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Senses 1
Running head: THE CHEMICAL SENSES
The Chemical Senses:
Gender, Menstrual Cycle, Pheromones,
and Memories
Amy R. Klebs
Wisconsin Lutheran College
April 4, 2003
Senses 2
Abstract
The chemical senses of smell and taste have been found to correlate with each other, as well
as gender, menstrual cycle, pheromones, and memories. The current study attempts to measure
the degree of relationship between these variables among 25 men and women at a Midwestern
college in the United States. Instruments to measure the variables include a smell and taste test
using beer, as well as a demographics sheet with questions on dating status and menstrual cycle.
Participants are split into two different groups for each variable based on their answers for the
instruments, and descriptive statistics are obtained. According to the results, individuals that
passed the smell test were likely to pass the taste test. Females included in the pre-ovulatory high
hormone group appeared to be slightly better at smelling and tasting than males or the low
hormone group. Finally, those not involved in a dating relationship seemed to have a somewhat
better ability to discriminate stimuli based on smell than individuals involved in a dating
relationship.
Senses 3
The Chemical Senses: Gender, Menstrual Cycle, Pheromones, and Memories
The current pilot study attempts to measure the differences between the strength of the sense
of smell and the sense of taste with smell. This study also includes gender differences between
taste and smell, as well as the relationship of smell with menstrual cycle and also with
pheromones. The researcher also collected associations of smell and taste with memories among
the participants. There are five main questions the research wishes to answer: a) are the variables
of taste and smell with the stimulus of beer correlated? b) is smell or taste better in women than
in men? c) during or near ovulation, is olfaction especially enhanced in women? d) do
pheromones also enhance olfaction? and e) what memories are associated with the smell and
taste of beer?
Previous findings indicate that women are better at recognizing smells than men, and this
reaches a peak during ovulation (Brand and Millot, 2001; Koelega, 1994; Forsyth, 1976). Since
the definition of flavor includes odor (Chifala and Polzella, 1995), then it follows that women
would be better at recognizing tastes, as well. Most mammals give off pheromones to attract the
opposite sex for reproduction, so it follows that humans may give off pheromones, too (Forsyth,
1976). Olfactory capability is determined through a smell test with the stimulus of alcoholic beer,
and taste capability is determined through a taste test with the same stimuli. Amount of
pheromones given off are operationalized through determining whether the participant is dating
anyone, with the thought that more pheromones are given off and taken in from one who is
single and looking to date.
Literature Review
Many researchers have studied taste and the mechanics behind it (Patton, 1950; Peron and
Allen, 1988). Patton (1950) found that taste buds respond to chemicals in the blood. For instance,
Senses 4
if a person has a high amount of alcohol in the blood, there would be less of a need for alcohol
on the taste buds to respond. Conversely, a person with a low amount of alcohol in the blood
would need a higher concentration on the taste buds in order to respond. Taste has also been
found to be an effective tool for differentiation. Peron & Allen (1988) discovered that learning
by taste is the best way to differentiate between beers rather than through other methods such as
verbally learning the differences. In humans, Kunz (1993) found that men preferred lower priced
ice cream based on taste and women preferred higher priced ice cream according to taste. Neither
gender knew how much nor what brand the ice creams were.
Studies have observed gender differences associated with taste (Cailhol & Mormede, 2002;
Krecek, 1972). Krecek (1972) found that in a particular strain of rats, the sex differences in
tasting some substances begins during sexual maturation but can be combated by a dose of the
sex hormone testosterone. The study found this effective particularly when the rats tasted salt
(Krecek, 1972). Cailhol and Mormede (2002) found that in a strain of hyperactive rats, females
drank more alcohol than males after having an injection of ethanol paired with the sweet taste of
a sugar mixture and then later receiving free access to alcohol.
Many studies have also assessed gender differences and olfaction (Brand and Millot, 2001;
Koelega, 1994; Forsyth, 1976). Patton (1950) found that certain species of animals have different
sensitivities to particular scents. For example, since cats are carnivores, their olfaction is very
sensitive to blood and meat and not so much to flowers or plants (Patton, 1950). Brand and
Millot (2001) found that women have a higher opinion of their smelling capabilities than men.
They also found that differences in smelling capabilities between genders increase with age.
There also seems to be a physical difference in size between the nasal cavities of men and
women, with the sense of smell correlating positively with the size (Brand & Millot, 2001).
Senses 5
Some studies have definitely shown that women have a better ability to smell biological scents
(Forsyth, 1976; Koelega, 1994). The sex differences that are observed are also found greater
during the female menstrual cycle, and it peaks during ovulation due to the hormones cycling
through the woman’s body (Brand & Millot, 2001; Forsyth, 1976). Many hormones have been
found to peak during ovulation (Berne and Levy, 1988). These hormones include estrogen,
progesterone, and testosterone, which could influence the chemical senses.
There have been few studies using alcoholic beverages as an effective measure for smell and
taste (Peron & Allen, 1988). Most have found results consistent with other studies indicating that
smell and taste are correlated (Chifala and Polzella, 1995; Charters, Lockshin and Unwin, 1999).
In the study conducted by Chifala and Polzella (1995), the researchers found that the flavor of
some alcoholic drinks is enhanced by the smell of these drinks. Charters, Lockshin and Unwin
(1999) found the most important qualities to the consumers on a wine label described taste and
aroma.
There may be some evidence showing that pheromones play a role in the sense of smell as
well (Forsyth, 1976). In the article, “Good Scents and Bad” Adrian Forsyth (1976) discusses the
difference between female and male scents and the manner in which males present their scents to
females. The author concentrates on animals, and gives examples such as beavers, which
produce pheromones containing over 50 different chemicals (Forsyth, 1976). Given most
mammals produce and use pheromones, it follows that humans may produce and use
pheromones as well. Many researchers have observed and investigated the hormone
androstenone, coming to the conclusion that it may possibly be the human equivalent to a
pheromone and that humans release and detect this chemical (Brand & Millot, 2001).
Other studies have shown that smell is correlated with memory imprinting (Glaeske and
Senses 6
Boehlke, 2002; Forsyth, 1976; Erickson and Leide, 1992). Glaeske & Boehlke report that smell
receptors are connected directly to the limbic system, the place in the brain responsible for
memories. Erickson and Leide (1992) discussed a study done by National Geographic that
included one and a half million people. The magazine gave scratch and sniff strips with questions
about the memories they invoked. One of the things this study discovered was that the stronger
the odor, the more likely it would bring up a memory (Erickson & Leide, 1992). National
Geographic also found that bad odors bring up memories just as much as good odors do. Finally,
the study found that smells may bring up memories from many years before, not just recent
memories (Erickson & Leide, 1992).
The purpose of this study is to determine the relationship between taste and smell and how
they relate to gender, menstrual cycle and pheromones, and also to determine what memories are
associated with the taste and smell of beer. The hypothesis is that the smell and taste of alcohol
are stronger in women than in men, and that the olfaction capabilities of women are at their
greatest during the middle of the menstrual cycle during ovulation. Furthermore, humans have
been found to release and detect the hormone androstenone, which acts as a pheromone. This
may aid in smelling capabilities of people who are single but looking for a relationship, although
there is no empirical evidence to support this operational definition. The researcher has
hypothesized that the lack of a dating relationship may positively correlate with smell
capabilities, and this may reflect the amount of pheromones, or sex hormones that are given off.
In other words, one who is single and looking for a dating relationship will give off more
pheromones than either one who is single and not looking or one who is currently dating.
Senses 7
Method
Participants
The researcher used convenience sampling from the lab of a biology class to determine
participation. Permission was also obtained for using moderate amounts of beer on the college
campus. Twenty-five individuals from a small college in the Midwestern United States
participated in the sample, including 16 females (64 %) and nine males (36 %), ranging in age
from 18-36 (M = 21.92, SD = 4.38). The participants included 23 Caucasians (92 %) and two that
marked ‘other’ (8%). Of the 25 participants, two freshmen (8 %), three sophomores (12 %), eight
juniors (32 %), and 10 seniors (40 %) participated, with two that marked ‘other’ (8 %).
The researcher then split the participants’ answers from the demographics survey based on
either dating or not dating and pre-ovulatory or post-ovulatory status. According to their
responses, the researcher included fourteen participants (56 %) in the dating group and 11
participants (44 %) in the non-dating group. The researcher split the participants into a pre-
ovulatory or post-ovulatory group in two different ways. In the pre-ovulatory group, male
participants and female participants that marked they were at the end of their menstrual cycle, at
the beginning, or just past the middle were included in the low hormone group. The researcher
included female participants that marked they were near the middle of their cycle and ovulating
or had just finished menstruation (and expecting to ovulate) into the pre-ovulatory high hormone
group. Based on these criteria, participants in the low hormone group numbered 17 (68 %), and,
in the high hormone group, included eight (32 %). In the post-ovulatory group, all male
participants, as well as female participants that determined they were at the end of their
menstrual cycle, at the beginning of their cycle, or had just finished menstruation (before
ovulation) were considered low hormone. The researcher included females that were in the
Senses 8
middle of their cycle and ovulating or just past the middle in the post-ovulatory high hormone
group. The participants in the post-ovulatory low hormone group included 21 (84 %) and
participants in the high hormone group included four (16 %).
Instruments
The researcher created a smell and taste assessment which included malt beverages (beer),
which served as the first instrument. The researcher brought each individual participant into a
quiet office where approximately 1 ½ ounces of three different brands of the beverage (Miller
High Life, Leinenkugel’s Original, and Pabst Blue Ribbon) had been poured into four 3-ounce
cups, with the first beverage repeated in one of the last three cups. The researcher consistently
used Miller High Life as the standard beverage, and, therefore, always had this brand in the first
cup, alternating which of the last three cups had Miller with each participant. This was done in
an attempt to control for carry-over effects among the participants. The researcher labeled the
location on the table where the cup was placed so that the participant could not see the label. The
participant then took one deep breath of each beverage through the nose lasting approximately
one to five seconds. The participant then replaced the cup and breathes air in and out through the
nose for 15 seconds between each smell of beverage, to avoid confounding the smells of the
beverages. The participant is only allowed to do the smell test once. The participant then drank
each of the five beers as the taste test, eating an unsalted soda cracker between each beer.
The second part of this study included a paper and pencil survey that required participants to
respond to specific questions regarding the smell and taste test and also serves as a guideline for
the tests (see Appendix A). The ‘Smell’ section of the survey instructs the participant, “As you
smell the beers, if any thoughts/memories/emotions come to mind, please report them.” It then
requires the participant to smell the first beer and supplies a space to allow participants to
Senses 9
comment. The survey instructs the participants to inhale and exhale for 15 seconds, and these
same instructions and questions are repeated for the second, third, and fourth beers, with spaces
provided for thoughts. At the end of the ‘Smell’ section the participant is asked to rate which
beer, according to smell, is the same as the first beer. The ‘Taste’ portion of the survey includes
the same instructions, questions, and spaces for thoughts as the ‘Smell’ portion, only regarding
taste of the beer. The researcher asks the participant to eat an unsalted soda cracker between each
beer rather than inhaling and exhaling for 15 seconds. At the end of this section, the survey
requires the participant to rate which beer, according to taste, is the same as the first beer. The
researcher scores the survey based on nominal data, according to passing or failing the smell test
and passing or failing the taste test for each participant. There were no attempts to establish
reliability or validity scores for the smell and taste test at this point.
The third instrument includes a demographics survey constructed by the researcher (see
Appendix B). This survey addresses gender, age, year in school, and ethnical background. The
researcher included a question on the participant’s beliefs about his/her own abilities at
identifying scents. Also, the survey inquires on whether scents smell overwhelming to him/her
when others do not perceive scents. A question was included inquiring on their physical health to
determine if the participant had a cold, which may inhibit smelling and tasting abilities. Three
questions were also included about the beer stimulus; one requiring the participants to rate how
he/she likes the taste of beer, another requiring the participants to estimate the amount of beer
they drink per week, and the last requiring the participants to rate whether he/she drinks the beer
all at once or spread out through the week. The researcher also included a question in the
demographics regarding dating status of the participant. If the participant answered yes, that
he/she was dating someone, he/she was asked the length of time they had been with their
Senses 10
significant other. If the participant answered no, he/she was asked if they were looking to date
anyone or preferred to be single. The final question was for female participants, dividing their
menstrual cycle into five parts: Beginning (having period), just finished period, middle (near
ovulation), just past middle (haven’t had period in 3-4 weeks), and end (expect period soon) and
requiring them to choose the answer that best applies to them. The researcher divided all
participants into one of two categories based on their answers for each of the following; the smell
test, the taste test, gender, dating status and menstrual cycle.
Procedure
Participants gathered in a biology lab of the college in preparation for their class. The
researcher distributed and summarized the contents of an informed consent to the student before
beginning the study. Each student signed the informed consent, handing back one copy to the
researcher and keeping the other. The researcher informed the participants they could leave at
any time and may discontinue participation with no repercussion. The researcher then handed the
participants the demographics survey to complete. To avoid the influence of participants on each
other, the researcher individually took each participant in the office of the professor where the
four cups of malt beverages had been set up. Before the study began, the researcher collected the
demographics survey. The participant then began the first part of the smell test by breathing in
the smell of each beverage; with the 15 second break in between. The researcher asked the
participant to write down any thoughts, feeling, or memories that came to mind with each beer.
After the participant had answered which beer they thought was the same as the first, they
continued with the taste part of the test. Again, the researcher asked that any thoughts, feeling, or
memories of the participant be written down. After the participant finished the taste test, the
researcher told the participant which was the correct beer and thanked them for their time.
Senses 11
Results
Smell and Taste
Multiple studies have been conducted on gender differences of taste and smell and the
relationship of these variables to pheromones and menstrual cycle. Since the definition of flavor
includes smell, the researcher has hypothesized that taste and smell are correlated. Out of the 25
participants, seven (28 %) passed the smell test and 18 (72 %) failed the smell test. Also, 12
(48 %) participants passed the taste test and 13 (52 %) failed the taste test. Out of the seven that
passed the smell test, six (86 %) also passed the taste test and one (14 %) also failed the taste
test. Out of the 18 participants that failed the smell test, six (33 %) also passed the taste test and
12 (67 %) also failed the taste test. This suggests that a participant who passes the smell test is
very likely to pass the taste test as well (see Table 1).
Table 1
Percentages of Participants That Passed or Failed the Taste and/or Smell Test
Pass Smell Fail Smell
Pass Taste
86 % 33 %
Fail Taste
14 % 67 %
Gender Differences
Based on previous research, the researcher also hypothesized that females possess better
abilities to smell and taste. Out of the nine males that participated (36 %), two (22 %) passed the
smell test and seven (78 %) failed the smell test. Out of the 16 females that participated (64 %),
five (31 %) passed the smell test and 11 (69 %) failed the smell test. Out of the nine males that
Senses 12
participated, four (44 %) passed the taste test and five (56 %) failed the taste test. Out of the 16
females that participated, eight (50 %) passed the taste test and eight (50 %) failed the taste test.
These results suggest that women have a slightly better ability to identify the beers by smell or
by both smell and taste than males (see Table 2).
Table 2
Gender Differences in Tasting and Smelling
Total Pass Smell Fail Smell Pass Taste Fail Taste
Male 36 % 22 % 78 % 44 % 56 %
Female 64 % 31 % 69 % 50 % 50 %
Ovulation
Previous research has also shown that the ability of women to smell better than men is at the
greatest difference during ovulation. Therefore the researcher has hypothesized that the women
who are ovulating or near ovulation will do better on the test than men. The researcher divided
the participants into a pre-ovulatory and a post-ovulatory group. In the pre-ovulatory group, out
of the 25 participants, a total of 17 (68 %) were placed in the low hormone group and eight (32
%) were placed in the high hormone group. Out of the 17 participants included in the low
hormone group, five (29 %) passed the smell test and 12 (71 %) failed the smell test. Of the
participants in the low hormone group, seven (41 %) passed the taste test and 10 (59 %) failed
the taste test. Out of the eight participants that scored in the high hormone group, two (25 %)
passed the smell test and six (75 %) failed the smell test. Of these eight participants, five (63 %)
passed the taste test and three (38 %) failed the taste test. These results suggest that participants
Senses 13
in the pre-ovulatory group included in the high hormone group were better at identifying the
beers by taste than the participants in the low hormone group (see Table 3).
Table 3
Smell and Taste of Pre-Ovulatory Group
Total Pass Smell Fail Smell Pass Taste Fail Taste
Low Hormone
68 % 29 % 71 % 41 % 59 %
High Hormone
32 % 25 % 75 % 63 % 38 %
In the post-ovulatory group, out of the 25 participants, a total of 21 individuals (84 %) were
placed into the low hormone group and four (16 %) were placed into the high hormone group. In
the low hormone group, six participants (29 %) passed the smell test and 15 (71 %) failed the
smell test. Of the participants in the low hormone group, 11 (52 %) passed the taste test and 10
(48 %) failed the taste test. In the high hormone group, one participant (25 %) passed the smell
test and three (75 %) failed the smell test. Of the participants that scored in the high hormone
Table 4
Smell and Taste of the Post-Ovulatory Group
Total Pass Smell Fail Smell Pass Taste Fail Taste
Low hormone
84 % 29 % 71 % 52 % 48 %
High hormone
16 % 25 % 75 % 25 % 75 %
Senses 14
group, one (25 %) passed the taste test and three (75 %) failed the taste test. The same three
participants that scored in the high hormone group that also failed the smell test, failed the taste
test as well. The one participant that scored in the high hormone group that also passed the smell
test, passed the taste test as well (see Table 4).
Pheromones
Although there is no research stating that dating is correlated to pheromone production and
release, the researcher used dating to operationally define the amount of pheromones produced
and released. Therefore, the researcher hypothesized that an individual in a dating relationship
would have an reduced ability to smell. Out of the 25 participants, the researcher included 14 (56
%) as dating and 11 (44 %) as not dating, based on their answers. Out of the 14 participants that
were dating three (21 %) passed the smell test and 11 (79 %) failed the smell test. Of the 11
participants not dating, four (36 %) passed the smell test and 7 (64 %) failed the smell test. Of
the 14 participants that were dating, seven (50 %) passed the taste and seven (50 %) failed the
taste test. Out of the 11 participants that were not dating, five (45 %) passed the taste test and
(55 %) failed the taste test. These results suggest that participants in the category of “Not
Dating” did slightly better at identifying the beers by smell than participants in the “Dating”
category (see Table 5).
Table 5
Taste and Smell in Participants Dating and Not Dating
Total Passed Smell Failed Smell Passed Taste Failed Taste
Dating 56 % 21 % 79 % 50 % 50 %
Not Dating 44 % 36 % 64 % 45 % 55 %
Senses 15
The memories of the participant associated with beer had some interesting results (see
Appendix C). First, only nine participants (36 %) wrote down memories they had associated with
beers. Of these nine participants, the results showed that six females (67 %) and three males
(33 %) wrote down memories. In addition, eight (89 %) had memories associated with smell and
five (56 %) had memories associated with taste. Finally, of the nine participants that wrote down
memories, all nine (100 %) had memories associated with Miller High Life, four (44 %) had
memories associated with Pabst Blue Ribbon, and four (44 %) had memories associated with
Leinenkugel’s Original.
Discussion
According to the results, there are hints of relationships among the variables of smell,
taste, pheromone release, menstrual cycle, and gender. Numerous studies have shown that smell
and taste are correlated (Chifala and Polzella, 1995; Patton, 1950; Peron and Allen, 1988). Based
on the percentages obtained, the results may imply that individuals who are able to discriminate
stimuli based on smell will also be better able to discriminate based on taste. Studies have also
shown that pheromones aid in smelling abilities (Forsyth, 1976; Brand & Millot, 2001). The
results may suggest that those individuals not involved in a dating relationship may have a better
ability to discriminate stimuli based on smell than those involved in a dating relationship.
Perhaps those not dating are physiologically set to receive signals while those dating have
reduced their receptors. Other studies have determined that females are better at smelling and
tasting than males, and it reaches a peak during or near ovulation (Brand and Millot, 2001;
Koelega, 1994; Forsyth, 1976). The results of this study show that females do have a slightly
better ability to discriminate between stimuli based on smell or smell with taste than males. The
results also show that high levels of hormones during or right before ovulation may aid in
Senses 16
identifying and discriminating between stimuli. It is also interesting to note that those considered
having high hormones during or right after ovulation either passed both tests or failed both tests.
This may imply that amount of hormones and ability to smell or smell and taste are directly
related. Further research should be conducted to determine whether there are any direct and
significant relationships of smell and smell with taste to gender, pheromones, and menstrual
cycle.
Although the researcher did not make a specific hypothesis on the correlation of memory with
smell and taste, some interesting results were observed. First of all, more females than males
recorded memories from the smell and taste of the beers, which may mean that females have
more of an emotional response to smells and tastes than men. Also, more individuals wrote down
memories associated with smell than memories associated with taste, which supports the
research stating that olfaction is directly connected to memory. Finally, more individuals wrote
down memories associated with Miller High Life than for Pabst or Leinenkugels by a ratio
slightly greater than 2:1. There may be at least two reasons for this difference. First, Miller High
Life was used as the standard. In other words, all participants smelled Miller first and compared
the other beers to this one. Perhaps if the other beers were also used as the standard, the ratio
would be different. The second reason for the difference is that all the participants in the study
attended a school in the Milwaukee area, and this city is known for its breweries, especially
Miller breweries. Furthermore, the German-American culture tends to accept beer drinking at
social gatherings and sometimes children are even allowed to taste it, perhaps leading to an
increase in memories associated with the beers.
Other limitations exist in this study. First, the individuals participated based on volunteering
and convenience from a biology lab. The sample is not representative to any population except
Senses 17
itself. Second, although the sample size was adequate for a pilot study, the female to male ratio
was not. The amount of males numbered only half that of females, which may have skewed the
data. Also, the instruments have no reliability or validity scores because the researcher made
them, so the test may not actually be consistently measuring the correlations between the
variables. For example, the question on dating has no empirical evidence to support the
researcher’s hypothesis that dating increases pheromone production and release. In addition, the
participant was able to use their smelling abilities in tasting the beer, which would explain the
significant correlation among smell and taste. There may also be some social desirability in the
answers to the questions on dating and menstrual cycle, or perhaps the females did not know
exactly where they were in their cycles. Also, young females are relatively irregular in their
cycles, which may contribute to confounding of hormones groups. Another confounding variable
brought to the researcher’s attention was that some women in the study might be on birth control
for various health reasons. Since women on birth control do not ovulate, this may have
confounded the results for the correlation of taste and smell and menstrual cycle.
Many questions arise from the results of this study. First of all, previous research has
determined that there is a gender difference in smell and taste and this study shows only some
advantage for females. Therefore it would be of interest to conduct many more replication
studies on different samples to see when a significant difference is observed. Also, perhaps a
different stimulus should be used instead of beer, such as soda or food. In addition, maybe many
foods or smells should be used to observe differences in many different types of smells and
tastes. Perhaps a longitudinal study would be of some help in determining whether the menstrual
cycle and/or estrogen does play a role in smelling and tasting abilities. Other studies that could
Senses 18
better operationalize pheromones may be important in determining their correlation with the
variables of taste and smell, as well.
Senses 19
References
Brand, G., and Millot, J. L. (2001) Sex differences in human olfaction: Between evidence and
enigma. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 54B, 3, 259-270.
Berne, R. M., and Levy, M. N. (Eds.). (1988) Physiology (2nd ed.). St. Louis: C. V. Mosby Co.
Cailhol, S., and Mormede, P. (2002) Conditioned taste aversion and alcohol drinking: Strain and
gender differences. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 63, 1, 91-99.
Charters, S., Lockshin, L., and Unwin, T. (1999) Consumer responses to wine bottle back labels.
Journal of Wine Research, 10, 3, 183-195.
Chifala, W. M., and Polzella, D. J. (1995) Smell and taste classification of the same stimuli.
Journal of General Psychology, 122, 3, 287-295.
Erikson, L., and Leide, K. (1992) Touch, taste, and smell the memories. Activities, Adaptation,
and Aging, 16, 3, 25-39.
Forsyth, A. Good scents and bad. (1976) Natural History, 85, 11, 25-32.
Glaeske, K. W., and Boehlke, P. R. (2002) Making sense of terpenes: An exploration into
biological chemistry. American Biology Teacher, 64, 3, 208-211.
Koelega, H. S. (1994) Sex differences in olfactory sensitivity and the problem of the generality
of smell acuity. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 78, 1, 203-213.
Krecek, J. (1972) Sex differences in salt taste: The effect of testosterone. Physiology & Behavior,
10, 4, 683-688.
Kunz, J. (1993) Ice cream preference: Gender differences in taste and quality. Perceptual and
Motor Skills, 77, 3, 1097-1098.
Patton, H. D. (1950) Physiology of taste and smell. Annual Review of Physiology, 12, 469-484.
Peron, R. M., and Allen, G. L. (1988) Attempts to train novices for beer flavor discrimination: A
Senses 20
matter of taste. The Journal of General Psychology, 115, 4, 403-418.
The researcher would like to thank Dr. Paul Boehlke and Dr. Leanne Olson for their help in
writing this document.
Senses 21
Appendix A Smell
As you smell the beers, if any thoughts/memories/emotions come to mind, please report them.
Carefully smell beer #1: Any thoughts? _____________________________________________
Inhale and exhale for 15 seconds.
Smell beer #2: Any thoughts? ____________________________________________________
Inhale and exhale for 15 seconds.
Smell beer #3: Any thoughts? ____________________________________________________
Inhale and exhale for 15 seconds.
Smell beer #4: Any thoughts? _____________________________________________________
Which beer, according to smell, is the same as beer #1? _________________________________
Taste
As you taste the beers, if any thoughts/memories/emotions come to mind, please report them.
Eat a saltine cracker.
Carefully drink beer #1: Any thoughts? _____________________________________________
Eat a saltine cracker.
Drink beer #2: Any thoughts? ____________________________________________________
Eat a saltine cracker.
Drink beer #3: Any thoughts? ____________________________________________________
Eat a saltine cracker.
Drink beer #4: Any thoughts? ____________________________________________________
Which beer, according to taste, is the same as beer #1? _________________________________
Senses 22
Appendix B
Demographics Survey
Gender: M_____ F_____
Age: ________
Grade: Fresh___ Soph___ Jr___ Sr___ other/none___
Major: CHE___ BIO___ PSY___ other/none___
Race: Caucasian___ Afr.Amer.___ other___
Do you think you’re good at identifying scents? Y___ N___
Do scents smell overwhelming to you when they don’t to others? Y___ N___
Do you have a cold? Y___ N___ If yes, where? Nose/sinuses___ other___
Do you like the taste of beer? Yes___ Okay___ Not preferable___ Not at all___
How often do you drink beer: less than 2 glasses per week____ 3-7 glasses per week____ more than 8 glasses per week____
Do you drink them all in one time or spread them out through the week: All at once_____ Spread out____
Are you dating anyone: Y____ N____ If yes, for how long: <1 mo.____ 1-4 mos.____ 5-9mos____ over 10 mos.____ If no, are you looking to date, or do prefer to be single? Looking to date___
Prefer to be single___ LADIES ONLY: (you do not have to answer if uncomfortable, just say, “I’ll pass on this question.) If we divide your menstrual cycle into five parts, where are you in your cycle? Beginning (having period)____ Just finished period____ Middle (near ovulation, haven’t had period in 2-2 ½ weeks)____ Just past middle (haven’t had period in 3-4 weeks)____ End (expect period soon)____
Senses 23
Appendix C
Memories & Associations:
“Friday…meetings”
“Monday: drank too much”
“Relaxing, bars…good memories…hot tub…Saturday night”
“Summerfest…my dad…fun at the bar…at home”
“Pleasant, brewery tours as child”
“Going out with friends to the bar…Summerfest…going to Chancery”
“Party where [I] got sick”
“Summerfest 2002…people at [a bar]”
“Lemon”
“My dad’s beer…weird…going to cottage, my dad”