Upload
others
View
4
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
REVIEW ON DETERMINANTS OF HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY IN ETHIOPIA
Senior seminar paper
By:
Dinow Sharif Mohamed
College: Jimma University College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine
Department: Rural Development and Agricultural Extension
Advisor: Moquanent Muche (M.Sc.)
DECEMBER, 2015
JIMMA, ETHIOPIA
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents page
TABLE OF CONTENTS II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT IV
ABBREVIATION V
ABSTRACT VI
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. Background of the seminar .............................................................................................. 1
1.2. Statement of The Seminar ................................................................................................ 3
1.3. Objective of the seminar .................................................................................................. 4
1.3.1. General objective of the seminar 4
1.3.2. Specific objective 4
1.4. Significance of the seminar .............................................................................................. 4
2. REVIEW ON DETERMINANTS OF HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY IN ETHIOPIA 5
2.1 Food security and food insecurity conceptual understandings and Definitions ............... 5
2.2 Concepts and Definitions of Food Security ..................................................................... 5
2.3 Concepts and Definitions of Food Insecurity: ................................................................. 6
2.3.1 Types of food insecurity: 7
2.4 Factors that causes food insecurity................................................................................... 7
2.4.1 Population growth: 7
2.4.2 Natural factor: 8
2.4.3 Economic factors: 9
2.4.4 Socio-cultural factors: 9
2.4.5 Institutional factors: 9
2.4. Indicators of food insecurity .............................................................................................. 10
2.5. Challenges in achieving food security in Ethiopia. ............................................................ 11
2.6. Coping mechanisms of food insecurity: ............................................................................. 12
2.7. Policy options to minimize food insecurity: ...................................................................... 13
iii
3. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 14
3.1 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................... 14
3.2 RECOMMENDATION .............................................................................................................. 14
4. REFERENCE 15
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In the name of ALLAH, the Most Gracious and the Most Merciful Alhamdulillah, all praises to
Allah. He blessed me with good health, intellectual efficiency, talented teachers and sympathetic
friends, whose proper guidance, consistent encouragement and inspiration enabled me to start
this senior seminar paper. I feel great pleasure and honor to express my heartiest gratitude and
deep sense of obligation to my advisor Moquanent Muche (M.Sc.) for his keen interest,
encouraging guidance, for his valuable advice, insight and guidance from the initiation to the
completion of these senior seminar paper, his open-minded views, help and valuable suggestions
for the successful beginning of this senior seminar paper.
Last but not least, my deepest gratitude goes to my beloved parents, my family, my parents and
my friends who are always with me in all my life for their encouragement and assistant at day
and nights.
v
ABBREVIATION
CSA Central Statistical Agency
FAD Food Availability Decline
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
GDP Gross Domestic Product
MDER Minimum Dietary Energy Requirement
RRC Relief and Rehabilitation Commission
UN United Nation
US United States
USAID United States Agency for International Development
USD United States Dollar
WB World Bank
WFP World Food Program
WFS World Food Summit
WHO World Health Organization
vi
ABSTRACT
Food security is a relative concept defined as the access to food by all people at all time to
enough food for an active, productive and healthy life. Food security can be achieved when
households produce enough staple food for their consumption or when they have enough income
to meet their food need from market. Like many developing countries, Ethiopian farmers in the
highlands predominantly practice subsistence farming and are often subject to food insecurity.
The main objective of the seminar is to review the determinants of households’ food security
Also this paper is going to review on the four pillars of food security which is availability,
access, stability and utilization. And also the causes of household food insecurity and food
security strategy. Now a day food security issues become one of the critical concern and top
priority area for developing countries. Having clear picture on food security status and its major
determinants helps policy makers and planners to devise new policies that enhance food security.
Hence, this study was reviewed to determine the status of food security in Ethiopia, to identify
the major determinants of food security among the rural household, and to identify coping
strategies employed by different food security status groups to cope with food insecurity.
1
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background of the seminar
. About 870 million people in the world are estimated to have been undernourished (in terms of
dietary energy supply) in the period 2010–2012. This figure represents 12.5 percent of the global
population, or one in eight people. The vast majority of these, 852 million, live in developing
countries, where the prevalence of under nourishment is now estimated at 14.9 percent of the
population (FAO, 2012).
Ethiopia’s economy has grown by 11 percent annually for the last five years, and Poverty
declined from 38 percent in 2004/05 to 29 percent in 2009/10. But it remains a least-developed,
low-income, food-deficit country, one of the poorest in Africa: gross domestic product of
US$472 per capita is much lower than the sub-Saharan African average of US$1,077. Despite
reduction in the food poverty index, the scale of food insecurity and malnutrition remains
serious: 23 million people have insufficient income to meet their food needs (WFP, 2011).
Nearly a quarter of the population in Ethiopia is malnourished where the largest proportion
suffers from chronic hunger. Some assessments indicate that the probability of crop failure in
certain parts of Ethiopia could reach 10 per cent (FAO, 2006). This can be much worse where
policies in attaining food security are underemphasized and the gap between per capita food
production and consumption is induced by the slowdown of the agricultural production growth
rates (FDRE, 2001). Researchers, planners, donors and international development agencies have
given high priority to the study of food system and the problem of food security due to
deepening food crises. Despite the available resources and the efforts made by governments in
different times, food insecurity remained one of the most crucial challenges to economic
development and has been aggravated by recurring rainfall shocks and wars (DERCON, 2004;
WHITE, 2005).
Ethiopia is one of the world’s poorest countries with indicators suggesting low levels of
development. Many Ethiopians live in conditions of chronic hunger with both a low average
daily energy supply (FDRE, 2002).
One stark indicator of the precariousness of food security in Ethiopia is the rising dependence on
foreign food aid (Berhanu, 2004). Food aid has kept people alive, but done nothing to address the
causes of food insecurity (EC, 2009). Over the course of the last decade, Ethiopia has received
2
an average of 700,000 million ton of food aid annually, and the figure has risen dramatically in
recent crisis years (since 1996, the quantity of food appealed for has multiplied by 4.5, while the
number of beneficiaries has multiplied by 6). The unpredictable timing and level of relief
resources flowing through the emergency channel means there are few opportunities to do more
than addressing humanitarian needs (UNDP 2009).
There is no problem of underdevelopment that can be more serious than food insecurity (World
Bank, 1986). The majority of Ethiopians lives in rural areas and confronts similar challenges in
securing sufficient food, but given the topographic and biophysical variation throughout
Ethiopia, seasonal undernourishment varies across geographic space and time.
The performance of agriculture, however, in terms of feeding the country’s population, which is
growing at about 2.9 per cent per annum, is poor. Currently in Ethiopia, there are more than 10
million people who have been affected by drought. Some 4.6 million people are threatened by
hunger and malnutrition and require urgent food assistance. The deteriorating situation is
compounded by high food prices, the cost of cereals has more than doubled in many markets
since the beginning of the year, hampering the ability of many people to meet their most basic
food needs and impoverishing them further (WFP, 2009).
In the early 1980s, a paradigm shift occurred in the field of food security, following (Amartya
Sen 1981)’s claims that food security is more of a demand concern, affecting the poor’s access to
food, than a supply concern, affecting availability of food at the national level. Since then,
accepted wisdom has defined food security as being primarily a problem of access to food.
Farmers’ own production became viewed as a route to entitlement, either directly via their own
supplies of food, or indirectly via lower market prices for consumers (Maxwell S., 1996).
Ethiopia with an area of nearly 1.1 million square kilometers and population of 61.7 million in
July 1999 and an increasing population rate of 3.2% per annum (CSA, 1999), is the fourth largest
in size and the second most populous in Africa. The backbone of its economy has been
predominantly the agriculture sector when judging from the point of view of the people’s
occupation, its contribution to GDP, export of commodities and orientation of the industries.
The country is endowed with natural resources, 60% of the land mass known to have a good
potential for agricultural development. Out of this potentially cultivable land only 15% is known
to have been developed.
3
1.2. Statement of The Seminar
Endowed with considerable agricultural potential, Ethiopia had been self-sufficient in staple food
and was classified as a net exporter of food grains till the late 1950. It was reported that the
annual export of grain to world market amounted to 150,000 tons in 1947. However, since early
1960s, the country’s domestic food supply situation has been declining and failed to meet the
food requirements of the people. Particularly, from the beginning of the mid-1980s, food
production has exhibited a downward trend. The inadequate growth in production has led to
increasing food insecurity in many parts of Ethiopia over the past decades. Some of the principal
causes of inadequate growth in food production, and increasing food insecurity, according to
FDRE (1996) are: inadequate and unreliable rain fall, soil degradation, civil war and ethnic
conflicts, poor transport and infrastructure in the rural areas, misguided economic policies such
as land tenure, geographical diversity, rapid population growth, outdated production technology
and small land holding, lack of storage, disease, inadequate nutritional knowledge, heavy
workloads for women, etc.
The country is also known to possess the largest livestock population in Africa. However,
poverty and food insecurity remain as the major challenges to achieve economic development in
Ethiopia and especially in the rural area of the country. This is due to the subsistence nature of
Ethiopian agriculture, its mere dependence on rainfall and the existing backward technologies,
has made peasants highly vulnerable to famine and food insecurity (Alem, 1999).This can be
substantiated by the UN release which indicated the proportion of Ethiopian population living
below a poverty line of one USD a day in 1998 was 50 % of the total population, which is
approximately about 29 million people (World Bank, 1992).
4
1.3. Objective of the seminar
1.3.1. General objective of the seminar
To review the determinants of households food security in Ethiopia
1.3.2. Specific objective
To review on Causes of food insecurity in Ethiopia
To review on Indicators of food insecurity Ethiopia
To review on Challenges in achieving food security in Ethiopia.
To review coping mechanism and Policy options to minimize food insecurity in Ethiopia.
1.4. Significance of the seminar
A study of determinants of household food insecurity is vital because it provides with
information that will enable effective measures to be undertaken so as to improve food security
status and bring the success of food security development programs.
It will also enable development practitioners and policy makers to have better knowledge as to
where and how to intervene in rural areas to bring food security or minimize the severity of food
insecurity. The positive role of the agricultural sector in terms of ensuring national food security
is measured by the contribution of the domestic food production to the national food availability
and reduced dependence on food imports. Although food deficit in Ethiopia has never been
overcome during the last three decades, the domestic production is playing a significant role to
reduce the gap and dependence on food imports to a limited extent. The national food security
goal is to attain food self-sufficiency by increased use of package of modern farm inputs through
agricultural extension program, as well as improved husbandry conditions in livestock producing
areas. Improved domestic food production under Ethiopian context will have the following
positive social benefits:
Reduced dependence on food imports and saving foreign exchange; allocating the saved
foreign exchange for other alternative public uses will increase the social benefits;
It contributes to human resources development. This would be possible through
improved nutritional status and reduced health costs of the society (minimize poor health
conditions that arise from poor nutrition and health consequences);
It will enable the supply of healthy and productive labor force required for economic
growth.
5
2. REVIEW ON DETERMINANTS OF HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY IN ETHIOPIA
2.1 Food security and food insecurity conceptual understandings and Definitions
2.2 Concepts and Definitions of Food Security
Food security is defined in different ways by international organizations and researchers. World
Food Summit, when the definition was broadly set as achieving food security “at the individual,
household, national, regional and global levels when all people, at all times, have physical and
economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food
preferences for an active and healthy life” (FAO,2010). Currently, a synthesis of these
definitions, with the main emphasis on availability, access, and utilization, serves as working
definition in the projects of international organizations.
Food security is a concept that has evolved considerably over time. Most definitions of food
security vary around that proposed by the World Bank (Maxwell, 1996); wherein, food security
defined as access by all people at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life (World
Bank, 1986).
The essential elements in this definition are the availability (adequate supply of food); access
through home production, purchase in the market or food transfer; stability, when availability
and access are guaranteed at all times; and utilization which refers to the appropriate biophysical
conditions (good health) required to adequately utilize food to meet specific dietary needs and
security, as the balance between vulnerability, risk and insurance; and time (Maxwell and
Frankenberger, 1992).
Food availability means that sufficient quantities of appropriate, necessary types of domestically
produced food, commercial imports or food aid are consistently available to individuals or are
within reasonable proximity to them. At the national level, it is the sum of domestic food stocks,
net commercial imports, food aid, and domestic production. Individuals have sufficient access to
food when they have “adequate incomes or other resources to purchase or barter to obtain levels
of appropriate foods needed to maintain consumption of an adequate diet/nutrition level”.
Finally, adequate food utilization is realized when “food is properly used, proper food processing
and storage techniques are employed, adequate knowledge of nutrition and child care techniques
exists and is applied, and adequate health and sanitation services exist” (USAID 1992).
Gradually, the concept of food security took on a more subjective meaning than at the outset,
integrating the quality and diversity of needs from one individual to another, respect for local
6
eating habits beyond a purely quantitative approach. Food security is a multidisciplinary concept,
which includes economic, political, demographic, social, cultural and technical aspects (EC,
2009).
2.3 Concepts and Definitions of Food Insecurity:
Food insecurity is defined as a condition in which people lack the basic food intake necessary to
provide them with the energy and nutrients required for fully productive lives. It can either be
temporary (transitory food insecurity) or continuous (chronic food insecurity) (FAO, 2010).
Undernourishment exists when caloric intake is below the minimum dietary energy requirement
(MDER).The MDER is the amount of energy needed for light activity and to maintain a
minimum acceptable weight for attained height. It varies by country and from year to year
depending on the gender and age structure of the population (WFS, 2010).
Food insecurity, on the other hand, is a situation that exists when people lack secure access to
sufficient amounts of safe and nutritious food required for normal growth and development and
an active and healthy life (WFP, 2004). It is a dynamic phenomenon: its impact varies depending
on its duration, its severity, and the local socioeconomic and environmental conditions (EC,
2009).
Food Availability Decline approach explains that famine or food shortage occurs when there is
an aggregate decline in food supply. According to this approach people starve because of a local,
national or regional decline in food availability to a level below the minimum requirement for
survival. However, FAD has been criticized for its only dealing with supply side which
disregards the demand side. It said nothing about people’s income and purchasing power.
Furthermore, it failed to address the vulnerability differences and access to food from outside the
affected area (Ejiga, 2006).
According to the Food Entitlement Theory, food availability at global or national level alone
could not bring food security at household level. Thus, according to the entitlement approach, a
growth in domestic production does not necessarily prevent famine or hunger as far as what is
produced is not equally distributed and the entitlement system that determines access to food is
not changed. Food insecurity affects people who cannot access adequate food (e.g. because of
poverty) irrespective of food availability food insecurity can occur even if food supplies are
adequate and markets are functioning well (Deveruex, 2001; and Vadala, 2009).
7
2.3.1 Types of food insecurity:
Food insecurity can be transitory (when it occurs in times of crisis), seasonal or chronic (when it
occurs on a continuing basis). A person can be vulnerable to hunger even if he or she is not
actually hungry at a given point in time (Stamoulis and Zezza, 2003).
Chronic food insecurity means that a household runs a continually high risk of inability to meet
the food needs of household members. In contrast, transitory food insecurity occurs when a
household faces a temporary decline in security of its entitlement and the risk of failure to meet
food needs is of a short duration. Transitory food-insecurity focuses on intra and tine-annual
variations in household food access. It has been argued that this category can be further divided
into cyclical and temporary food insecurity (Maxwell and Frankenberger, 1992). Temporary
food insecurity occurs for a limited time because of unforeseen and unpredictable circumstances.
Cyclical or seasonal food insecurity occurs when there is a regular pattern in the periodicity of
inadequate access to food; this may be due to logistical difficulties or prohibitive cost in storing
food or borrowing.
Chronic food insecurity is commonly perceived as results of overwhelming poverty indicated by
a lack of assets. Both chronic and transitory problems of food insecurity are wide spread and
several in Ethiopia.
2.4 Factors that causes food insecurity
The factors that cause food insecurity are wide and vary from place to place but in this literature
the following major causes will be discussed,
2.4.1 Population growth:
There are two competing theories regarding the relationship between population growth and food
insecurity. According to Malthusian theory the growth of human populations always tends to
outstrip the productive capabilities of land resources.
In general, Population pressure has become a factor in accelerating food insecurity in situations
where: all accessible land is fully under cultivation; failure to improve upon the old methods of
cultivation; and opportunity for alternatives employment is absent (Brehanu, 2001).
8
In Ethiopian case population growth is increasing at the rapid rate now it is estimated at over 80
million (WHO, 2008) and since 1960 the population has almost quadrupled (World Bank, 2010).
At current rates, the population is estimated to grow to 118 million by 2025, and to 170 million
by 2050, however, food production shows little increase (Ararso et al., 2009). So in Ethiopian
case since much of the Ethiopians livelihood is depending on agriculture and until people shift
from agriculture to other sectors of the economy for their livelihood, population pressure on
agricultural land can be cause of food insecurity in Ethiopia (Vadala, 2009).
The impact of population growth is manifested on farm size; and it leads to high land
fragmentation thereby small landholdings and finally reduces productivity.
2.4.2 Natural factor:
Natural disasters such as drought, climate change and flooding are said to reduce food
production for a particular period. In the case of Ethiopia, there is no doubt that droughts have
created severe food shortages. According to the World Bank (2006), the whole Ethiopian
economy is dependent on rainfall and data on rainfall variation and GDP growth from 1982 to
2000 illustrate that there is a positive correlation between the two. Thus, natural disasters have
obvious negative impacts on food production and even on the economic performance of the
country and thereby bringing food insecurity (Vadala, 2009).
A frequent drought which was occurred for long years ago is the major causes for the death of
many citizen and animals because of high shortage of food and forage. The famine which was
seen few years ago also threat for the people .because about 14 million Ethiopian people were
exposed to such famine in 1970 and 1980; famine was occurred in Ethiopia (Zerihun, 2005).
Drought is the major cause for the loss of food production in areas where agricultural activity has
been overwhelmingly dependent on rainfall. In cases like Ethiopia, the contribution of irrigated
land in agriculture is very minimal and the whole food production activity has depended on rain-
fed agriculture; the disruption of rain for a season has brought a massive food shortage and
consequently hunger and famine (Brehanu, 2001). Thus it is clear that drought and rainfall
variability constrain food security status of the rural agricultural dependent farmers.
9
2.4.3 Economic factors:
Many studies conducted in different parts of Ethiopia showed that farm land, credit, livestock
holding and access to different productive assets are affecting food security status of rural
households in Ethiopia.
More land size holding means more cultivation and more possibility of production which in turn
increases farm income and improves food security (Tesfaye, 2003). According to Adugna (2008)
conducted his study in Boloso Sore district wolayita zone, shortage of oxen, lack of farm input
and land shortage are the most influential causes of food insecurity.
Similarly according to Amsalu etal.(2012) study done shashemene district oromia region logit
model result showed that total cultivated land , total annual farm income per adult equivalent,
total off farm income, and livestock size have positive and significant relationship with food
security.
2.4.4 Socio-cultural factors:
In our country Ethiopia gender division of labor due to cultural factors constrain productivity and
food security. According to the study conducted by McBriarty (2011), in all his study areas of
rural Ethiopia, it is not socially acceptable for women to plough. This is a major constraint to
preparing fields for planting on time for the season. Single women therefore had to resort to
begging neighbors and waiting until everyone else has finished their ploughing, otherwise they
must pay someone to do it for them.
Tsegaye (2009) reviewed that Socio-cultural events such as eating habit and food preference,
cultural ceremonies and festivals also influence the food security status of the given communities
and way of saving or expenditure, also directly or indirectly affects the food security situation of
that particular community.
2.4.5 Institutional factors:
A number of studies agree that poor infrastructure including roads; schools and health services
constrain productivity and thereby bringing food insecurity and dependence on food aid.
10
One study conducted on factors contributing rural women food insecurity in Ethiopia showed
that The lack of roads and transport result in fewer market opportunities, less influence from
outside and added difficulty in acquiring medical treatment or access to information and it
seriously affect their attainment of food security(McBriarty, 2011).
2.4. Indicators of food insecurity
Assessment of food insecurity/security is a challenging work for researchers dealing with it as
there are no universally established indicators which serve as a measuring tool. It requires a
multi-dimensional consideration, since it is influenced by inter-related socio-economic,
environmental and political factors.
Because of this, analyzing food insecurity follows a variety of approaches ranging from mere
qualitative to a combination of both qualitative and quantitative measurements (Debebe H,
1995). In this context, a number of indicators have been identified. In most cases, the purpose
and the depth of the study influence the choice of the indicators.
In early warning studies conducted by the then RRC and now DPPC, have used three indicators
such as, food supply indicators (including rain fall, area planted and yield estimates), social
stress indicators (such as market prices, availability of food in the market, labor pattern, wages
and migration) and individual stress indicators (nutritional status, disease and mortality
variables) to identify food insecurity situations (RRC, 1990).
(Maxwell and Frankenberger, 1992).Food security indicators are generally categorized in to two
main categories: “process and outcome” indicators. Process indicators are divided in to two:
indicators that reflect food supply and indicators that reflect food access. Outcome indicators are
used to measure the status of food security at a given point in time and grouped into direct and
indirect indicators. Direct indicators of food consumption include actual food consumption rather
than to marketing channel information or medical status. The indirect indicators include storage
estimates, subsistence potential ration and nutritional status assessment (Alison and Slack, 1999).
However, there is no fixed rule as to which method to employ due to the diversified
characteristics of food insecurity and the different level of consideration. The decision to rely on
a particular method usually depends on resource and time constraints, objectives of the study,
availability of data, type of users and degree of accuracy required (Debebe, 1995).
11
As also described by (Alem, 1999) indicated that the major supply indicators include
Agricultural production, access to resources, institutional development and market
infrastructures. According to his observation, these indicators are in most cases aggregated and
hardly serve to assess food insecurity at household level but it could provide a general picture of
an area or society (Maxwell and Frankenberger, 1992).
Unlike the supply indicators, access indicators are relatively effective to assess food insecurity
situations at household level. The most important issue related to food access indicator is the
households diversified coping strategies and their sequential responses they enter, the response
varies from the disposal of productive and non-productive assets to distress migration, to avert
decline in food availability at their disposal.
The outcome indicators such as level and changes in food consumption and the amount of food
stores serve as proxy estimates for measuring household food situation, it is capable of
disaggregating at household level, unlike the food supply indicators (Davies,S. 1994).
The major challenge in the use of these response indicators are the difficulty associated with
identifying the normal phenomenon of the household and the response of the household forced
by food stress or its response to avoid risks of food stress. On the other hand, indicators related to
food availability for consumption, level and change in food intake serve as measurement to
define household food insecurity (FAO/WHO 1992). Fluctuation in level of food production and
possession of productive capitals are also useful indicators.
2.5. Challenges in achieving food security in Ethiopia.
There are some drawbacks that need to be tackled in achieving food security in the country,
some among others are;
Misconception of food insecurity as it occurs in the general context of poverty and
vulnerability which doesn’t warrant any explicit focus on food security and the belief that
it can be solved in the normal course of development. This has reduced particular
attention that could be given to alleviate the food insecurity problems.
The complementarities and tradeoffs between achieving self-sufficiency through
domestic production and export of agricultural commodities in the long run and urgency
12
and current reliance on external aid to meet the demand by the majority of food insecure
population.
Availability of inappropriate institutions and lack of effective instruments of the current
policies, in that the current policy emphasizes and gives advantages to the better potential
areas, its recommended inputs and technologies are appropriate to those productive
potential areas who are easier to serve and better able to take the advantages of the
services provided to them, leaving the drought prone vulnerable segment of the
population at disadvantage
At last but not least, is the lack of data to support effective policy formulation and
implementation in the area of food security (Senait, 2000).
2.6. Coping mechanisms of food insecurity:
Coping strategy defined as a mechanism by which household or community members meet their
relief and recovery needs and adjust to future disaster related risks by themselves without outside
support (Tesfaye, 2005).
The coping mechanism used by different households may be different from place to place. A
study conducted in three most deprived and poverty stricken regions in the Northern parts of
Ghana showed that households use a wide range of mechanisms and communal support networks
to cope with the situation which includes collection of wild foods, market purchases, in kind
(food) payment, support from relatives and friends, sales from livestock and household
valuables, migration and wage labor, reduction in the number of meals served each day,
reduction in the portions/ sizes of meals and consumption of less preferred foods
(Wilhemina,2008).
There are four types of coping strategies that food insecure households typically use: Changing
the diet to include less costly and less preferred alternative foods; Increasing food supplies
through non-sustainable means (e.g., borrowing money, consuming seed stocks, begging);
Decreasing the number of individuals being fed by the household (i.e., migration); and
Rationing available foods by reducing meal size or frequency (Maxwell et al. 2002).
Another study conducted by Negatu (2011) in southern Ethiopia found that a range of coping
mechanisms used by respondents which includes: minimizing the number of meals and amount
of food consumption; diversifying their livelihood; cultivating more crops, wage labor, seasonal
13
migration to neighboring community during peak season; and inter cropping are some of
mechanisms used by households.
2.7. Policy options to minimize food insecurity:
Food aid, today, is mainly considered as an instrument in addressing for both transitory and
chronic types of food insecurity in low-income country. It is noted that the humanitarian
agencies, or donors, implement food aid programs in these countries in order to give immediate
response to the needy people, to increase income sustainability, to improve agricultural
productivity, and improvement in health and nutrition among the residents. Moreover it leads to
improvement in the availability of food supplies at the national or regional level, or to increase
access to food at household levels through higher home production of food crops, market
purchase and/or other means or to make more effective utilization of food at the individual level
to meet human biological needs (USAID, 1999).
According to African development bank food security brief (2011), creating Policies and
regulations that are conducive to enhancing regional trade, sustainable access, and use of natural
resources and private investments are also essential to the success and the sustainability of the
benefits derived from any intervention and thereby bringing food security.
According to Mukherjee (2008) the following strategies are appropriate to eliminate hunger
1.Strengthen productivity and incomes: Diversification and growth of the economy; low-cost,
simple technology (water management, use of green manures, crop rotation, and agro forestry);
rural infrastructure development (roads, electricity, etc.); provision for improved irrigation and
soil nutrition, natural resource management (including forestry and fisheries); market and private
sector development, Food safety and quality Agricultural research, extension and training.
2.Linkages maximizing synergy: Democratic Governance Vibrant Civil Society Strong “Fourth
Estate” Local food procurement for safety nets, Support to rural organizations; Primary health
care and reproductive health services; Prevention and treatment of HIV/AIDS; Asset
redistribution (including land reforms); Education especially for girls and women Potable
drinking water
3.Provide direct access to food: Mother and infant feeding; Supplementary nutrition to children
(such as mid-day meals in Schools) and pregnant women; Unemployment and pension benefits
Food-for-work and food-for-education; Targeted conditional cash transfers Food banks and Food
Distribution System for the indigent people (Safety Nets); and Emergency ratio
14
3. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
3.1 CONCLUSION
Understanding the causes and determinants of household food security would help policy makers
to design and implement more effective policies and programs for the poor and thereby helps to
pave way to improve food security. Food insecurity is the most critical problem facing a large
number of both settled and pastoral households in Ethiopia. Temporary food insecurity occurs
for a limited time because of unforeseen and unpredictable circumstances. Seasonal food
insecurity occurs when there is a regular pattern in the periodicity of inadequate access to food.
Food insecurity: is a situation that exists when people lack secure access to sufficient amounts of
safe and nutritious food required for normal growth and development and an active and healthy
life. Food insecurity is not static but based on its duration, its severity, and the local
socioeconomic and environmental conditions
3.2 RECOMMENDATION
Government and NGO,s should Improve the understanding of interactions among food
systems operating at local, regional and global levels.
Government should address mismatches between the capacity of current institutions to
manage for both food security and environmental goals.
Improved food safety along the food chain reduces food losses, resulting in increased
food availability, stability , and utilization so both government and NGO,s should focus
improving food security improved safety and quality of food contributes to improved
nutrition and health, Gov.t and NGO,s should address the dimension of food security
using different food security measurement
Government should Raise awareness of the pressures of increasing population growth
and consumption patterns on sustainable ecosystem functioning.
In order to ensure stability in food supply, government should boost domestic food
production, efficient food-marketing system at all levels, and promoting good post-
harvest technologies are necessary.
Agricultural growth is one of the key means by which government can reduce its
incidence of food security. More specifically within the agricultural sector, growth in
food crops and livestock should be given priority because of their superior capacity to
contribute to ensure food security.
15
4. REFERENCE
Adugna Eneyew, 2008. Livelihood strategies and food security in wolayita, southern Ethiopia:
The case of Boloso Sore district. Thesis submitted to rural development and agricultural
extension to school of graduate studies of Haramaya University, haramaya.
Amartya sen, 1981 Ingredients of Famine Analysis: Availability and Entitlements. Amartya Sen.
the Quarterly Journal ofEconomics, Vol. 96, No. 3. (Aug., 1981), pp
Amsalu Mitiku, Bekabil Fufa and Beyene Tadese, 2012. Emperical analysis of the determinants
of rural households’ food security in Southern Ethiopia: The case of Shashemene District. Basic
Research Journal of Agricultural Science and Review Vol. 1(6) pp. 132- 138.
Ararso, G. S., Schultz, B. & Hollanders, P. (2009) Planning Water Management for Secure Food
Production in Sub-Saharan Africa. Irrigation and Drainage, Vol. 58(5), pp. 509-521.
Berhanu Gutema Balcha, 2001. Food Insecurity in Ethiopia: the Impact of Socio-political Forces.
Institute for history, international. And social studies in Aalborg. Working paper no. 102.
Aalborg University, Denmark.
Debebe H (1995). Food Security: A Brief Review of Concepts and Indicators.
Devereux S (2010). Food insecurity in Ethiopia. Department For International Development.
Devereux S., 2001. Sen‟s Entitlement Approach: Critiques and Counter-critiques. Oxford
Development Studies, Vol. 29, No. 3, 2001.P246.
Ejiga J., 2006. The persistent food crisis in Ethiopia: causes, government responses and
household strategies; the case of enebse sar midir district. MPhil Thesis in Development Studies.
Norwegian University Agric. Biol. J. N. Am., 2015, 6(5): 123-133 132 of Science and
Technology (NTNU). Trondheim, Norway
FAO State of Food Insecurity in the World. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations,Rome, 2014. State
FAO. 2010. Guidelines for measuring household and individual dietary diversity. Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.
FAO. 2012. Guidelines for measuring household and individual dietary diversity. Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.
16
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. (2002). Food Security Strategy. Update. Addis
Haile, K, Alemu G., and Kudhlande,G. (2005). Causes of Household Food Insecurity in
Koredegaga Peasant Association, Oromia Zone, Ethiopia: working paper.
Maxwell, D. (1998). The Political Economy of Urban Food Security in Sub-Saharan
Maxwell, S., and Smith, M. (1992). Household Food Security: A Conceptual Review.
Maxwell.S.and Frankekberger.T. (1992). Household food security: concepts,
indicators,Measurement. A Technical Review .UNICEF/IFAD.
McBriarty k., 2011. Factors Contributing toward Chronic Food Insecurity among Women in
Rural Ethiopia. Report output of an internship with CARE Ethiopia‟s Chronically Food Insecure
Rural Women Program Design Team as part of a master’s degree at Northumbria University
(UK)
Mukherjee A., 2008. Food Insecurity: a Growing Threat in Asia. Ph.D.Senior Economic Affairs
Officer and Head, UNESCAP-Asian and Pacific Centre for Agricultural Engineering and
Machinery, Beijing.
Nigatu R., 2011. Small holder farmers coping strategies to household food insecurity and hunger
in Southern Ethiopia. Ethiopian Journal of Environmental Studies and Management Vol. 4 No.1
2011.p 42.
Stamoulis K. and Zezza A., 2003. A Conceptual Framework for National Agricultural, Rural
Development, and Food Security Strategies and Policies. ESA Working Paper No. 03-17. Rome,
Italy.
Tesfaye B., 2003. Influence of land size on house hold food security. The Case of Deder District
of Oromiya Region. A Thesis presented to the School of Graduate Studies. Unpublished.
Alemaya University, Ethiopia.
Tesfaye kumbi, 2005. Household food insecurity in Dodota sires district, Arsi zone. Coping
strategies and policy options. A thesis submitted to the school of graduate studies of haramaya
university, Ethiopia 142p.
Tsegaye G., 2009. Determinants of food security in rural households of the Tigray region. Thesis
submitted to postgraduate studies of Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa Ethiopia.
17
Vadala A., 2009. Understanding Famine in Ethiopia: Poverty, Politics and Human Rights:
Proceedings of the 16th International Conference of Ethiopian Studies, Trondheim 2009.
Wilhemina Quaye (2008). Food security situation in northern Ghana, Coping strategies and
related constraints. African Journal of Agricultural Research Vol. 3 (5), pp. 334-342, May, 2008.
World Bank (1986). Poverty and Hunger: Issues and Options for Food Security in Developing
countries.
World Food program, 2011. Country program Ethiopia 2000253. Agenda item 8. Rome, Italy.
World Food Programme (WFP). 2009. Comprehensive Food Security & Vulnerability Analysis
Guidelines. United Nations World Food Programme, Rome, Italy.