Sahin, 2012). Consequently, it is
imperative to recognise teachers’ beliefs in anticipation of progress or change in their
instructional practice (Van Driel, Bulte, & Verloop, 2007). According to Duke and ward
(2009), teachers’ accuracy in the selection of information to teach a particular topic is
affected by their belief and knowledge about the content which subsequently impacts their
instructional practice. Beliefs of an individual developed through and about society play an
important role in shaping and interpreting scientific knowledge, and may influence the way
teacher teach a topic in the classroom (Pajares, 1992).
According to Kuş (2015), the main aim of controversial topics in the school curricula is to
help students gain certain values and skills. Cloning is one of the topic found in the South
African Life Sciences CAPS curriculum. It may cause moral dilemmas amongst the learners
as there may be clashes of different religious beliefs. Therefore, it is important for teachers to
use appropriate classroom instruction that assist students to develop democratic values, such
as toleration of dissent and support for equality (Lockwood, 1996). The teacher should be
able to create an environment in which students can explore that it is possible for individuals
to arrive at points on an issue (Kuş, 2015). It is through different point of views and
discussion amongst students that result in tolerance where different views are held on
important topics (Hess, 2009). The discussion of controversial topic does not only result in
grow of content knowledge, it also provides students with higher order thinking skills
(Camicia & Dobsin, 2010). Furthermore, controversial topics may also support students in
establishing a connection between the actual subject matter and their daily lives (Lin &
Mintzes, 2010).
In the South African CAPS curriculum for Life Sciences, ‘cloning’ is included as a topic in
Grade 12 from the Knowledge Strand 1: Life at the Molecular, Cellular and Tissue Level
(Department of Basic Education, 2011). Based on the literature presented above and without
overlooking the importance of these studies, there is a research gap about Life Sciences
teachers’ beliefs on cloning and the influence it has on their teaching practices in the South
African context. In South African schools, teachers and learners meet in a classroom from
diverse backgrounds and many contemporary religions are practiced amongst them. Based on
the empirical evidence from various researchers presented above, religious convictions may
profoundly influence teachers’ beliefs. Multiple approaches are required to teach such a topic
34
like cloning. Therefore, the research question that this research seeks to answer is how do
Life Sciences teachers’ beliefs on cloning influence the teaching of cloning?
Proposal of Empirical Investigation
In order to address the research's main aim, this study aims to answer the following question:
How do Life Sciences teachers’ beliefs on cloning influence the teaching of cloning?
To address the main aim, the study adopts a qualitative research approach in which a case
study method is used. The qualitative study allows the researcher to take an in-depth look at a
certain occurrence in order to gain a comprehensive understanding of it (Creswell, 2012).
This approach will take an in-depth look at three Grade 12 Life Sciences teachers’ beliefs on
cloning and the influence it has on their instructional practices. The case study for this
research is “how Life Sciences teachers’ beliefs on cloning influence the teaching practices”.
According to Creswell (2012) case study research design allows the researcher to focus on a
detailed exploration of the actual case found in its real-life context. This study will be done in
three schools in Johannesburg. Data will be collected using classroom observations and semi-
structured interviews of three Life Sciences teachers. An inductive approach will be used for
data analysis. According to McMillan and Schumacher (2006), during inductive analysis,
categories and patterns emerge from the data. For this study, interviews data will be
transcribed verbatim. The data will be coded using Saldana’s (2015) model to analyse
responses of all research participants that lead to patterns or emerging themes.
References
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35
Cotton, D. R. (2006). Teaching controversial environmental issues: Neutrality and balance in
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SESRC Book of Abstracts 3rd August 2019
37
Teachers’ Perceptions and Experiences in Teaching Life Sciences Using Their Second Language
Motloung Amos
Introduction
South Africa is characterised by diverse cultural groups, each group consist of its own unique
language, through which individuals share a sense of belonging and cohesion (Setati, 2002;
Gudula, 2017). Similarly, South African schools consist of learners from diverse cultural
backgrounds (Oyoo, 2004; Nomlomo, 2007; Feez, 2017; Gudula, 2017). For this reason, the
process of meaningful teaching can be a monumental challenge for learners who are not
familiar with the language of instruction (Oyoo, 2004; Mthiyane, 2016). Vygotsky (1978)
claimed that language is a powerful tool that one can utilize to acquire higher cognitive skills
and social belonging. Similarly, the school system comprises of various disciplines consisting
of specialised language. However, the South African secondary school system encourages the
use of English as the medium of instruction, and in most cases it is a second or even a third
language for most township teachers and learners.
Aim and Research Questions
The aim of the study was to determine teacher’s perceptions and experiences in the teaching
of life sciences using their second language.
In order to achieve this aim, the following research questions were set:
1) What are teacher’s perceptions regarding the teaching of Life Sciences using
English, which is their second language?
2) How do teachers experience the teaching of Life Sciences using English, which is
their second language?
Literature Review and Theoretical Framework
Lack of proficiency in language in life science is one of the contributory factors to learners’
lack of academic attainment (Gudula, 2017; Kachchaf, Noble, Rosebery, O’Connor, Warren
& Wang, 2016). In the same vein, both teaching and learning sciences becomes negatively
affected by language demands and thus teachers have to find a way of ensuring that language
does not impede meaningful learning. One way of doing that is to ensure that teachers are
considerate when asking questions and use words that would be of easy reach to life science
learners (Ferreira, 2011; Oyoo, 2004). However, this is not always the case, and because of
the demand of the language in life sciences, teachers use English, which tends to impede
meaningful learning.
This study seeks to establish teachers’ perceptions and experiences in teaching Life sciences
using English, a second if not third language for most township teachers and learners. A large
ongoing research on language issues in science learning reveals that English second language
(ESL) teachers are at the centre of all issues arising from teaching sciences in the second
language (Kachchaf et al, 2016; Feez & Quinn, 2017; Gudula, 2017; Prinsloo, Rodgers &
Harvey, 2018). Some of the most prominent issues that arise from these studies are the
38
acquisition of scientific concepts by learners. Most learners from township schools are ESL
speakers, it is therefore find difficult for them to comprehend some of the scientific concepts
because they are foreign to them (Prinsloo, Rodgers & Harvey, 2018). It is vital to explore the
strategies that Life Science teachers employ to combat such issues. This study is underpinned
by the socio-constructivist perspective since the issue of language is one of the most
predominantly emphasized traits of the socio-constructivist perspective.
Research Method
This study is qualitative in approach; it seeks to discuss teachers’ perceptions and experiences
in teaching life sciences using English as a second language. Creswell (2011) points out that a
qualitative research design allows for the investigation of the phenomenon within its real-life
context. This design is suitable for this study because data was collected from life sciences
teachers in real classrooms in township schools. Similarly, a qualitative approach makes it
possible to study “things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of or interpret
phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them” (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005: 3).
Sampling
The sampling technique used was purposeful and convenient technique (Patton, 1990). Six
teachers who are ESL speakers were selected from six township schools for the study.
According Patton (1990), purposeful sampling allows for the selection of information-rich
cases, where the researcher can obtain a great deal of issues regarding the matter at hand, and
in this case, teachers’ perceptions and experiences in teaching life sciences using English.
Furthermore, Etikan, Musa and Alkassim (2016) add that purposive sampling allows for the
selection of participants that provide a distinctive and information rich value to the study. The
life sciences teachers had different teaching experiences: two novice teachers (zero to two
years), two relatively experienced teachers (three to five years) and two quite experienced
teachers (six years and above). The assumption was that teachers at various levels of
experiences may have different perceptions and experiences teaching Life Sciences using
English. Denzin and Lincoln (2005) revealed that those involved in a qualitative research
should be directly linked or affected by the problem researched. Hence, the selected
participants were directly affected by the research problem.
Data Collection and Analyses
Data collection involved interviewing each of the six teachers employing a structured
interview schedule to establish teachers’ perceptions regarding the teaching of life sciences
using English. To gain insights in teachers’ experiences teaching life sciences using English,
each teacher was observed once whilst teaching a life sciences lesson in Grade 11. A revised
Reformed Teaching Observation Protocol (RTOP) was used to capture the level of both each
teacher and their learners’ involvement during the lessons (Sawada, Piburn, Falconer, Turley,
Benford, & Bloom, 2000). In particular, incidences of learner engagement with the content,
teacher–learner and learner–learner interactions were captured and scored using the RTOP
rubric. Both the interviews and lessons were audio-recorded and video-recorded respectively
with permission from the participants. Mills (2011) pointed out that observations allow the
39
researcher to examine non-elicited behaviour as it happens. Hence, this was significant in
obtaining a holistic experience on how language is used in the classroom. In the same vein,
Creswell (2011) inferred that observations provide a more complete description of the
phenomenon that would be impossible by analysing interview documents.
Both interviews and observations showing evidence of teacher and learners’ involvement
during the lessons. The data was transcribed verbatim. Data was coded and analysed using an
interpretive approach (Fontana & Frey, 2003). The information was broken down into smaller
pieces and each response was thoroughly interpreted, explained and analysed to make
meaningful cohesion between participants’ responses (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2000).
Trends between the participants’ responses were examined for any emerging themes. A
correlation between themes and the research questions were formulated and interpreted.
Reliability, Validity and Transferability
To ensure validity and reliability of the data from interviews and observations, the researcher
read the textual data repeatedly and reviewed any emergent patterns and trends. The
researcher further validated the interpretations by checking with the participant teachers on
any emerging themes. Additionally, to ensure that the results obtained were trustworthy, the
transcripts were sent back to participants to review whether the contents of the transcripts
correctly reflected their views.
Results
In order to comprehend teachers’ perceptions, structured interviews were used by the
researcher and all six participants were asked the same set of questions. Their responses were
analysed and broken down into different themes. Table 1 shows the different themes.
Table 1: Showing Thematic Analyses of Results
Theme 1: Teachers views of the South African language policy
The South African language policy stipulates that learners from grade one are supposed to be taught in English
even though most learners are English second language speakers, especially those from township schools (Feez
& Quinn, 2017). Some responses from the participants supported the South African language policy whereas
others opposed the idea that all learners should be taught in English.
Theme 2: The impact of English as the medium of instruction
To gain insights on teachers’ perceptions and experience on the impact of English as the medium of instruction.
Participants provided varied responses from the interview questions. These responses provided their initial
perceptions about English as the medium of instruction. In addition, some of the responses correlated with what
other researchers found and some were contradictory with what other researchers found.
Theme 3: Strategies used in teaching Life Sciences using English
The interviews conducted portrayed that teachers apply various strategies to ensure the comprehension of Life
Science concepts to ESL learners. Some of the preferred strategies by teachers included code-switching,
transliteration, demonstrations, practical examples and reciting.
Theme 4: Teacher and learner engagement with teaching and learning life sciences in English
In terms of teacher and learner engagement in the classroom; some participants felt that language becomes a
barrier and limits learner engagement. However, they felt that learners engage more when they use their home
40
languages. Hence, this highlights the problem posed by the usage of English in life science classes.
Discussion
According to the results obtained, the South African educational language policy does not
accommodate the diverse learners in township schools. From the six teachers interviewed,
two emphasized the need for the language policy to be revised so that it accommodates ESL
speakers. Similarly, Oyoo (2017) highlighted the need for the inclusion of ESL teachers in
implementing the language policies in schools. This is significant in ensuring that language
does not become a barrier to learning science concepts. The teachers highlighted the
importance of teaching Life Sciences using English. For instance, Mr Modise felt that
teaching life sciences in English provides learners with some advantage as they would be able
to participate in the “global scientific field” and this would allow them to express themselves
fully and engage with different people from all over the world. Moreover, studies by Setati
(2002); Oyoo (2004, 2017); Gudula (2017); Ismail & Jarrah (2019) reveal that English as the
medium of instruction provides both advantages and disadvantages to ESL speakers.
The results obtained from the interviews and observations emphasized that teachers preferred
to teach Life Sciences using English rather than their home language. Responses such as “I
prefer to teach in English rather than in Sesotho because in varsity I was taught in English and that’s
how I better understand Life Sciences” or “Teaching Life Sciences in my home language would be
difficult, simply because it would mean that the teaching resources that I use would have to be
translated to all 11 official languages and therefore I would also have to learn life sciences in all 11
languages, I don’t think it would be possible”. Most participants felt that English as the medium
of instruction is advantageous because it equips learners with the necessary communicative
skills that will allow them to be become active participants in the scientific body of
knowledge. However, studies from Ferreira (2011), Probyn (2016), and Boateng (2019)
emphasized that English as the medium of instruction disadvantages both teachers and
learners; it impedes meaningful teaching and learning. The results suggest that some
participants supported this notion. For instance, when asked about the challenges that teachers
face in teaching life sciences using English, some participants emphasized that in most cases
they have to apply certain strategies to ensure that all learners understand the concepts, they
elaborated that science leaners comprehend concepts much easily compared to general
subjects’ learners.
Studies reveal that using English to teach science classes poses numerous problems; it forces
teachers to apply various strategies to counteract the difficulty resulting from teaching and
learning Life Sciences in English (Ferreira, 2011; Oyoo, 2017; Gudula, 2017; Boateng, 2019;
Ismail & Jarrah, 2019). In the results obtained, teachers posited the different strategies that
they employ to ensure that life science concepts are comprehended. One of the strategy
suggested by all the six participants was code-switching. Participants suggested that since
most township learners speak English as a second language, it is vital to code-switch as this
helps to make some of the abstract concepts easier to understand. Although code-switching is
deemed to be effective in enabling understanding, some participants highlighted that it
41
contributes to lack of attainment of scientific concepts by learners since learners have to write
exams in English. In addition, some of the strategies that participating teachers employed
included reciting some certain difficult concepts so that learners understand them. Also,
practical work was also highlighted as one of the widely applied strategy. In relation to the
studies of Oyoo (2017), Boateng (2019), Ismail and Jarrah (2019) it is not surprising that
these methods are mostly favoured to ensure that the teaching of Life Sciences in English is
effective. With respect to teacher and learner engagement, the results revealed that most of
the learner and teacher engagement occurs through using the learners’ home languages. So,
most learners are reluctant to engage with the teacher in English. The observations conducted
revealed that much of the talking is done by the teacher, whereas learners mostly respond in
their home languages.
Conclusion
The preliminary results obtained from interviews and classroom observations suggest that
teachers’ perceptions and experiences in teaching Life Sciences using English varies but also
has some common aspects. This aspect is that language plays a pivotal role in ensuring that
effective teaching and learning occurs. These differences and commonalities emphasize the
need to ensure that the teaching of Life Sciences using English does not impede meaningful
learning, though research on the effectiveness of employing various strategies still needs to be
conducted, it can be deduced that language barriers in science classes are prominent. For this
reason, teachers in practice should be aware of the implication and usage of language in
sciences classes, and how it impacts on teaching and learning.
References
Boateng, P. (2019). Managing transitions from mother tongue instruction to English as the
medium of instruction. United Kingdom: UK Department for International
Development and other Government departments.
Cohen L., Manion, L., and Morrison, K. (2000). Research methods in education. London:
Routledge Falmer.
Creswell, J.W. (2011). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating
quantitative and qualitative approaches to research (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River:
Person Education.
Denzin, N.K., and Lincoln, Y.S. (2005). The Sage handbook of qualitative research.
Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Etikan, I., Musa, S. A., and Alkassim, R. S. (2016). Comparison of Convenient Sampling and
Purposive Sampling. American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistic, 5(1), 1-4.
Feez, S., Quinn, F. (2017). Teaching the distinctive language of science: An integrated and
scaffolded approach for pre-service teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 65,
192-204.
Ferreira, J.G. (2011). Teaching life sciences to English second language learners: What do
teachers do? South African Journal of Education. 31, 102–113.
Fontana, A., and Frey, J. H. (2003). The interview: From structured questions to negotiated
text. In N. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Collecting and interpreting qualitative
materials (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications (61–106).
42
Gudula, Z. (2017). The influence of language on the teaching and learning of Natural
Sciences in Grade 7. Unpublished M Ed Dissertation. Cape Town: University of
Western Cape.
Ismail, S. A. A., & Jarrah, A. M. (2019). Exploring Pre-Service Teachers’ Perceptions of
Their Pedagogical Preferences, Teaching Competence and Motivation. International
Journal of Instruction, 12(1), 493-510.
Kachchaf, R., Noble, T., Rosebery, A., O’Connor, C., Warren, B., and Wang. (2016). A
closer look at linguistic complexity: Pinpointing individual linguistic features of
science multiple-choice items associated with English language learner performance.
Bilingual Research Journal, 39(2), 152-166.
Mills, G. E. (2011). Action research: A guide for the teacher researcher (4th ed.). Boston,
MA: Pearson.
Mthiyane, N. (2016). Pre-Service Teachers’ Beliefs and Experiences Surrounding the Use of
Language in Science Classrooms: A South African Case Study. Nordic Journal of
African Studies. 25(2), 111–129.
Nomlomo, S.V. (2007). Science teaching and learning through the medium of English and
IsiXhosa: A comparative study in the two primary school in the Western Cape.
University of Western Cape.
Oyoo, S. O. (2004). Effective teaching of science: the impact of physics teachers’ classroom
language. Unpublished PhD thesis, Victoria: Monash University.
Oyoo, S.O. (2011). Language in Science Classrooms: An Analysis of Physics Teachers’ Use
of and Beliefs about Language. Journal of Research in Science Education, 42, 849–
873.
Oyoo, S.O. (2017). Learner Outcomes in Science in South Africa: Role of the Nature of
Learner Difficulties with the Language for Learning and Teaching Science. Journal of
Science Education. 47, 783–804.
Prinsloo, C.H., Rodgers, S.C., and Harvey, J.C. (2018). The impact of language factors on
learner achievement in Science. South African Journal of Education, 38(1), 1-12.
Probyn, G. (2016). Language and opportunity to learn science in bilingual classroom in the
Eastern Cape. Cape Town: University of Cape Town.
Setati, M. (2002). Researching mathematics education and language in multilingual South
Africa. The Mathematics Educator, 12(2), 6–20.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
SESRC Book of Abstracts 3rd August 2019
43
Life Sciences Teacher’s Experiences in the Use of Interactive Whiteboards When Teaching Grade 10 Cell Division
Ndlovu Phumelele
Introduction
The topic of “Meiosis” is a common source of misconceptions among many South African
High school life sciences students (Van Aswegen, Fraser, Nortje, Slabbert, & Kaske, 2010).
Similar studies have shown that students of different ages and in different classes have
insufficient knowledge about cell division (Smith, 1991; Lewis and Wood-Roinson, 2000).
Students have difficulty understanding the process of cell division because this topic requires
extensive prior knowledge of the basic structures of cell organelles that participate in the
process of cell division. For that reason, teaching should emphasize the dynamic nature of
cell division using a variety of teaching aids (Lewis, 2000).
High school students commonly misrepresent chromosomes throughout the stages of meiosis,
including inaccurate depictions of sister chromatids and improper interactions between
chromosomes (Kindfield, 1991, 1994; Newman, Catavero, Wright, 2012). Yet, even if we
assume that all students Grade 12 are equipped with the necessary prior conceptual
understanding outlined in prior classes standards, not all instructional resources meant to help
connect underlying concepts and convey deeper understanding are equally effective (Tversky,
Morrison & Betrancourt, 2002). This study aims to investigating the use of interactive
whiteboards (IWB) and determining if there are problems that South African Grade 10 life
sciences teachers face in using interactive whiteboards to teach the topic “Meiosis’. Isman,
Abanmy, Hussein, and Al Saadany (2012) defines interactive whiteboard as a large touch-
sensitive and interactive display that connects to a computer and projector. Lessons with IWB
are described to be giving a more visual and dynamic look, resulting in the fact that students
spent longer looking at the board rather than the teacher.
This research will be significant to the researchers and the Gauteng Department of Education
to know if the ICT programmes they provide for teachers are helpful and well implemented or
not. Furthermore, knowing the above will help the teachers to determine where they lack, and
how the Gauteng Department of Education may intervene to help teachers. DeLozier, and
Rhodes (2016) believe that IWB can better consolidate multimodal representations, including
key concepts such as genes, chromosomes and genetic information. Students can
consequently develop a more coherent conceptual framework to serve as the basis for
learning cell division. This will eliminate the difficulties in learning caused by basic concepts:
cell nucleus, gene and genetic information, and the relationships between them that are
implied separately in different teaching topics (Kindfield, 1994). This study then aims to
assist science teachers to change the pedagogy by improving technology use among students.
The emergent use of technology such as IWBs in the classroom makes it imperative to
investigate and explore its wide uses. A typical IWB involves a substantial investment of
money, relative to a school district’s budget (Dikmenli, 2010). For example, the board can
range from R1899-R2500. This includes the board, software, upgrades, and access to training.
44
A projector also is needed, and these can cost from R1000 (Loschert, 2004). Lastly, a
computer is required, and in Gauteng, the Department of Education together with the schools
choose to purchase laptops for ease of teachers’ use. These purchases can cost between
R2500-R3500 for one IWB set-up. The cost implications and the need to improve teaching
and learning using IWB technology makes it necessary to research teachers’ use of the
IWB’s, benefits and the limitations at the secondary schools.
The perceived benefits and limitations of the IWB by teachers when teaching the topics that
are said to be difficult or confusing to students must be investigated. If teachers do not
recognize the value in its use, then the goal of technology may be questioned (Dikmenli,
2010). Teachers may need to be better prepped in its use for example in teaching meiosis. In
this sense, it as a valuable component of instruction that should be encouraged. Some
research has been conducted regarding the students’ use of technology in general, but this
often has been conducted at the college level (Deng, 2004). Specific research on high school
teachers’ use of the IWB is lacking. Thorough research studies with the IWB have been
conducted at the primary level (Hall & Higgins, 2005). It is possible that the use of IWB may
differ at secondary schools may differ from primary schools teaching. Therefore, it is
essential to explore secondary level teachers’ use of the IWB in teaching meiosis.
Limitations of using IWB
Even though there are merits to the use of IWB, research has established some challenges in
the use of IWBs: the cost of purchase and installing, the time it takes teachers to prepare
classroom lessons, and inappropriate use of the IWB causing students’ confusion in learning
contents (Miller & Glover, 2002; Schmid, 2008). Miller and Glover (2002) examined benefits
and problems of using IWBs with 35 elementary teachers. The data obtained from a
questionnaire included closed and open-ended questions, and participating teachers’
comments, classroom observations and interviews. Teachers reported that they did not have
sufficient time to design classroom lessons and materials to help them successfully use IWBs
for teaching. In addition, teachers reported the difficulty of not having a technical consultant
to help with immediate needs to solve technical problems arising from using IWBs.
Research Questions
How do teachers use the Interactive whiteboard (IWB) when teaching meiosis to Grade 10
learners?
The Aim of the Study
The aim of this study is to explore how Grade 10 life sciences teachers use to teach meiosis.
In order to realize the aim of the study, the following research objectives are set:
a) To examine the teachers’ use of IWB when teaching grade 10 meiosis.
b) To explore the challenges experienced by teachers when teaching meiosis using IWB.
Research Design and Methods
The inquiry uses qualitative case study method to collect data of individual experiences of
teachers (words) that emerge (Mason, 2006). The research design is considered relevant for
45
this study. A case study method design integrates qualitative data-collection and analysis in a
single study (Creswell, 2003; McMillan & Schumacher, 2010:25). Concurrent triangulation
method will be used, in this method qualitative is important (Creswell, 2008). The researcher
chooses the case study method design because the method of collecting data qualitatively
increases the validity of results (Creswell 2008).
The data collection will involve one life sciences teacher from three different schools in
Johannesburg North, under District 10, which will be purposefully sampled. Purposeful
sampling is a technique used to identify and select information-rich cases for the most
effective use of limited resources (Patton 2002). This involves identifying and selecting
individuals that are especially knowledgeable or experienced about the phenomenon of
interest (Cresswell and Plano Clark 2011). In addition to knowledge and experience, Bernard
(2002) notes the importance of availability and willingness to participate, and the ability to
communicate experiences and opinions in an articulate, expressive, and reflective manner. In
this case, the participants are selected based on the availability and usability of IWB. Data
will be collected using observations of lessons and semi-structured interviews with teachers.
Qualitative research gathers data by using fewer specific questions which probe for a deeper
understanding of a certain phenomenon. This type of research has no predictions or expected
results (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010:64). Qualitative research includes: Phenomenology,
whereby the researcher collects data by interviewing participants about a certain experience
(Creswell, 2003).
Case study: The data will be collected within a single setting over time and in depth
(McMillan & Schumacher, 2010:24). In this study the researcher collects the qualitative data
by means of interviews (Creswell, 2003), method where there is no manipulation of the
conditions (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010:22; Hopkins, 2008:12-21). The researcher gathers
information from the teachers at the schools without manipulating their setting.
Methods of Data-collection
The tools that will be used in this research are structured interview questions. They will be
conducted with 3 teachers who teach the Grade 10 Life Sciences life science.
Structured Interviews
An interview is an interaction between two or more people for purposes of exchanging
information through a series of questions and answers (Bryant, 2011; Kumar, 2002).
Interviews can be structured, semi-structured or unstructured (Dawson, 2002). This research
study will use structured interviews. The researcher prepares questions beforehand, and they
are arranged and asked in a particular order (Dawson 2002). Identical questions are asked for
each individual, and the researcher does not probe the participants but only clarifies
instructions (Taylor & Bogdan. 1998). Structured interviews were selected for this research
because they make it easier to replicate discussions and to get standardized views on the
topic. It is easy to simplify the findings. The interviews will be recorded rather than relying
on written notes, as recorded information proves to be more reliable and allows the researcher
to properly analyse it at a later stage (Patton, 1990; Dawson, 2002).
46
According to McNamara (1999), interviews are used to get the in-depth story behind a
participant about a topic. Woods (2011) agrees with this by stating that a lot of relevant
information about people’s experiences are collected by directly questioning or talking to
them. Only a small number of individuals will be interviewed about the use of IWB. The
interviews will be conducted after a lesson.
Interviews will be conducted in English in a life sciences classroom inside the school; the
teachers will be interviewed separately. After each interview the researcher will listen to the
tape recording and transcribe it. It will be stored on the computer for long-term storage and
for accessibility and security.
Observation
This study will conduct a minimum of three classroom field-observations. Observation is a
method of data collection in which researchers observe within a specific research field (Patton
2002). It is sometimes referred to as an unobtrusive method. This method is chosen so that the
researcher can be able to understand and capture the context in which teachers interact with
the IWB. According to Bernard (2002) this method allows the researcher to inductive
discovery, rather than guessing what the context is like. This method is perfect for the study
because it provides a chance for the researcher to learn or discover the things that the
participants may be unwilling to discuss during an interview session (Creswell & Plano Clark
2011).
Sampling Method
Merriam (2002) defines sampling as the selection of a research site, time, people or events in
field research. The number of participants in a sample depends on the questions being asked,
the data being gathered, and the analysis and resources available to support the study
(Merriam, 2002; Dawson, 2002:46)
Purposeful sampling was chosen because it involves selecting participant with the required
characteristics, being those that the researcher can get the most relevant information from
(McMillan & Schumacher, 2010; Dawson, 2002). In this study, one life sciences teacher
from three different in JHB North are selected. Schools that are technologically resourced.
The advantage of purposeful sampling includes the selection of participants who are relevant
to the study, therefore reducing costs and saving time. It allows for the collection of reliable
and robust data (Tongco, 2007). The type of purposeful sampling to be used in this study is
homogenous sampling. The researcher selects participants or subjects that are similar without
any variation in form.
Data Analysis
Data-analysis is a way that the researcher makes meaning of the data collected (Miles &
Huberman, 1994). In this research the data will be collected qualitatively. Creswell (2007)
emphasizes the importance of excluding biasness from the research. The qualitative data will
be collected by means of interviews. This data will be analyzed manually. The analysis of the
qualitative data will be with a view to understand the participant's experience (Thomas, 2003;
47
McMillan & Schumacher, 2010). The researcher will transcribe the information collected
from the interviews. These transcripts will then be read and important categories will be
identified using Saldana (2009) coding model. The data will then be scrutinized to find how
one concept influenced another, and alternative explanations will be searched for. This will be
done by describing the responses from the respondents (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010;
Thomas, 2003. Patterns will be sought from this and interpreted (Thomas, 2003). The
findings were will be reported.
Research Ethics
The researcher wrote a letter to the Gauteng Department of Education requesting permission
to conduct research at the three chosen schools. After receiving permission, the following
steps will be followed: The educators that are selected for interviews will be asked about the
suitable dates and time for the interviews and lesson field observation. Each interview will
take 30 minutes. Interviews will be conducted by the researcher with each individual. After
conducting all the interviews and taking field notes the information that will be gathered will
be analyzed using Saldana (2009) coding model for responses, data coding for interviews and
field notes. Data from interviews and observations will be analyzed separately and then
integrated during discussion of the results. The results will be communicated to the university
in a form of a minor dissertation.
Validity and Reliability
Reliability is the property of consistency. Generally, reliability includes internal consistency,
stability (or test-retest), alternate forms, and interrater reliability (McMillan & Schumacher,
2010). For the teachers participating, the pre-post data will be collected from both teachers to
find a correlation of stability (Messick 1989, 1995). To enhance the credibility of the study
the following steps will be taken (Erickson, 1986): prolonged engagement (observing two
consecutive meiosis lesson for each teacher); triangulation of data (comparing data across a
variety of sources to seek out and confirm regularities); and dialogue with other researchers
(by discussing my analyses with supervisor, critical colleagues. This will assist to prove
reliability and trustworthiness for the study. Validity is defined by Messick (1989, 1995), as
the overall evaluative degree to which empirical evidence supports the adequacy of
interpretations and actions/scores or other modes of assessment. In order to strengthen the
validity of evaluation data and findings, I will collect data through several sources: interviews
classroom and observation to find in-depth information. Member checks will be used, by
taking the results and interpretations back to the participants to confirm and validate. In this
way, the plausibility and truthfulness of the information can be recognized and supported
(Mason, 2006).
TPACK Conceptual Framework guiding the study
Mishra and Koehler’s (2006) Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK)
framework will be used as a conceptual lens to analyse how two teachers used or envisaged
using technology (IWB) when teaching meiosis to Grade 10 learners. The framework outlines
how content (what is being taught) and pedagogy (how the teacher imparts that content) must
48
form the foundation for an effective educational technology (Ed-tech) integration (Mishra and
Koehler, 2003). This order is important because the technology being implemented must
communicate the content and support the pedagogy in order to enhance students’ learning
experience. According to the TPACK framework, specific technological tools (hardware,
software, applications, associated information literacy practices, etc.) are best used to instruct
and guide students toward a better, more robust understanding of the subject matter (Mishra
and Koehler, 2003).
References
Bernard, H. R. (2002). Research methods in anthropology: Qualitative and quantitative
approaches (3rd ed.). Walnut Creek, CA: Alta Mira Press.
Cohen L., Manion L., and Morrison, K. (2011). Planning educational research. Research
methods in education. New York: Routledge.
Cresswell, J. W., and Plano Clark, V. L. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed method
research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
DeLozier, S.J., Rhodes, M.G. (2016). Flipped classrooms: a review of key ideas and
recommendations for practice. Educational Psychology Review, DOI 10.1007/
s10648-015-9356-9.
Dickmenli S.J., (2010). Flipped classrooms: a review of key ideas and recommendations for
practice. Educational Psychology Review, DOI 10.1007/ s10648-015-9356-9.
Höffler T.N., Leutner D (2011). The role of spatial ability in learning from instructional
animations—evidence for an ability as-compensator hypothesis. Computer in Human
Behavior, 27, 209–221.
Kindfield ACH (1991). Confusing chromosome number and structure: a common student
error. Journal of Biological Educational, 25(3), 193-200.
Kindfield ACH (1994). Understanding a basic biological process: expert and novice models
of meiosis. Science Education, 78, 255–283.
Isman, A., Abanmy, F., A., Hussein, H., B., and Al Saadany, M., A. (2012). Saudi secondary
school teachers’ attitudes' towards using interactive whiteboard in classrooms. The
Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 11(3), 286-296.
Lewis, J., and Wood-Roinson, C. (2000). Genes, chromosomes, cell division and inheritance
–do students see any relationship? International Journal of Science Education, 22(2),
177-197.
Mason, J. (2006). Mixing methods in a qualitatively driven way. Qualitative Research, 6(1),
9-25.
Messick, S. (1989). Meaning and values in test validation: the science and ethics of
assessment. Educational Research, 18(2), 5–11.
Messick, S. (1995). Standards of validity and the validity of standards in performance
assessment. Educational Management Issues and Practices, 14(4), 5–8.
McMillan, J.H. and Schumacher, S. (2010). Research in education – Evidence-based inquiry.
(7th ed.) International Edition. Boston: Pearson Education Inc.
Miles, M. B., and Huberman, A. M. (1994). An Expanded Sourcebook: Qualitative Data
Analysis (2nd ed.): SAGE Publications.
Mishra, P., and Koehler, M. J. (2003). Not ‘‘what’’ but ‘‘how’’: Becoming design-wise about
educational technology. In Y. Zhao (Ed.), What teachers should know about
49
technology: Perspectives and practices. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing
(99–122).
Mishra, P., and Koehler, M. J. (2006). Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A
framework for integrating technology in teachers’ knowledge. Teachers College
Record, 108 (6), 1017–1054
Newman DL, Catavero CM, Wright LK (2012). Students fail to transfer knowledge of
chromosome structure to topics pertaining to cell division. CBE Life Sci Educ 11,
425–436.
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
Smith, M. U. (1991). Teaching cell division: Students‟ difficulties and teaching
recommendations, Journal of College Science Teaching, 21(1),28-33 .
Tversky B, Morrison J.B., and Betrancourt, M. (2002). Animation: can it facilitate?
International Journal of Human Computer Studies, 57(4), 247–262.
Van Aswegen, I.S., Fraser, W.J., Nortje, T., Slabbert, J.A. and Kaske, L.E.M.E. (2010).
Biology teaching: An information and study manual for students and teachers: Acacia,
Pretoria
Yin, R. K. (1994). Case study research: Design and methods. (2nd ed.) Newbury Park, CA:
Sage Publications.
Yin, R. K. (2003). Case study research: Design and methods, (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications.
SESRC Book of Abstracts 3rd August 2019
50
SESSION 3: SOCIO-SCIENTIFIC ISSUES AND TEXTBOOK ANALYSIS
Life Sciences Teachers’ Views on Teaching Socio-Scientific Issues in Genetics
Using an Inquiry Approach
Ngwenya Portia
Abstract
Over the years there has been a profound interest in the teaching of science in various
societies. Many have concentrated on the learner presentation, perception and the teaching of
socio scientific to develop citizenship. A lot of interest around the topic of genetics has been
given greater precedence, more interest is being directed around the teacher’s views in
teaching SSI’s as this has an effect in developing critical metacognitive reasoning among
students hence developing learner attitude, interest and brings meaning to scientific
knowledge in the classroom. The main problem arises from the low pass rates and many high
school drop outs, hence fewer scientific skills and knowledge in the country. A research gap
has been observed in the continuity of the content knowledge in genetics from grades 10-12.
Teaching genetics is an abstract process for in-service and novice teachers hence a lot of
pedagogical interest around this topic. The teaching of science has seen adverse
transformation in terms of technology, social, economic or political reforms that have
affected the teaching and learning in schools. The teaching of science has been necessitated
by the use of inquiry based pedagogies to transform conceptual understanding. Our aim in
this study is to conceptualize in-service teachers (IST) views in the teaching of socio-
scientific embedded topics like genetics in Life science to scaffold knowledge using inquiry,
across different grades to ensure conceptual understanding.
The research aims to answer the following research questions: How do the views of teachers
in township schools compare with those of the teachers in suburban schools?
Data collection using a questionnaire on in-service teachers is used in order to ascertain their
view on the use of inquiry in the teaching of SSI topic, genetics. The data collected is not
biased and provides extensive views on using inquiry in genetics as an SSI topic in a science
classroom to develop scientific literacy.
Introduction
The main concept of the study is to find out the teachers’ views on teaching socio-scientific
issues (SSI) under the topic of genetics using an inquiry approach in life science. If teaching
and learning address socio-scientific issues, the development of values, morals, and
citizenship is achieved using leaners contextual environment, (Sadler, Chambers & Zeidler,
2004). Genetics is an abstract topic that is embedded with many socio-scientific issues
(Batten & White, 2014). It is imperative to find out how teachers develop their pedagogical
approaches in teaching while considering the diversity of learners’ contextual knowledge that
affect the conceptualization of the topic (Crawford 2014; Balim & Ozcan, 2014).
51
In the South African CAPS curriculum, genetics is introduced at Grade 10 level with the
simpler concepts of cell division, mitosis, etc. The main concepts of genetics are introduced at
Grade 12 where the DNA replication or meiosis is introduced, defining the research gap in
genetics (Department of Education, 2011). Kikuba Sebitosi (2007) observed that this results
in high failure rates especially in conceptualizing genetics, which is an abstract concept due to
the limited time given to its teaching in the social contexts like Genetically Modified
Organisms (GMO), Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), replication, albinism, etc.
The teacher’s views on the pedagogical strategies while considering learner contextual
knowledge diversity or the teachers’ diversity in a life science classroom, develop critical
metacognitive reasoning (Kikuba Sebitosi, 2007). Most teachers’ strategy used in teaching
SSI embedded topics, is mostly based on the extensive use of textbooks, traditional
instructional methods and lecture methods that impede the critical thinking understanding
while learners become passive, (Sousa, 2017; Pukilla, 2003; Amos and Levinson, 2018).
Much of scientific critical thinking and reasoning is developed hence developing scientific
professional skills which enables the solving of other scientific issues in society in various
contexts (Juntung and Aksela, 2013).
Research Design
The research adopted the exploratory mixed method approach that seeks to explore the
teachers’ views on using inquiry to teach genetics as a socio-scientific topic in science
(Creswell, 2003; Creswell, 2014). Using the exploratory mixed method, the research initially
collects information in the quantitative approach that sought to explore in-service teacher’s
views using an adapted Views of Scientific Inquiry (VOSI) questionnaire (Lederman et al.
2013; Swartz, Lederman & Lederman, 2008). I followed this with the qualitative data
collection (Bernam & White, 2017). VOSI refers to an instrument that is designed to collect
data on views that seeks information on scientific inquiry; it’s initially based on 9 questions.
The adapted VOSI instrument is based on 7 questions.
The in-service teachers were selected due to the changing nature of scientific inquiry and
varying pass rates to compare the suburban and township teachers’ views. The adapted VOSI
questionnaire explores teachers’ views through an open-ended type of questions under three
categories: a) the teacher's views on scientific inquiry, b) the teachers’ views on socio-
scientific issues, and c) the teacher's views in teaching genetics as a socio-scientific topic.
Data Collection Procedure
The teachers were first categorized according to the location of the schools with schools in
former model C schools (suburban), quantile 4-5 while township schools were mostly located
in townships within the range of quantile 1-3 with limited resources. The response from each
teacher’s views using the questionnaire were further analysed according to each response and
categorized as naïve, mixed and informed views. The information was categorized and a
further selection of the teachers using purposive sampling done for qualitative approach in
each category.
52
The collected data was explored then further analysis was done to seek information for the
sampling of the 3 teachers in each stratum for the qualitative research. The teachers
participated in the interviews that sought to reiterate their reasons for the responses in the
questionnaire. The data was analysed using coding Saldana (2013) model to determine the
teacher's perceptions and to write a descriptive analysis of the findings. The findings were
used to ensure that the data collected is authentic, valid and reliable. The analysis focused on
the different views between the suburban teachers and the township teachers.
Results
Data collections is still in progress, so far quantitative data has been collected from 15
teachers using the scientific adapted VOSI Questionnaire. From the 15 teachers, the findings
are similar and a rubric was used to analyse the data. The analysis of the 15 teachers’ views is
presented in Table 1.1 comparing township and suburban teachers’ views to answer the
research questions. The results from the 15 teachers in the township and suburban schools
reflected that the teacher's views were naive and mixed about scientific inquiry, socio-
scientific issues and use of inquiry in teaching SSI’s. These views reflect that the teachers’
perceptions varied with most teacher reflecting mixed views on socio-scientific issues in
terms of the school's location and resources or the facilities offered from suburban schools
compared to township schools.
Table 1.1: The Number of Participants
Category Suburban Township
Number of teachers 8 7
Rejected questionnaires 1 2
Some questionnaires were rejected due to the incomplete responses from the teachers. The
information therefore did not provide adequate feedback for question analysis.
Table 1.2 Findings
The data collected above reflected that
67.3% of township teachers have
adequate knowledge of scientific inquiry
strategies and the pedagogical strategies
compared to suburban teachers with
76.8% as reflected by responses from
questions 1-4. Many suburban teachers’
responses were informed of the
strategies of implementing scientific
inquiry while township teachers
reflected naïve or mixed perspectives.
A high percentage of suburban teachers are aware of teaching genetics using scientific inquiry
strategies and a few people reflected naïve perspective as compared to township teachers’
views. An average of 67,3 % of teachers in the township reflected lower informed views of
Scale Scale
Township Suburban
Ca
tego
ry
Qu
esti
on
Naï
ve
Mix
ed
Info
rmed
% i
nfo
rmed
Naï
ve
Mix
ed
Info
rmed
% i
nfo
rmed
a) 1 0 2 5 71,4 0 2 6 75
b) 2 0 1 6 85,7 0 1 7 87,5
c) 3 3 1 3 42,8 1 2 5 62,5
d) 4 1 1 5 71,4 0 2 6 75
e) 5 1 1 5 71,4 1 1 6 75
f) 6 2 1 4 57,1 1 1 6 75
g) 7 1 1 5 71,4 0 1 7 87,5
Total 8 8 33 67,3 3 10 43 76,8
53
using SSI in inquiry as compared to 76,8% from the suburban schools. The main findings
reflect that the teachers are aware of the strategies but lack informed views on the use of the
environment, and say that the curriculum design is restrictive in nature.
Figure 1.1 Graphs (township and suburban teacher’s views)
Discussion
Most teachers’ responses reiterated that
the curriculum content coverage does not
allow for the effective implementation of
socio-scientific strategies in the science
classroom (Kikuba –Sebitosi, 2007). The
difference between the township and
suburban teachers’ views was marginal
between naïve and mixed views for township teachers, while teachers from suburban schools
reflected more informed views due to the resources available as well as the teacher/pupil ratio
difference. The teacher's views on this question seeking clarity: ‘if learners were collecting
data through ‘report compilation’ was this an inquiry method?’ Most teachers’ response
showed a naïve perspective that this was not an inquiry approach in science. Jantuneng and
Aksela (2013) observe that the social nature of SSIs is defined by the multiplicity of skills
that accompany the SSI inquiry structure of learning.
The teacher’s views of inquiry should reflect a series of defined steps that cannot be changed.
This naïve perspective reflected that town-ship in-service teachers’ knowledge on sequencing
inquiry when teaching SSI should follow a series of defined steps in asking questions by the
teacher carrying out investigation, collecting data, and discussions (Sousa, 2017). The
strategy that 70% of the teachers’ use is based on curriculum knowledge from both township
and suburban teachers, limiting individuality that caters to diverse contextual knowledge of
learners. According to Kikuba- Sebitosi (2007) and Amos et al. (2017), technology and
visual aids that reflect naïve or mixed perspective in teaching SSI abstract topic like genetics,
reflecting the limited use of the environmental resources or learner views that impedes critical
reasoning. Limited use of natural phenomenon in science to teach abstract concepts in science
by exploring the environment can bring
meaning to abstract concepts like plant
crops with different DNA and analyzing
DNA replication in cross-pollinated
environments, genetic engineering, etc.,
(Sadler & Zeidler, 2005; Zeidler & Sadler,
2008b; Amos & Levinson, 2017). Many
township teachers with experience of over
10 years said that they allow learners to
state their different views, but at the end the teachers’ guide learners into a specific defined
content knowledge based on the curriculum. Learners critical analysis of the exploring and
0
2
4
6
8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Nu
mb
er
of
Te
ach
ers
Question
Suburban teachers Views
Naïve
Mixed
Informed
54
developing own values, morals or new views hence critical thinking in the science classroom
is non-existent in science due to the nature of the curriculum and exam oriented syllabus
(Zeidler and Nichols, 2009). Most teachers advocate that argumentation is paramount when
teaching abstract topics embedded in socio-scientific issues in science but it is important to
guide learners in the discussion process (Sadler & Zeidler, 2005).
Conclusion
There is a greater need to in cooperate social scientific views to be investigated and inquiry
approach to be adversely used in the science classrooms. The limiting of knowledge to
curriculum stipulated strategies or methodology limits critical reasoning among learners. A
lot of social issues or abstract topics like genetics should be allowed to have topics that are
continuous from grade 10-12 and limit the introduction of new concepts like DNA replication
at grade 12 but ensure their consolidation. This will allow time for exam preparation and
continuity of knowledge hence critical reasoning among learners.
References
Batten, J., and White, C.C. (2014). Exploring Genetics across the Middle School Science and
Math Curricula. College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, NC State University.
Berman, E. A. (2017). An Exploratory Sequential Mixed Methods Approach to
Understanding Researchers’ Data Management Practices at UVM: Integrated
Findings to Develop Research Data Services. Journal of eScience Librarianship
Creswell, J.W., (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approaches (2nd ed.). London: SAGE Publications.
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods Research. London: SAGE
Publications.
Department of Education (2011). Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS).
Grades 10-12. Life Sciences. Pretoria: Department of Basic Education.
Jantuneng, M. and Aksela, M. (2013) Life-cycle analysis and inquiry-based learning in
chemistry teaching. Science Education International. 24(2), 150-166.
Kibuka-Sebitosi, E. (2007). Understanding genetics and inheritance in rural schools, Journal
of Biological Education, 41 (2), 56-61, DOI: 10.1080/00219266.2007.9656063
Lederman, N.G., Lederman, J.S., and Antink, A. (2013). Nature of science and scientific
inquiry as contexts for the learning of science and achievement of scientific literacy.
International Journal of Education in Mathematics, Science and Technology, 1(3),
138-147.
National Curriculum Statement (NCS) and Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS)
(2011) for Life Science.
Saldana, J., (2009). The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers. London: SAGE.
Sousa, C. (2017). Integrating Bioethics in Sciences’ curricula using values in science and
socio-scientific issues. Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, Social and
Technological Sciences.
Sadler, T. D. (2004a). Informal reasoning regarding socio scientific issues: A critical review
of research. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 41(5), 513-536.
Sadler, T. D. (2004b). Moral and ethical dimensions of socio-scientific decision making as
integral components of scientific literacy. The Science Educator, 13, 39-48.
55
South African Natural Sciences Township Teachers’ Views on the Nature of Indigenous Knowledge
Ngcobo Lindiwe
Introduction
This study reports on the views of Natural Sciences (NS) Grade 7 teachers on the nature of
Indigenous Knowledge (IK). It is part of a larger study which explored the views and
experiences of South African township teachers on the integration of IK in NS teaching. The
purpose of the current study is to explore the views of NS senior-phase teachers on the nature
of IK. An attempt to identify NS teachers’ views and their teaching practices is a long-
standing focus and point of interest for science education research because it is believed that
what the teachers know influence their teaching practices (Cronje, 2011). Previous research
indicated that the views teachers hold tend to determine their instructional practices
(Lederman, 1992; Abd-El-Khalick, Bell & Lederman, 1998; Richardson, 2003; Koksal &
Cakiroglu, 2010). This study therefore presupposes that teachers’ views about the nature of
IK are the core prerequisites for a meaningful and effective integration of IK in NS teaching
and learning process in the classroom and these views are evident in the way the teachers
execute their classroom practices.
The study employed social constructivism as a theoretical framework. The consolidation of
learners’ socio-cultural foundations, including their daily encounters, beliefs, social practices
and other rich Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) in the NS instruction places teachers in
a position to tap into the qualities and strengths that the learners present into the classroom
(Mavuru & Ramnarain, 2014; Mavuru, 2016). Henceforth, the pressing call for teachers to
integrate IK into their classroom practices is inevitable. The main research question addressed
was: What are Grade 7 Natural Sciences teachers’ views on the nature of indigenous
knowledge?
Research Methods
Using a quantitative survey research design (Creswell, 2014), a sample of 80 teachers was
selected from 78 different township primary schools in the Johannesburg Central and
Johannesburg North districts, of the Gauteng province using purposeful and convenience
sampling method. This survey research design was deemed appropriate for this study as it
provided a numeric description of a single reality (teachers’ views on the nature of IK) of a
study sample which was measured by using a single instrument, the Views-on-the-Nature-of-
Indigenous-Knowledge (VNOIK) (Cronje, De Beer & Ankiewicz, 2015) questionnaire. The
criteria used for selecting the participants were that: they were all Grade 7 NS township
teachers, their schools were all located within a 10km radius from the researcher in Pimville
and Klipspruit townships, in Soweto, South-west Johannesburg in the Gauteng Province; and
they had all freely agreed to participate in the study.
56
Data was collected using the VNOIK questionnaires (Cronje et al., 2015) to 80 Grade 7 NS
teachers. However, one questionnaire was discarded due to non-completion of some vital
questions; hence, the sample size was reduced to 79. Data was analysed using based on
responses to the VNOIK questionnaire, which provides a list of acceptable responses to each
of the ten questions, derived from IK literature (Cronje et al., 2015). A rubric was used which
grouped and scored categories of views into: informed view, partially informed view and
uninformed view, with scores of 2, 1 and 0 respectively.
Results
Results are presented under two themes that emerged from the analysis of open-ended
questions in the questionnaires.
Theme 1: Teachers’ gender, experiences and religious beliefs determine teachers’ views on
the nature of indigenous knowledge
Although not central to the study, results from analysis of biographical descriptions showed
significant differences in terms of gender, teaching experience and religious beliefs, and these
helped to contextualise the findings and to make meaningful recommendations. There were
34 male and 45 female teachers (n=79) and their responses are presented in Table 1.
Table 1 Distribution of Gender-Based Teachers’ Views
Informed views (%) Partially informed views
(%)
Uninformed views (%)
VNOIK item Male Female Male Female Male Female
1. The nature of indigenous knowledge 6 39 65 47 29 14
4. The resilient yet tentative nature of
indigenous knowledge
17 16 62 36 21 48
5. The ‘wisdom-in-action’ nature of indigenous
knowledge
32 9 56 44 12 47
6. The functional application nature of
indigenous knowledge
15 37 44 48 41 15
7. The holistic approach to problem solving 16 52 46 30 38 18
8. The creative and mythical nature of
indigenous knowledge
26 23 24 56 50 21
9. Social, collaborative and cultural
embeddedness of indigenous knowledge
6 49 31 34 63 17
10. The subjective nature of indigenous
knowledge
21 18 41 37 38 45
Total Average 18 28 46 42 37 30
Table 2: Distribution of Experience-Based Teachers’ Views, Ranging from Less than One Year to 29
Years. Less than 1 year Between 1 & five
years
Between 6 & 15
years
More than 15 years
VNOIK item I PI UI I PI UI I PI UI I PI UI
4. The resilient yet tentative nature of indigenous
knowledge
67 0 33 10 77 13 15 67 18 11 49 40
5. The ‘wisdom-in-action’ nature of indigenous knowledge
100 0 0 15 62 23 19 47 34 15 52 33
6. The functional application nature of indigenous
knowledge
100 0 0 19 66 15 28 53 19 10 54 36
7. The holistic approach to problem solving 33 67 0 24 55 21 27 62 11 19 39 42
8. The creative and mythical nature of indigenous knowledge
100 0 0 18 59 23 33 50 17 15 66 19
9. Social, collaborative and cultural embeddedness
of indigenous knowledge
100 0 0 31 54 15 39 28 33 14 68 18
10. The subjective nature of indigenous knowledge 67 0 33 19 54 27 12 72 16 22 55 23
Total Average 70 20 10 21 63 16 25 56 19 14 51 35
57
Christians, African Traditional Religion and Jehovah’s Witnesses were the only three
religious groups identified in this study population. The distribution of religion-based
teachers’ views is demonstrated in the following Table 3.
Table 3 Distribution of religion-based teachers’ views
Teachers with informed, partially informed and uninformed view
under each religion (%)
Christianity African Traditional Jehovah’s Witness
VNOIK item I PI UI I PI UI I PI UI
1. The nature of indigenous knowledge 44 56 44 39 61 0 21 67 12
2. The empirical and metaphysical nature of
indigenous knowledge
15 78 15 16 71 11 0 67 33
3. The inferential yet intuitive nature of indigenous
knowledge
89 11 89 87 13 0 17 32 51
4. The resilient yet tentative nature of indigenous
knowledge
21 63 21 13 69 18 17 50 33
5. The ‘wisdom-in-action’ nature of indigenous
knowledge
33 56 33 33 56 11 0 83 17
6. The functional application nature of indigenous
knowledge
11 87 11 7 89 4 16 54 30
7. The holistic approach to problem solving 96 3 96 100 0 0 8 17 75
8. The creative and mythical nature of indigenous
knowledge
22 67 22 14 67 19 17 50 33
9. Social, collaborative and cultural embeddedness
of indigenous knowledge
32 44 32 35 44 21 0 100 0
10. The subjective nature of indigenous knowledge 7 78 7 0 78 22 16 67 17
Average 37 54 37 34 55 11 11 59 30
In providing answers to the research question, what are Grade 7 Natural Sciences teachers’
views on the nature of indigenous knowledge? an assumption was taken that Grade 7 NS
teachers in township schools, as stipulated by the Department of Education in the CAPS
document, do integrate IK in their lessons.
Theme 2: Township teachers hold inadequate views on the nature of indigenous
knowledge.
Figure 1 shows the summary of teachers’ responses regarding each of the tenets of the nature
of IK framework represented by each VNOIK item.
Figure 1 Summary of teachers’ views about the nature of indigenous knowledge
58
Discussion
Results from descriptive statistical analysis of the quantitative data from questionnaires
painted a comprehensive picture of teachers’ views regarding the nature of IK in science
classrooms in township schools, in Gauteng Province and later established whether the
biographical differences identified had any impact on teachers’ views about the nature of IK.
Teachers’ Views on the Nature of Indigenous Knowledge
The findings from the VNOIK questionnaires revealed that most teachers’ views on the
nature of IK are mainly partially informed (46%). Another 34% were categorised as
uninformed, thus making a total of 80% of inadequate and undesired views regarding the
nature of IK. This position impedes the successful integration of IK into the science
classrooms. These views are in line with previous research (Shizha, 2007; Dziva, Mpofu &
Kusure, 2011; Mothwa, 2011; Akerele, 2016) that there is a limited understanding of IK
among teachers. This according to Onwu and Mosimege (2004), has a bearing on the
successful integration of IK into the classroom. Nnadozie (2009) emphasise the need for
teachers to be well-informed about the concept and practice of IK especially in the localities
where they teach and where their learners come from. Their understandings of IK does not
regard IK as science and as a way of knowing, derived by people living in a certain area, at a
specific time, and interacting with one another. IK was viewed as mythical and based on evil
spirits, so they placed IK and classroom science as separate knowledge entities. This is
contrary to Le Grange’s (2004, 2007), who emphasises that teachers must view both IK and
Western science as complementary rather than as separate and competing knowledge entities.
Teachers rejected other modes of IK transmission: modelling, storytelling, ritual and cultural
activities, paintings, writings and other artefacts, except the oral mode. They also believed
that unlike classroom science, the generation of IK cannot be proven or tested, this is contrary
to the idea that IK is generated through trial-and-error means, and are rigorously tested in the
‘laboratory of survival’ (Senanayake, 2006; Aikenhead & Ogawa, 2007; De Beer & Van
Wyk, 2011). In spite of this rejection, teachers appreciate the fact that IK is different and can
therefore not be treated in the same way as other types of knowledge. This means that there
is a need to determine ways of integrating IK into the classroom and the community.
Relationship between teachers’ gender, experiences and religious beliefs and teachers’
views on the nature of indigenous knowledge
In this study there were 57% females compared to 43% males. This came as no surprise as it
is consistent with the profile stated by Skosana (2018) that women make up 72,5% and men
make up the remaining 27,5% of teachers in South African public schools. Accordingly,
females presented more informed views (28%), as compared to their male counterparts
(18%). Feldstein and Poats (1988) postulate that the various specific daily duties and
allocated responsibilities executed by society members due to social differentiation offer
unique experiences, knowledge levels and skills. In VNOIK item 1, 39% female compared to
6% male desired to understand what IK is. In item 7, 42% female teacher were more
informed about medicinal plant knowledge than 6% male teachers. This concurs with the
59
findings in a study by Torres-Avilez, de Medeiros and Albuquerque (2016); it revealed that
there is a gender-based difference in relation to medicinal plant knowledge. This results from
women’s roles in most households of being in charge of family health related issues,
diagnosing illnesses and their causes and finding the best medicinal treatment for their
children and other family members. This is corroborated in a study by Sharma, Chakrabarti
and Grover (2016) who found that several societies and cultures demand that females adopt
family-caregiver roles. It was therefore revealed in this study that such social differentiation
leads to differences in the IK and skills held by males and females. This impacts teachers’
views on the nature of IK (Acker & Oatley, 1993).
More informed views (70%) were presented by teachers with less than one year of teaching
experience (the novice). It means that the higher education institutions are making a great
effort to introduce and familiarise pre-service teachers with the Department of Education’s
stipulations in the Natural Sciences CAPS document and are to be commended in this regard.
Teachers with more than 15 years of experience demonstrated the lowest percentage of
informed views (14%) and the highest (35%) of uninformed views. It means that the longer
the teaching experience the less informed are the views regarding the nature of IK. This is
unfortunate; the lack of support by district officials to develop teachers on the new
information and trends as new curricula unfold is problematic. This finding resonates with
Grenier’s (1998) argument that teaching experience could impact knowledge differentiation.
Christians, being the majority in the sample, held the most (37%) of uninformed views than
all the other religions and were of the non-negotiable belief that IK practices are based on
witchcraft and consultations with evil spirits of the dead (Barrett, 2015), which enables them
to perform evil practices like killing people with lightning. Also, visiting a sangoma, unlike
the African traditional religion, for treatment of ailments is strongly prohibited. Such beliefs
impact negatively on teachers’ views on the nature of IK (Mansour, 2008). On this note, it
was established that there is a relationship between teachers’ gender, experiences and
religious beliefs and their views. These aspects inform teachers’ views about the nature of IK.
Conclusion
By answering the research question, the findings revealed that very few teachers (20%) had
informed views. The majority (80%) had inadequate and undesired views that were either
partially informed views (46%) or uninformed views (34%) about the nature of IK. This
majority impede the integration of IK into the NS classroom. The manner in which the NS
teachers view the nature of IK are largely determined and influenced by variables such as
gender, teaching experience and religious beliefs. This has implications for the Department of
Education to positively and urgently address the enhancement of teachers’ positive views
about the nature of IK through well designed IK-focused teacher development programmes
(Cronje, De Beer & Ankiewicz, 2014). The professional development should address the
specific tenets of the nature of IK framework that teachers do not understand well in order to
regain confidence to integrate IK (Hodson, 1998; Ogunniyi, 2004). Khupe (2014) also
advocated for intervention programmes that are mainly focussed on relevant IK, so that they
can be in a position to integrate IK into their classrooms. One recommendation made in this
60
study is for future research to use a larger scale of teachers and focus on the enhancement and
improvement of NS teachers’ views regarding the nature of IK.
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62
The Representation of the Nature of Science in South African Grade 12 Life Sciences Textbooks
Masilela Themba
Abstract
This study examined the representation of the nature of science in South African Grade 12
Life Sciences textbooks using a conceptual framework developed by Chiappetta, Fillman and
Sethna (1991a). This study investigated the extent to which South African Grade 12 Life
Sciences textbooks exhibit the themes associated with the nature of science as an essential
tenet in science education. The investigation primarily focused on the identification of the
differences and commonalities exhibited by Grade 12 Life Sciences textbooks in terms of the
coverage of the themes associated with the nature of science. These textbooks were
essentially instructional resources that formed an integral part of the enactment of the
National Curriculum Statement and the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement
promulgated by the Department of Basic Education in South Africa. The investigation
revealed a dismal depiction of the nature of science themes across the selected Grade 12 Life
Sciences textbooks analysed. In particular, “Science as a body of knowledge” was given
substantial coverage as compared to other concomitant themes. While considerable emphasis
is placed on the significance of inquiry-based learning as a contemporary pedagogic
approach, limited coverage was, however, given to “The investigative nature of science” and
“Science as a way of thinking” as relevant themes required for meaningful enactment of
inquiry-based learning. Science and technology play a pivotal role towards the fulfilment of
societal and economic needs. Yet, the “Interaction among science, technology and society”
was afforded limited coverage across the selected textbooks analysed. Implications for
meaningful curriculum reform are discussed.
Introduction
Majority of teachers and learners hold naïve views about the essential features of Nature of
Science (NOS) and poor teaching of NOS to achieve conceptions of NOS (Lederman, 2007).
Lederman (2007) postulates that misconceptions regarding NOS are commonly developed in
a classroom by teachers and learners. The National Research Council (2000) posits that
teachers rely on traditional didactics approach that is aimed at learners’ understanding of
disconnected science content knowledge that does not develop cognitive skills such as critical
thinking, reasoning, analysing and problem solving. Moreover, teachers need to emphasise
fundamental features of NOS to assist learners to recognise and understand the scientific
process themselves. However, this cannot occur since teachers have inadequate experience of
scientific inquiry and hold naïve conceptions about the NOS (Anderson, 2007).
The significance of the role of textbooks in enhancing meaningful science teaching is well-
documented. The prominence of science textbooks in particular as instructional resources is
captured by Abd-El-Khalick, Waters and Le (2008) who assert that in large classrooms,
textbooks are primary indicators of what is learned and the instructional strategy employed.
Albach and Kelly (1998) stipulate that textbooks transform the curricular intentions into
63
teachable instructional practices by reflecting the goals of science learning. These reflections
include understanding the interrelationship of science, nature of science, environment and
society as well as developing cognitive, inquiry and technological skills. The quality of
textbooks influences the quality of instruction (Lemmer, Edwards & Rapule, 2008).
Swanepoel (2010) further explains that the accessibility of high quality textbooks is a crucial
element in successful implementation of curricular improvements. As observed by Le Grange
(2008), Biology curriculum content encourages learners to learn portions of biological
evidences that are regurgitated in summative assessments such as tests and examinations. Le
Grange (2008) further maintains that Biology curriculum content puts greater emphasis on the
study of vegetation and animal life form with no emphasis on fact and value. This emphasis is
defined by Mnguni (2013) as the academic ideology that promotes the training of learners by
transmitting discipline specific knowledge. This representation of science is not in accord
with the basic tenets of NOS.
The role of science textbooks as essential resources required for improving meaningful
understanding of the basic tenets of NOS is especially crucial within the broader South
African context. Studies on teacher conceptualisation of NOS in South Africa revealed that
teachers have an insufficient grasp of NOS itself. A pilot study conducted by Dekkers and
Mnisi (2003) in the Limpopo Province of South Africa on the conception of NOS found that
most teachers surveyed held common myths about NOS. In addition, a study conducted by
Linneman, Lynch, Kurup and Bantwini (2003) involving teachers in the Eastern Cape of
South Africa attained similar findings. Research on the depiction of NOS in South African
science textbooks primarily focused on the analysis of Grade 10 Life Sciences textbooks and
Grade 9 Natural Sciences textbooks (e.g., Ramnarain & Padayachee, 2015; Ramnarain &
Chanetsa, 2016). Hence, there is a need for research to be carried out on the depiction of NOS
in South African Grade 12 Life Sciences textbooks in order to fill this void.
It is against this background the study investigated the extent to which South African Grade
12 Life Sciences textbooks exhibit the themes associated with the nature of science as an
essential tenet in science education. The investigation primarily focused on the identification
of the differences and commonalities exhibited by Grade 12 Life Sciences textbooks in terms
of the coverage of the themes associated with the nature of science, these themes serves as a
guideline on how science should be taught and conducted to elude to a better
conceptualisation of what science mean. Accordingly, the following research questions were
formulated:
a) To what extent do South African Grade 12 Life Sciences textbooks exhibit themes
associated with the nature of science?
b) How do six South African Grade 12 Life Sciences textbooks compare in the extent to
which they cover the themes associated with the nature of science?
Purpose of the Study
This study investigated the extent to which South African Grade 12 Life Sciences textbooks
exhibit the themes associated with the nature of science. The research study was underpinned
by the following objectives:
64
a) To analyse the depiction of NOS themes in South African Grade 12 Life Sciences
NCS and CAPS textbooks using a Conceptual Framework for textbook analysis?
b) To identify differences and commonalities in the depiction of NOS themes in South
African Grade 12 Life Sciences NCS and CAPS textbooks.
Research Design and Methodology
This study adopted a qualitative document analysis approach. A qualitative design provides
the researcher with a holistic view of the concern that is being investigated (Hancook, 1998).
According to Mayring (2000), a qualitative approach specifies guidelines to assist the
researcher to identify the units to be analysed and also to eliminate the content that does not
form part of science literacy (Chiappetta, Fillman & Sethna, 2004). Krippendorff (2004)
defines content analysis as a method used to make valid and reliable scientific conclusions
from the text within a specific context. This method comprises of structured technique that
guides the procedure of data analysis and it is considered to be a scientific tool used to
measure the quality of the text (Krippendorff, 2004). South African NCS and CAPS Grade 12
Life Sciences textbooks were analysed using a conceptual framework developed by
Chiappetta, Fillman and Sethna (1991a) (see Table 1) underpinned by an associated scoring
rubric for textbook analysis developed by Abd-El-Khalick, Waters and Le (2008).
Table 1: Analytical framework for the NOS
NOS Theme Descriptor: NOS Categories
Science as a body of knowledge a) Knowledge presented as facts, concepts, laws, and principles
b) Hypotheses, theories, and models
c) Factual recall of information
The investigative nature of science a) Learns through the use of materials
b) Learns through the use of tables and charts
c) Makes calculations
d) Reasons out an answer
e) Participates in thought experiments
f) Gets information from the internet
g) Uses scientific observation and inference
h) Analyses and interprets data
Science as a way of thinking a) Description of how a scientist discovered or experimented
b) Historical development of an idea
c) Empirical basis of science
d) Use of assumptions
e) Inductive or deductive reasoning
f) Cause and effect relationship
g) Evidence and/or proof
h) Presentation of scientific method(s) or problem solving
i) Scepticism and criticism
j) Human imagination and creativity
k) Characteristics of scientists (subjectivity and bias)
l) Various ways of understanding the natural world
Interaction of science, technology
and society
a) Usefulness of science and technology
b) Negative effects of science and technology
c) Discussion of social issues related to science and technology
d) Careers in science and technology
e) Contribution of diversity
f) Societal or cultural influences
g) Public or peer collaboration
h) Limitations of science
i) Ethics in science
Source: Adapted from Chiappetta & Fillman (2007)
65
The study investigated the extent to which South African Grade 12 Life Sciences textbooks
exhibit the themes associated with the nature of science as an essential tenet in science
education. The investigation primarily focused on the identification of the differences and
commonalities exhibited by Grade 12 Life Sciences textbooks in terms of the coverage of the
themes associated with the nature of science. These textbooks were essentially instructional
resources that formed an integral part of the enactment of the National Curriculum Statement
and the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement promulgated by the Department of
Basic Education in South Africa. Table 2 that follows shows the core content areas and topics
in the Grade 12 Life Sciences curriculum.
Table 2: Core content areas in textbooks
Core content area Topics
Life at molecular, cellular, and tissue Cell division
and mitosis
DNA code of Life
RNA and protein synthesis
Meiosis
Life processes in plants and animals Food production
Reproduction in vertebrates
Human reproduction
Nervous system
Senses
Endocrine system
Homeostasis
Diversity, change and continuity Darwinism and Natural Selection
Human evolution
Environmental studies Human impact on environment
Source: Adapted from CAPS Life Sciences document (Department of Basic Education, 2011)
Validity and reliability
A validated analytical framework developed by Chiappetta, Fillman and Sethna (1991a) was
used to analyse South African Grade 12 Life Sciences textbooks. The reliability of the results
in this study was measured using Cohen’s Kappa coefficient (κ). The coding agreement was
established by calculating Cohen’s Kappa coefficient to reach the level of inter-coder
reliability. Cohen's Kappa coefficient (κ) is a statistic which measures inter-rater agreement
for qualitative (categorical) items. It is generally thought to be a more robust measure than
simple percent agreement calculation as κ takes into account the possibility of the agreement
occurring by chance.
The results
Table 2 provides the overall percentage coverage of NOS themes in the analysed textbooks.
Table 3: Overall percentage coverage of NOS themes in selected textbooks
Textbook Science as a body of
knowledge
Science as a way of
investigation
Science as a way of
thinking
The interaction among
science, technology
and society
Textbook 1 (CAPS) 50% 34% 11% 5%
Textbook 2 (CAPS) 46% 26% 20% 8%
Textbook 3 (CAPS) 44% 42% 11% 3%
Textbook 4 (NCS) 26% 42% 22% 10%
Textbook 5 (NCS) 60% 24% 10% 6%
Textbook 6 (NCS) 55% 31% 10% 4%
Averages 47% 33% 14% 6%
66
“Science as a body of knowledge” was sufficiently covered in the selected textbooks with the
highest average of 49% as compared to other themes. “Science as a way of thinking” received
12% and the “Interaction among science, technology and society” received limited coverage
of 5% across the selected textbooks. While “Science as a way of investigation” received fair
coverage of 32%, more should be done to strengthen the coverage of this aspect with a view
to provide meaningful opportunities for learners to indulge in inquiry-based learning. The
overall picture points to the fact that concerted efforts by Life Sciences textbook writers are
required to ensure equitable coverage of key NOS themes as a key curriculum reform
imperative. The representation of NOS themes across the Grade 12 Life Sciences CAPS and
NCS textbooks provided a consistent pattern with “Science as a body of knowledge”
receiving substantial coverage as compared to other themes. This consistent representation
pattern is a commonality characterising the depiction of NOS themes in the selected
textbooks. The consistent pattern characterising the representation of NOS themes in Grade
12 CAPS and NCS Life Sciences textbooks is illustrated in Figures 2 and Figure 3.
13%
5%
SCIENCE AS A WAY OF INVESTIGATION
SCIENCE AS A WAY OF THINKING
THE INTERACTION AMONG SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY
67
Discussion
Overall representation of the nature of science in the selected textbooks reflected sufficient
coverage of “Science as a body of knowledge” as compared to other themes. In addition, the
textbooks put particular emphasis on factual recall of information and this structural emphasis
may potentially encourage rote learning on the part of learners. Developing meaningful
understanding of hypotheses, theories, and models was largely given scant attention. Yet,
meaningful understanding of hypotheses, theories, and models underpin the development of
scientific literacy. “Science as a way of investigation” received inadequate coverage in the
selected textbooks and this unpalatable coverage can serve to stifle meaningful enactment of
inquiry-based learning as a contemporary pedagogic approach. This finding is consistent with
a study conducted by Jiang and McComas (2014) who found that Biology textbooks tend to
compromise adequate inclusion of investigative activities. They further posit that these
textbooks put emphasis on scientific content knowledge and inquiries without considering
societal influence on science and technology within communities.
Inadequate coverage of the nature of science categories in selected textbooks is consistent
with an empirical study conducted by McComas (2003) which found that Biology textbooks
portray limited coverage of scientific laws and theories. In response to this structural
deficiency, Idrees, Habib and Hafeez (2004) recommends that science textbook authors ought
to include more definite examples of laws and theories as they underpin science concepts and
facts. In addition, science textbooks should foster the development of knowledge informed by
scientific laws and theories to ensure adequate coverage of NOS aspects (Idrees, Habib &
Hafeez, 2004). Jiang and McComas (2004) observe that science textbooks should promote
collaboration and peer learning while putting particular emphasis on all NOS aspects.
Chiappetta, Fillman and Sethna (1991) found that “Science as a way of thinking” is
inadequately represented in Chemistry textbooks as evidenced by omission of scientific
discoveries and historical development of ideas. Leite (2002) argues that science textbooks do
not provide adequate information on how scientists make discoveries and develop scientific
ideas. In my view, this structural deficiency may compromise development of meaningful
understanding of NOS aspects as a key curriculum reform imperative particularly within the
broader South African educational context. The key findings in this study are consistent with
the findings of other studies on the analysis of the representation of the nature of science in
Life Sciences and Natural Sciences textbooks conducted in South Africa. A study on the
comparative analysis of South African Grade 10 NCS and CAPS Life Sciences textbooks for
inclusion of the nature of science conducted by Ramnarain and Padayachee (2015) revealed
that “Science as a body of knowledge” received substantial coverage while the depiction of
“Science as a way of investigation”, “Science as a way of thinking”, and the “Interaction
among science, technology and society” received limited coverage. A study on the analysis of
South African Grade 10 Natural Sciences textbooks conducted by Ramnarain and Chanetsa
(2016) attained similar findings.
68
The dismal depiction of the nature of science in South African Grade 12 Life Sciences
textbooks as revealed in this study may potentially be one of the key factors responsible for
the erosion of the quality of basic education in South Africa. Development of meaningful
scientific literacy underpinned by the creation of a scientifically literate citizenry ought to be
the hallmark of the provision of quality education. This key strategic imperative hinges to a
large degree on the development and provision of coherently aligned instructional resources
which are geared towards progressive realisation of the envisaged key curriculum outcomes.
At another pragmatic level, dismal depiction of the nature of science in science textbooks
may hamper meaningful enactment of contemporary pedagogic approaches such as inquiry-
based learning in science classrooms.
Recommendations arising from the study
The poor representation of the nature of science in South African Grade 12 Life Sciences
textbooks calls for immediate review of the textbooks to align them with the key imperatives
of meaningful curriculum reform. The reconfiguration of Grade 12 Life Sciences textbooks to
ensure equitable representation of the nature of science is imperative. This crucial step will
serve to ensure that South Africa as a member of the global community of nations provides a
globally competitive curriculum that is responsive to the acceleration of socio-economic
development. Dispelling misconceptions by using the conceptual change model would be an
extremely difficult and complex undertaking given the dismal depiction of the nature of
science in South African Grade 12 Life Sciences textbooks. There is thus a critical need to
create, evaluate, and revise policies and practices to encourage teachers to meaningfully
engage in professional science learning. District and school administrators and other relevant
key stakeholders ought to work together to establish viable and sustainable communities of
practice which provide meaningful opportunities for teachers and learners to critically engage
with curriculum content as encapsulated in the Life Sciences textbooks with a view to ensure
conceptual and structural coherence.
Conclusion
South African Grade 12 Life Sciences textbooks analysed reflected a dismal depiction of the
themes associated with the nature of science as an essential tenet in science education.
Consolidation of curriculum reform efforts within the broader South African context should
refocus on the representation of the nature of science in science textbooks with a view to
enhance meaningful development of scientific literacy.
References
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Anderson, R. D. (2007). Inquiry as an organising them in science curricula. New York:
Routledge.
69
Chiappetta, E. L., and Fillman, D. A. (2007). Analysis of five high school biology textbooks
used in the United States for inclusion of nature of science. International Journal of
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Dekkers, P., and Mnisi, E. (2003). The nature of science- do teachers have the understanding
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Department of Education. (2002). Revised National Curriculum Statement. Pretoria:
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general science: A comparative study of published textbooks in Pakistan.
International Journal of Social Sciences and Education, 4(2), 551-555.
Jiang, F., and McComas, W. F. (2014). Analysing of nature of science included in recent
popular writing using text mining technique. Science and Education, 23(9), 1785-
1809.
Krippendorff, K. (2004). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology (2nd ed.). CA:
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Laungsch, R. C. (2000). Scientific literacy: A conceptual overview. Science Education, 84,
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Linneman, S. R., Lynch, P., Kurup, R., & Bantwini, B. (2003). SOuth African science
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SESRC Book of Abstract 3rd August 2019
71
An Analysis of Grade 12 Physical Sciences Textbooks for the Inclusion of Science Practices
Ndumanya Emma
Introduction
Many studies conducted in different educational context have revealed the importance of
textbooks in reflecting the goals of current education reforms and curriculum aims, as a result
both teachers and learners are dependent on school science textbooks in guiding what is
taught and learnt in classroom context (Chiappetta & Fillman, 2007; Niaz & Maza, 2011).
The National Science Education Standard (NSES) identifies five essential features of inquiry
as a common goal of science education curricular and instructional strategy in the previous
science education reforms and in different school science educational landscapes globally
(NRC, 2000). The main intention is to improve learners’ literacy in scientific knowledge and
skills, and as a means to support teachers in implementing science teaching and learning
through inquiry (Aldahmash, Mansour, Alshamrani & Almohi, 2016).
Despite the curricular prominence given to inquiry based learning (IBL), in its
implementation, there has been a lack of coordination between inquiry skills and knowledge
construction, with heavy emphasis being placed on skills development (Crawford, 2014). To
address the inconsistency in the various views of science as inquiry by science learners,
teachers and curriculum developers, there is a shift from learning science as inquiry to science
as practices. As a result, there are calls for rebranding IBL, where instead of “skills” the term
“practices” is used to highlight that learners’ engagement in scientific inquiry requires the
combination of both content knowledge and skills simultaneously (Crawford, 2014; NRC,
2012, 2013).
In this view, the National Research Council (NRC) and Next Generational Science Standards
(NGSS) of the United States recently proposed eight science practices for K-12 Science
Education as means of improving the implementation of learning school science through
inquiry and advancing learners’ science proficiency in science. The outlined “scientific
practices” include: asking questions; developing and using models; planning and carrying out
investigations; analysing and interpreting data; using mathematical and computational
thinking; constructing explanation; engaging in argument from evidence; and obtaining,
evaluating and communicating information (National Research Council, [NRC], 2012:42;
NGSS Lead States, 2013). These “practices” describes the behaviour in which real life
scientists engage while investigate and construct model and theories about the natural world
(NRC, 2013). From a curriculum perspective these “practices” refers to instructional means
and educational aims students learn to enable them to reason and act scientifically.
Similarly, the recent South African science curriculum statement known as Curriculum and
Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) recommended in Specific Aim 1 to promote high
knowledge and high skills in scientific inquiry learning in high school Physical Sciences
subjects. This serves to equip the 21st Century science learners for future learning, careers and
72
citizenship, and key to fourth industrial revolution (Department of Basic Education (DBE),
2011).
Rationale of the Study
Integrating the science practices into science textbooks therefore has the potential of
supporting teachers in facilitating inquiry-based learning and actualising the vision of the new
science education framework and NGSS (NRC, 2012). This is because the science teachers
rely heavily on the textbook as a primary tool to guide the teaching of content and skills
prescribed in the curricula (Chiappetta & Fillman, 2007). The availability of textbooks which
incorporate science practices is a crucial factor in ensuring that the recent science curricular
reform goals (NRC, 2015) are met in South African school science.
Theoretical / Conceptual framework
NGSS science practices are grounded on the sociocultural theory of learning, which
emphasizes that the learner internalizes higher cognitive functions from social and cultural
interaction with more competent others (i.e., scaffolding). In view of the sociocultural theory,
the learning of science practices is recognised as a “cultural accomplishment” (Vygotsky,
1978; NRC, 2012:283). Learners’ engagement in science practices during school science
learning is a means of “transforming participation in scientific communities of practices”
(Furtak & Penuel, 2018). This way learners are provided with the opportunities to fully and
actively participate in authentic scientific work in order to develop deeper understanding of
scientific knowledge and inquiry skills as they share, critique and collaborate with teachers
and peers in the classroom.
The conceptual framework for this study adapted the current framework for science
education by the National Research Council (NRC, 2012), and the Next Generation Science
Standards (NGSS, Lead States 2013) that includes the eight science practices: a) Asking
questions, b) Developing models, c) Planning and carrying out investigations, d) Analysing
and interpreting data, e) Using mathematical and computational thinking, f) Constructing
explanations, g) Engaging in argument from evidence and h) Obtaining, evaluating, and
communicating information.
Purpose of the study and the Research Question
This study aimed to develop a rubric for analysing Physical Sciences textbooks for the
inclusion of “science practices” and to explore the extent and level of inclusion of NGSS
science practices in three Grade 12 Physical Sciences textbooks.
Main Questions
a) To what extent do grade 12 Physical Sciences textbooks reflect the science practices
suggested by the NGSS?
b) What levels of included confirmatory, structured, guided and open-ended science
practices are present in the three textbooks?
Research Method
Development of a Rubric for Analysing Science Practices
73
The first phase involved reviewing relevant literature on the recent science education K-12
Framework and Standards in order to gain insight into the concept of “science practices”
(NRC, 2012; NGSS Lead States, 2013). A further search focussed on identifying instruments
that were already being used in assessing learners’ performance in science practices and in
defining the levels of structure, guidance and coaching. These are inherent to the science
practices provided for the learners by the teacher or textbook. In developing the rubric,
aspects of the McNeill, Katsh and Pelletier (2015) assessment tool known as Science
Practices Continuum-Student Performance and a Drafted Inquiry Rubric developed by
Council of State Science Supervisors (2002) were adopted and adapted in developing the
‘science practices’ rubric. This rubric was validated for theoretical underpinning and
practical use by three science education experts in the field of scientific research. Based on
their recommendations minor changes were made in this version of the rubric. In the final
version, the rubric comprised of eight “science practices” distributed across four levels, with
each level defining the amount of structure, guidance and coaching provided by the textbook
or teacher (Aldahmash et al., 2016). The developed Science Practices Continuum Rubric
(SPCR) was tested for feasibility in a piloted study before it was finally deployed.
Qualitative Content Analysis
The second phase of this study adopted a Qualitative Content Analysis (QCA) approach to
explore the extent to which the Physical Sciences textbooks represent the science practices.
Purposive sampling (Creswell, 2014) was used in selecting three Grade 12 Physical Sciences
textbooks to be analyzed. The selection of textbooks was based on the information about
schoolbook order for Physical Sciences textbooks recommended by the panel that was
constituted by the South African Department of Basic Education (DBE). The textbooks
chosen for this analysis were deemed by the panel to be compliant with CAPS (Ramnarain &
Chanetsa, 2016). The most commonly used Physical Sciences textbooks in high schools were
then selected for this study. The data collected were units such as paragraphs, worked
examples, activities, practical activities, figures with captions, tables with caption, and
marginal comments to categories and sub-categories of science practices.
The conceptual framework used for the textbook analysis incorporates the eight science
practices and descriptions as outlined in the Next Generation Science Standards (NRC, 2012).
In addressing reliability, the textbooks were analyzed independently by myself and another
researcher with a PhD in science education. The calculated percentage agreement result by
Cohen’s kappa (Cohen, 1990) shows 0.78, 0.79 and 0.80 of inter-rater agreement across the
three Physical Sciences textbooks. To ensure the validity of the results, the process of coding
was based on the analytical framework that coexisted with the valid conceptual framework of
science practices in the new Framework for science education (NRC, 2012).
Results
Developed Rubric (SPCR)
The developed rubric comprises of eight science practices distributed across four levels, each
level defines the amount of confirmatory, structured, guided and openness provided in the
74
textbook (or by the teacher), including the example for each level. Level 1 implies that the
included science practice is strongly teacher-directed instruction, because the question,
procedure and solution are clearly stated in the textbook. This implies that the learner remains
a passive recipient in confirming the knowledge. Level 2 implies that the included science
practice is moderately teacher-directed instruction, the activity provides learners with a
predetermined question to clarify. It also provides a step-by-step method or data to use, but
provides guidelines to possibly interpret the evidence to choose a meaningful conclusion.
Level 3 implies that the science practice is moderately learner-directed instruction. This is
because of the increase in the level of science practice, as the analysed unit or activity offers
the learner the options to utilise prepared questions or to pose new investigative questions, to
collect certain data. It also provides the learner with the opportunity to utilise a variety of
resources for the activity, but leaves the solution open for the learner to determine, and the
opportunity to make decisions about reporting their data with less assistance. The last level, 4,
implies that included science practices are strongly learner-directed instructions, because the
analysed unit or activity promotes leaners' full and active participation in science practices at
the highest level. At this level, the learner is allowed to exercise freedom in all the activities
includin learning school science as a practice.
Representation of Science Practices in Science Textbooks
Table 1 shows the representation of the eight science practices in Textbooks A, B and C using
frequencies and percentages.
Table 1: Frequencies and Percentages of Science Practices in the Three Textbooks
NGSS Science Practices
TEXTBOOKS
A
N %
B
N % C
N %
SP1: Asking questions
SP2: Developing and using models
SP3: Planning and carrying out investigations
SP4: Analysing and interpreting data
SP5: Using maths and computational thinking
SP6: Constructing explanation
SP7: Engaging in Argument from evidence
SP8: Obtaining, evaluating, and communication information
56 3.9
309 21.4
55 3.8
92 6.4
297 20.7
435 30.1
38 2.6
162 11.1
66 4.5
387 26.1
40 2.7
50 3.4
381 25.7
458 30.9
6 0.4
92 6.2
49 4.8
237 23.0
51 5.0
45 4.4
233 22.6
318 30.9
11 1.1
85 8.3
TOTAL 1444 1485 1042
Level of Science practices Inclusion in the Analysed Textbooks
75
Figure 1 Graph represents Textbook A, B and C for including science practices using the percentage scores.
Table 2 displays the frequencies and percentages of each science practice in textbooks
according to their levels of inclusion of science practices (from level 1, teacher-centred
learning to 4, student-centred learning).
Table 2: Frequencies and percentages of inclusion of each level of science practices for each knowledge
area in the Physical Sciences textbook
Frequencies (%)
Knowledge area
Actual number of units
Level SP1 SP2 SP3 SP4 SP5 SP6 SP7 SP8
Mechanics 291
(20.2%)
1
2
3
4
6(2.1)
0(0)
1(0.3)
0(0)
52(17.9)
18(6.2)
6(2.1)
0(0)
0(0)
6(2.1)
0(0)
0(0)
5(1.7)
4(1.4)
7(2.4)
0(0)
37(127)
49(16.8)
3(1.0)
0(0)
39(13.4)
25(8.6)
13(4.5)
0(0)
0(0)
4(1.4)
3(1.0)
0(0)
2(0.7)
7(2.4)
4(1.4)
0(0)
Matter and
material
311 (21.5%)
1
2
3
4
13(4.2)
0(0)
2(0.6)
0(0)
67(21.5)
21(6.7)
8(2.6)
0(0)
2(0.6)
7(2.6)
2(0.6)
1(0.3)
0(0)
2(0.6)
3(1.0)
0(0)
20(6.4)
12(3.9)
0(0)
0(0)
67(21.5)
21(6.7)
7(2.3)
0(0)
0(0)
4(1.3)
4(1.3)
0(0)
20(6.4)
18(5.8)
7(2.3)
0(0)
Waves, sound
and light
35
(2.4%)
1
2
3
4
2(5.7)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
8(22.9)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
1(2.9)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
2(5.7)
2(5.7)
0(0)
0(0)
10(28.6)
4(11.4)
3(8.6)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
2(5.7)
0(0)
1(2.9)
0(0)
Chemical
change
599
(41.5%)
1
2
3
4
18(3.0)
0(0.0)
6(1.0)
1(0.2)
57(9.5)
16(2.7)
1(0.2)
0(0.0)
2(0.3)
18(3.0)
9(1.5)
1(0.2)
30(5.0)
18(3.0)
7(1.2)
3(0.5)
51(8.5)
72(12.0)
5(0.8)
1(0.2)
118(20.0)
48(8.0)
23(3.8)
1(0.7)
0(0.0)
14(2.3)
0(0.0)
1(0.2)
24(4.0)
44(7.3)
8(1.3)
2(0.3)
Electricity
and
magnetism
141
(9.8%)
1
2
3
4
5(3.5)
0(0.0)
0(0.0)
0(0.0)
29(20.6)
12(8.5)
3(2.1)
0(0.0)
0(0.0)
5(3.5)
1(0.7)
0(0.0)
5(3.5)
2(1.4)
4(2.8)
0(0.0)
9(6.4)
26(18.4)
3(2.1)
0(0.0)
19(13.5)
1(0.7)
2(1.4)
0(0.0)
0(0.0)
3(2.1)
2(1.4)
0(0.0)
5(3.5)
4(2.8)
1(0.7)
0(0.0)
Total 56 309 55 92 297 435 38 162
Discussion
The analytical instrument, Science Practices Continuum Rubric (SCPR) developed in the first
phase of this study made the combination of both science content knowledge and skills
clearer compared with the five essential features of IBL used in the previous studies
(Aldahmash et al., 2016; Asay & Orgill, 2009). The developed rubric was found to be valid
for analysing science textbooks for inclusion of science practices.
The second phase of textbook analysis for the representation of science practices revealed that
all the eight science practices were represented in the textbooks (A, B and C), but were
reflected mostly at lower (confirmatory and structured) levels. It is evident that not all science
practices are being adequately addressed in the textbooks. This means that the textbooks
engage learners in some science practices (such as Explaining (SP6), Modelling (SP2),
Thinking (SP5) and Communicating (SP8)) more than the other science practices (such as
Argumentation (SP7), Asking questions (SP1), Planning investigation (SP3) and Analysing
(SP4)). The textbook is considered to be a crucial tool in driving the science education goals;
76
hence it is important that the textbook more adequately represents science practices that are
neglected. This result is similar to the findings of a previous study that analysed a Greek fifth
grade science’s textbook by Stavros (2016). The analysis also revealed a teacher-directed
learning approach instead of a learner-directed learning approach in level of science practices
inclusion. This means that learners have less autonomy in learning science because the
textbooks provide only limited opportunity for learner-engagement in science practices.
These results on textbook analysis are similar to previous studies done by Aldahmash et al.
(2016) and Asay and Orgil (2009). Hence, the findings do not align with the recent US
Science Framework and Standards (NRC, 2012; NGSS Lead States, 2013), and the South
African CAPS curriculum document (DBE, 2011). The findings also suggest that the authors
and publishers should modify the Physical Sciences textbooks to integrate high levels (guided
and open-ended) of science practices as recommended in the new science Framework,
Standards (United States) and National Curriculum Statements (South Africa) in order to
guide science teachers facilitate and promote more learner directed learning experiences in
science classroom. It also provides learners with the opportunities to fully and actively
participate in learning science as practices (NRC, 2012).
Conclusion
This study has explored Grade 12 Physical Sciences textbooks for inclusion of science
practices using a developed Science Practices Continuum Rubric. The findings showed that
the developed rubric (SPCR) was valid for analysing science textbooks for inclusion of NGSS
science practices. The analysed textbooks showed that although the eight science practices
were represented, the majority of the inclusion were at lower level; some of the practices
were not adequately addressed. The results revealed that the textbooks do not align with the
new science Framework, Standards and National curriculum statement (CAPS).
The implications of this study are to provide opportunities for high school science learners to
gain deeper understanding of science concepts, ideas and develop inquiry abilities. The
findings of this study also provides information about the strengths and weaknesses of the
science textbooks that science teachers are using to drive curriculum aims and to ensure that
educational reforms goals are met in South African high school science.
Finally, this study suggests that future search should be undertaken to determine how the
science teachers facilitate science practices in high school classrooms using science
textbooks. For example, how do the Physical Sciences textbooks assist science teachers in
facilitating science practices in high schools? Another research question that needs to be
investigated is to explore science teachers understanding of science practices in advancing
scientific literacy in the 21st Century science learners?
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SESRC Book of Abstracts 3rd August 2019
