Self-Determination and Enjoyment Enhancement: A

Self-Determination and EnjoymentEnhancement: A Psychologically-Based Service Delivery Model forTherapeutic Recreation

John Dattilo, Douglas Kleiber, and Richard Williams

This article expands a conceptual model proposed by Dattilo and Kleiber (1993) to a modelfor therapeutic recreation (TR) service delivery. The original conceptual model explainedthe relationship between enjoyment and self-determination. The TR service delivery modelproposed in this article is comprised of a modified version of the original conceptual modelwith specific service delivery strategies for each stage of the TR process. It is proposed thatteaching participants in TR programs to experience enjoyment and to create environmentsconducive to enjoyment are important goals for TR service which also contribute to partici-pants' functional improvements.

KEY WORDS: Enjoyment, Self-determination, Therapeutic Recreation, Service DeliveryModel, Leisure Services

In 1993 we explained to therapeutic rec- investing attention, and experiencing enjoy-reation (TR) professionals and students the ment. While there may be additional interac-conditions of enjoyment and the relationship tions between components of the modelbetween self-determination and enjoyment other than the relationships identified in Fig-(Dattilo & Kleiber, 1993). The model we ure 1, the pattern is critical to the experiencedeveloped presented a self-reinforcing and of enjoyment. This model was developed tointeractive pattern of becoming self-deter- expose TR professionals to these ideas andmined, perceiving manageable challenges, to encourage them to develop services facili-

John Dattilo and Douglas Kleiber are professors and Richard Williams is a doctoralstudent in the Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies at the University ofGeorgia.

258 Therapeutic Recreation Journal

Perceptionof

ManageableChallenge

IntrinsicMotivation

Investmentof

Attention

Self-, Determination

EnjoymentFunctional

Improvement

FIGURE I.JOYMENT.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELF-DETERMINATION AND EN-

tating participants' engagement in this posi-tive cycle.

Although the conceptual model we devel-oped can act as the foundation for a TR servicemodel, it is not a service deli very model. SinceTR service models should be theoreticallybased and should direct practitioners in theprocess of client intervention (Austin, 1997),this paper extends the previous theoreticalmodel by modifying some aspects of the

Fourth Quarter 1998

model and, most importantly, by adding spe-cific service delivery strategies. Thus, in thefirst part of this paper we clarify the intent ofTR services by describing the nature of self-determination and enjoyment (based on ourinitial model). In the second part we describeaspects of TR service delivery designed tosupport participants in achieving the goals ofself-determination and enjoyment and, ulti-mately, functional improvement.

259

The Purpose of TR

The American Therapeutic RecreationAssociation and the National TherapeuticRecreation Society (Therapeutic Recreation,n.d.) proposed that the purpose of TR is totreat "physical, social, cognitive, and emo-tional conditions associated with illness, in-jury, or chronic disability" (p. 2) throughthe use of a variety of interventions. Whilethere are other agendas for TR specialists,teaching people, regardless of the type anddegree of disability, to create environmentsconducive to enjoyment is consistent withthat purpose. Enjoyment and the creation ofenvironments conducive to enjoyment ulti-mately contribute to well being (Massi-mini & Carli, 1988) and to personal growth(Csikszentmihalyi & Larson, 1984).

Csikszentmihalyi (1990) considered thegreat availability of free time " . . . thatsomehow fails to be translated into enjoy-ment' ' (p. 83) to be one of the most ironicparadoxes. Creating conditions that helpconcentration, effort, and a sense of controland competence while promoting freedom ofchoice and expression of preference is the"engineering of enjoyment" (Dattilo &Kleiber, 1993, p. 58). To do this, however,it is helpful to understand the psychology ofself-determination, the nature of enjoyment,and factors that interfere with each. Theoriesaddressing self-determination and factors in-terfering with it provide us with informationfor developing strategies that enhance con-centration, effort, and a sense of control andcompetence and thus foster enjoyment. En-joyment refers to Csikszentmihalyi's notionof optimal experience or flow as the experi-ence of intense involvement that is willinglyenacted, psychologically absorbing, and ulti-mately satisfying.

While enjoyment and associated func-tional development stand well as outcomesand as indicators of self-determination, theyalso are a precipitating experience. Thus, en-joyment and associated functional improve-ments serve to reinforce experiences and

lead a person on to greater challenges andto higher levels of self-determination. As en-joyment reflects control by the individual, itevokes an orientation for making the mostof circumstances and can result in improvedphysical, social, emotional, and cognitivefunctioning.

Model ComponentsThe model presented previously (Dat-

tilo & Kleiber, 1993) demonstrated the dy-namics of the relationship between self-de-termination and enjoyment. The componentsof this model (see Figure 1) include self-determination, intrinsic motivation, percep-tion of manageable challenge, investment ofattention, enjoyment, and functional im-provements.

Self-Determination. Self-determinationinvolves acting as a primary causal agent inone's life and making choices and decisionsfree from external influence or interference.Deci (1980) asserted that self-determinationinvolves autonomy, the flexibility and abilityto choose options, and the ability to adjust tosituations when only one option is available."When autonomous, people are fully willingto do what they are doing, and they embracethe activity with a sense of interest and com-mitment" (Deci, 1995, p. 2). Wehmeyer andcolleagues (e.g., Sands & Wehmeyer, 1996;Wehmeyer, 1996; Wehmeyer, Agran, &Hughes, 1998) have applied the theory ofself-determination developed by Deci (1980,1995) to people with disabilities.

A goal of many TR programs is to set thestage for people to enjoy themselves. To theextent that self-determination contributes toenjoyment, it is helpful to provide servicesto people with disabilities that foster self-determination. Self-determination in leisure,which includes the perception of freedom tomake choices and the initiation of chosenleisure activities, is essential in facilitatingpositive leisure experiences for people withdisabilities. By creating environments thatare option-rich, responsive, and informative,practitioners increase the likelihood of parti-


cipants becoming self-determined. In short,self-determination occurs when people takecontrol of their freedom.

Intrinsic Motivation. Deci and Ryan(1985) concluded that self-determinationboth directs and is directed by intrinsic moti-vation. Intrinsically motivated activity ener-gizes behavior and results in feelings of self-determination. Interest, excitement, and re-laxation provide reinforcement for activitiesby increasing or decreasing arousal to an op-timal level. These are the experiences mostoften associated with leisure and recreationand are among the goals of TR interventions.

People who are intrinsically motivatedare generally seeking challenges that arecommensurate with their competencies; theywill avoid those situations that are too easyor too difficult. Individuals who are intrinsi-cally motivated in modulating arousal andseeking challenge are more likely to learn,adapt, and develop competencies that con-tribute to well being. Fortunately, intrinsicmotivation does not depend on a particularlevel of ability; therefore, interest, excite-ment, and relaxation can arise with anyone.

Perception of Manageable Challenge.The word used often by participants them-selves to describe the subjective experienceof intense involvement or absorption is"flow" (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). The senseof movement that this word implies is cre-ated by the merging of action and awarenessaround the challenges provided by an activ-ity and the feedback that reinforces a per-son's ability to meet those challenges."Flow tends to occur when a person's skillsare fully involved in overcoming a challengethat is just about manageable" (Csikszent-mihalyi, 1997, p. 30).

People with disabilities are often eitherunaware of the possibilities for challengingexperiences, discouraged in the face of chal-lenge, or prevented by others from experi-encing challenges. It is important that peoplelearn about the availability of challengingopportunities, be given the chance to engagein challenging activities, and be encouraged

to overcome their fears and try. However,individuals must come to believe they cansucceed if they are going to risk an uncertainoutcome. Once they experience some suc-cess, they are less likely to perceive chal-lenging situations as unmanageable.

Investment of Attention. According toCsikszentmihalyi (1997), attention becomesordered and fully invested when goals areclear, feedback is relevant, and challenge andskills are in balance. From the research ofCsikszentmihalyi and others, it is clear thatinvestment of attention involves concentra-tion, effort, and a sense of control. Thesefactors must be understood and managed byfacilitators or individuals themselves if at-tention and depth of involvement are to oc-cur.

Many activities can attract one's atten-tion. However, to maintain the person's at-tention, activity typically must become morechallenging, in keeping with the individual'sexpanding skills. In addition, if a person'sskills decrease as a result of a progressivedisorder or the side effects of medications,the challenge associated with an activitymust be reduced accordingly. In any case,the challenge associated with activities mustbe constantly evaluated and changed to meetfluctuations in people's ability to perform.

Enjoyment. Enjoyment is the experiencederived from investing one's attention in ac-tion patterns that are intrinsically motivating.The activity may be so compelling in and ofitself that one becomes deeply absorbed init and loses consciousness of self and aware-ness of time. Enjoyment is consistent withconcentration, effort, and a sense of controland competence.

Enjoyment is often used colloquially asthe equivalent of "fun," simple positive af-fect, or pleasure; but we are using it here,as Csikszentmihalyi (1975, 1990, 1997) andothers have (e.g., Massimini & Carli, 1988),to reflect a considerable degree of psycho-logical involvement as well. An activity isassumed to be enjoyable, then, when it corn-

Fourth Quarter 1998 261

mands sustained attention on its own andwhen it brings positive feelings.

Functional Improvements. While enjoy-ment is a worthy goal of TR services, im-provement associated with physical, emo-tional, social, and cognitive functioning isimportant as well. When participants inde-pendently access enjoyment and create envi-ronments conducive to enjoyment, func-tional improvements should result. Massi-mini, Csikszentmihalyi, and Delle Fave(1988) concluded that enjoyment motivatespeople to do things that push them beyondtheir present ability and contribute to theirfunctional development. Although not exten-sively documented, research suggests thatenjoyment contributes to functional im-provements (e.g., Frewen, Schomer, &Dunne, 1994; Middleton & Byrd, 1996; Pax-ton, Browning, & O'Connell, 1997).

TR Service DeliveryStrategies facilitating self-determination,

intrinsic motivation, perception of manage-able challenge, and investment of attention,which ultimately contribute to enjoymentand functional improvement, are depicted inFigure 2 and are described below. Self-deter-mination can be enhanced when people areencouraged and supported to become awareof themselves in leisure contexts, make deci-sions and choices, communicate their prefer-ences, and set goals. Intrinsic motivation isenhanced when people focus on internalstandards, emphasize inherent rewards, lis-ten to informative feedback, and becomeaware of their interests. These patterns canbe facilitated (or disrupted) by service pro-viders. To increase the chance that partici-pants consider the challenge of an activityto be manageable, they can be encouragedto assess their skills, make adaptations, makerealistic appraisals of challenges, and de-velop activity skills. Practitioners can recog-nize and avoid sending messages that under-mine self-direction and creating conditionsthat are distracting. Teaching participants tomake accurate attributions relative to their

successes and failures encourages invest-ment of attention and enjoyment. In turn,generating enjoyment can help facilitatefunctional improvements.

Self-Determination. Sands and Doll(1996) suggested that if people are to be self-determined, they must understand theirstrengths, limitations, and unique learningneeds, and they must know how to use theseattributes to enhance their quality of life.Since awareness is "basic to all learning,growth and positive behavioral change"(Barry, 1997, p. 6), a valuable TR service isto assist participants to explore, discover,and develop an awareness about themselvesin leisure contexts. An aspect of self-deter-mined leisure then is engaging in self-exami-nation (cf. Hoge, Dattilo, Schneider, & Be-misderfer, 1997). More specifically, partici-pants can be encouraged to develop anawareness of themselves in a leisure contextthrough a processing strategy known as ' 'de-briefing." Typically, debriefings consist ofa series of questions which require partici-pants to reflect, describe, analyze, and com-municate about an activity (Brackenreg,Luckner, & Pinch, 1994). People who inter-nalize the meaning associated with the expe-rience are in a position to apply that learningto other aspects of their lives (Knapp, 1990).

As people develop an awareness of theirleisure interests, Lord (1997) suggested thatprofessionals should cultivate decision-mak-ing skills related to leisure participation. Ifleisure services are to foster independence,then it is imperative that participants be en-couraged to make decisions (Mahon, 1994;Mahon & Bullock, 1992). Making timelyand correct decisions leads to a sense of per-sonal effectiveness and interest which, sub-sequently, promotes investment of attentionand enjoyment. People who do not possessthe decision-making skills needed for activ-ity involvement are more likely to acquirethese skills if they participate in recreationactivities and are given considerable auton-omy in doing so. Decisions about leisureinvolvement can be stimulated by having


•Assess skills•Make adaptations•Appraise challenge realistically•Develop activity skills

•Reduce distractions•Reduce maladaptive attributions

Perceptionof

ManageableChallenge

Emphasize inherent rewardsListen to positive feedbackFocus on internal standardsBecome interested

•Develop self-awareness•Make decisions•Make choices•Communicate preferences•Set goals

FIGURE 2. A PSYCHOLOGICALLY-BASED THERAPEUTIC RECREATION SER-VICE DELIVERY MODEL TO ENHANCE SELF-DETERMINATION AND ENJOY-MENT.

people identify others who could serve asresources, locate facilities providing recre-ation activities, learn about participation re-quirements, and obtain answers to questions(Dattilo, in press). Participants can be en-couraged to evaluate their decisions, deter-mine the effectiveness of their decisions, andgiven similar circumstances, decide whetherthey would act in a similar fashion or change.

To encourage self-determination, profes-sionals promote autonomy by supporting ini-tiation of activities (Foxx, Faw, Taylor,Davis, & Fulia, 1993; Faw, Davis, & Peck,1996; Searle, Mahon, Iso-Ahola, Sdrolias, &Van Dyck, 1995; Wehmeyer & Schwartz,1997). To support these initiations, prac-titioners can provide participants with oppor-tunities to express preferences, allow themto make choices regarding their leisure par-ticipation, and permit them to experience

outcomes based on their choices. Thestrength in TR services may be in addressingthe issue of choice (Searle, Mahon, Iso-Ahola, Sdolias, & Van Dyck, 1995), and inDeci's (1995) view, "choice is the key toself-determination . . ." (p. 10).

Communication is important to self-de-termination in that effective communicationfacilitates involvement with others. Manypeople with disabilities rarely initiate con-versations and frequently assume the subor-dinate role of respondent (Dattilo & Cama-rata, 1991; Dattilo & O'Keefe, 1992). Oneway to create a supportive environmentwhich stimulates participants to communi-cate preferences and thus, promotes self-ini-tiated leisure is to approach participants, at-tend to them, and give them adequate timeto respond (Dattilo & Light, 1993).

Activity is conducive to enjoyment when


it has clear goals (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990).In many activities the goals are implicit, andtherefore, goal setting is not important. Forexample, when completing a painting, themain concern is to develop the skills which,when used, result in recognizing a finishedproduct. However, one role of service pro-viders is to encourage participants to setgoals when the goals are not apparent andwork toward achieving them (usually prob-lem-solving in the process) within an envi-ronment which fosters interdependence. Ac-cording to Deci (1995), " . . . goals need tobe individualized—they need to be suitedspecifically to the person who will work to-ward them^and they need to be set so asto represent an optimal challenge" (p. 152).Clear goals provide direction and facilitateenjoyment as these goals are achieved; how-ever, goals that focus attention on winning(Deci & Ryan, 1985) or beating the otherteam (Deci, 1995) rather than doing well canbe problematic since a focus on winningmakes the activity an instrument for winningrather than something enjoyed for its intrin-sic properties (Deci, Eghrari, Patrick, & Le-one, 1994).

An environment which facilitates self-de-termination can be established by encourag-ing participants to become aware of them-selves in leisure, make relevant decisions,make meaningful leisure choices, communi-cate these choices, and consider the actionstaken once choices have been made. FromDeci's (1995) perspective, self-determina-tion is reinforced in settings where interven-tions are being applied and individuals doactivities ". . .of their own volition, at theirown initiative, so they will go on doing theactivities freely in the future when we are nolonger there to prompt them" (Deci, 1995,p. 91).

Intrinsic Motivation. A key question pro-posed by Deci (1995) that TR specialists at-tempt to answer is "How can people createthe conditions within which others will moti-vate themselves?'' (p. 10). Intrinsic motiva-tion is reinforced to the extent that chosen

behavior continues without disruption fromextrinsic influences and is owned by the indi-vidual and/or is personally satisfying. Ac-cording to Csikszentmihalyi (1990), "Themost important step in emancipating oneselffrom social controls is the ability to find re-wards in the events of each moment" (p.19). Participants' choices can be reinforcedand a focus on participation outcomes canbe minimized, thereby having participantsemphasize inherent rewards. If trophies,prizes, or other consequences are used to re-ward learning and successful participation,they can undermine intrinsic interest bychanging the interpretation of the event (e.g.,"I did it for the prize" rather than "I did itfor the fun of it"). Mannell and Kleiber(1997) warned that

When people are rewarded for lis-tening to music, playing games or vol-unteering, their behavior can becomeoverjustified; that is, they may beginto attribute their participation to ex-trinsic motives. Research has sug-gested that such overjustification canbe dangerous. The introduction of ex-trinsic rewards tends to underminepeople's experience of self-determina-tion . . . . (p. 138)

If extrinsic rewards are given, it is help-ful to structure rewards so that they providepositive feedback, which either affirms asense of competence, if competence is theissue (Koestner, Zuckerman, & Koestner,1987), or provides them with clear task feed-back (Sansone, 1986). Therefore, it is usefulfor participants to learn to listen to positivefeedback. Where rewards are informativerather than controlling, they are least likelyto undermine intrinsic motivation (Deci,1975).

Task feedback refers to the informa-tion that conveys to people how wellthey are doing various aspects of theactivity, or how well they are improv-


ing their activity performance, or howwell they are doing by certain ac-cepted standards. In this way the indi-vidual's performance is not comparedto that of others; rather, the focus ison acquisition of the skills needed tomaster the activity at individually en-joyable levels. (Iso-Ahola, in press)

Although competition is a common fea-ture of many recreation activities, when beat-ing an opponent takes precedence over per-forming as well as possible, enjoyment tendsto disappear. ' 'The real function of competi-tion could be viewed as providing chal-lenge—as providing an opportunity for peo-ple to test themselves and to improve—andin the process have fun" (Deci, 1995, p. 69).A focus on winning is often associated withdirect competition, which involves pitting aperson against another. Focusing on compe-tition against internal standards is identifiedby Ross and Van den Haag (1957) as indirectcompetition. By focusing on indirect ratherthan direct competition, attention to taskand associated enjoyment can be promoted,and negative emotions such as animosity(Kelly & Thibaut, 1969) and impaired per-formance and aggression (Deutsch, 1969)can be avoided.

Intrinsic motivation must be elicited be-fore it can be maintained. As suggested pre-viously, intrinsic motivation is generated asa matter of interest in the environment andwhat one might do to feel optimally stimu-lated and competent. Helping participants tobecome aware of their interests involvessome self-examination (referred to in theprevious section on self-determination);however, it will likely require exposure topossibilities as well. Although observingothers enjoying an activity may be one wayto promote interest, direct participation islikely to be a critical way to stimulate in-terest.

Perception of Manageable Challenge. Insome cases, however, the best decision-mak-ing skills, the greatest exposure, or an envi-

ronment rich with feedback may fall shortof bringing enjoyment if challenges are fartoo little or too great or are perceived to beso. To improve the likelihood of a goodmatch between challenge and skills, partici-pants can be encouraged to assess theirskills. If an imbalance exists between the de-gree of challenge in an activity and partici-pants' skills, barriers may be created to lei-sure participation. For instance, if a specificactivity is too easy for participants, boredomand frustration often result; however, if anactivity is too difficult, anxiety and frustra-tion can occur (Ellis, Witt, & Aguilar, 1983).

One way to reduce barriers created by animbalance of skills and challenge is to makeadaptations associated with recreation ac-tivities. Adaptations can change the chal-lenge associated with an activity to meet par-ticipants' abilities. When adapting activities,materials are chosen specifically to meet theneeds of the participants, or the specific cog-nitive, physical, or social requirements asso-ciated with an activity may be changed. En-vironmental adaptations such as reducing thesize of the playing area to minimize the dis-tance traveled for people with limited mobil-ity and endurance may be necessary to bringabout the active involvement of participants.Finally, it can be helpful to examine possibleways to modify instructional strategies toteach people with disabilities about leisure.

At times, however, even challenges thatare well-matched to skills are perceived bysome people with disabilities as being toogreat. Fear and trepidation may occur forpeople who have experienced limited suc-cess when attempting new activities. Helpingthem gain a realistic appraisal of the degreeof challenge associated with an activity isimportant. For instance, participants can beencouraged to attempt relatively simpler ac-tivities (e.g., shooting free throws) before at-tempting relatively more difficult tasks (e.g.,a game of basketball). While challengeswhich facilitate enjoyment often exceedskills slightly, assistance may be needed


when participants lack confidence in the faceof such challenges.

Development of the participant's abilityto choose and successfully engage in recre-ation activities of sufficient scope and varietyto experience enjoyment is an aspect of TRservices. The more skills people master, themore likely it is that they will view an activ-ity as presenting a challenge which is man-ageable. Therefore, participants can be en-couraged to develop an array of recreationactivity skills that contribute to meaningfulleisure, enjoyment, and satisfaction.

As people succeed in an activity that isoptimally challenging, they begin to feelcompetent, and their motivation to continuethe activity is increased. Ultimately, successhelps people see new challenges as attractiverather than intimidating. Having a variety ofactivities in which a person feels confidentcan enhance self-determination. Neverthe-less, as Csikszentmihalyi (1990) noted, toachieve depth of enjoyment and flow, effortand concentration of attention are needed.

Investment of Attention. The number andintensity of environmental elements compet-ing with the activity for the person's atten-tion are important to consider when provid-ing TR services (Ellis et al., 1983). Ellis andcolleagues suggested that TR specialists ' 'bevery sensitive to novel aspects of the envi-ronment which might detract from focusingupon the particular activity in progress" (p.13). Attention to a task and subsequent en-joyment can be enhanced when individualslearn to reduce distractions surrounding ac-tivities that bring them enjoyment, or whenservice providers reduce distractions to theextent possible. To reduce distractions, dis-ruptive settings and people should beavoided; however, if distractions are present,participants can learn to minimize the impactof distractions by focusing attention and de-emphasizing the importance of external dis-ruptions.

Among factors that undermine attentionto a task are evaluation processes that directan individual's attention on him or herself.

To the extent possible, self-evaluationsshould be delayed until after an event, atwhich time positive attributions can be en-couraged. Participants can be helped to re-duce maladaptive attributions for successand failure, which interfere with the invest-ment of attention and enjoyment associatedwith a situation. For example, participantscan be helped to recognize that, in manysituations, failure should be: (a) attributedto external factors (e.g., task difficulty) asopposed to internal ones (e.g., ability), (b)viewed as an unstable outcome (e.g., the re-sult of effort) that is not expected to occurin each situation rather than expecting failureto be a stable outcome (e.g., ability), and (c)attributed to specific situations (e.g., failurewith the expert ski slope attempted lastweek) as opposed to generalizing failuremore globally (e.g., failure with all sports).In any case, however, such attribution re-training should only be done after the fact orwhen it is clear that maladaptive attributionshave been disruptive of attention.

The model presented here is intended tobe used holistically, because changes to onecomponent of the model are likely to influ-ence changes in another. Therefore, if a per-son seems to be experiencing difficulty inone area (e.g., investment of attention), thesource of the problem may be found in an-other area (e.g., self-determination). In addi-tion, what can be done to strengthen onecomponent probably will have implicationsfor another.

Application of Model to TRProgramming Process

The TR programming process containsfour steps: (a) assessment, (b) planning, (c)implementation, and (d) evaluation (O'Mor-row & Reynolds, 1989). Application of theproposed service model as it relates to theTR programming process results in furtherdelineation of tasks completed by profes-sionals.

Assessment. TR assessments help deter-


mine participants' past leisure pursuits, cur-rent interests, and future aspirations. In addi-tion, skills associated with making choicesand decisions, expressing preferences, andsetting goals are assessed. Participants areassessed relative to their ability to assesstheir leisure skills, appraise challenges asso-ciated with leisure pursuits, and make adap-tations to activities so they can participatein leisure pursuits which have manageablechallenges. Participants' skills associatedwith reducing distractions, avoiding disrup-tive feedback, focusing on positive attribu-tions, and increasing challenges as theirskills increase are assessed to determine theirability to focus attention on a leisure pursuit.Initial assessments of enjoyment associatedwith leisure pursuits and functional skills arehelpful when making comparisons to post-treatment status.

Planning. Because of the subjective na-ture of enjoyment and the importance of self-determination and intrinsic motivation to en-joyment, participants are encouraged to beinvolved in the selection and planning of ac-tivities. In the planning stage, capitalizingon strengths of participants and developingstrategies that address their deficits are prior-ities. Objectives are established that encour-age participants to learn ways to achieve en-joyment and create environments conduciveto enjoyment.

Implementation. Activity opportunities arepresented to participants from a range of op-tions that facilitate enjoyment and have mean-ing outside of therapy sessions. It is helpfulto communicate that activities in which parti-cipants are engaging during treatment arebuilding toward something meaningful be-yond the therapeutic setting (M. Csikszentmi-halyi, personal communication, April 30,1998). Positive feedback can result in self-awareness that may disrupt a person's atten-tion. Therefore, feedback is given at suchtimes (e.g., not while attention is focused onan activity) and in such ways that participantslearn to internalize standards of performanceand eventually do not require external feed-

back. Participants can be encouraged to ma-nipulate activity challenges to correspondwith their changing skills.

The descriptions in the boxes depicted inFigure 2 identify actions that lead to enjoy-ment and ultimately to functional improve-ments. People who are self-directed movethrough components of the model. Neverthe-less, for many people, it is necessary to pro-vide supports and arrange environments sothat these behaviors are more likely to occur(cf. Ellis, Witt, & Aguilar, 1983). Initially,TR specialists reduce distractions and pre-pare environments that are both challengingand an attractive opportunity for participantsto become self-determined, be intrinsicallymotivated to engage in enjoyable activities,perceive challenges associated with leisureas being manageable, and invest their atten-tion in a task that results in enjoyment. Ulti-mately, however, professionals work withpeople to move them to a point at which theyare effective in creating environments whichfacilitate enjoyment.

Evaluation. When evaluating TR ser-vices, it is important to examine the degreeto which participants are self-determined intheir leisure, are motivated to participate inactivities that bring them enjoyment, per-ceive that challenges associated with a vari-ety of leisure activities are manageable, andcan focus their attention while participatingin specific activities. Because enjoyment canfacilitate functional development, servicescan be evaluated by measuring participants'functional improvements since initiation ofTR services.

Strengths/Weaknesses/LimitationsWe found that theories articulated by Mi-

haly Csikszentmihalyi, Edward Deci, andtheir colleagues explain constructs relevantto TR. Since our model is tightly connectedto existing theories associated with self-de-termination, intrinsic motivation, and enjoy-ment, the multitude of research studyingthese theories (cf. Csikszentmihalyi, 1997;Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi, 1988;


Deci, 1995) can be used to support the modeland subsequent TR services. Also, the dy-namic nature of the model encourages avoid-ance of oversimplified services. However,the complex theoretical nature of the modelmay make it difficult to interpret and apply.Specifically, ambiguity across componentscreates challenges to the organization of ser-vices and efforts to study the effects of theseservices.

Because the model is grounded in psy-chological theory, it essentially focuses onthe micro-system of the individual in interac-tion with the immediate environment. Amore ecological model suggested by Howe-Murphy and Charboneau (1987) would con-sider the broader intervention context. (Seealso Bromfenbrenner, 1979, for a discussionon micro-, meso-, exo-, and macro-systems'influence on development and adjustment.)

The ethics of enjoyment is important toconsider. Csikszentmihalyi (1997) warnedthat flow can be used for constructive or de-structive purposes, and thus, it is not enoughto have people strive for enjoyable goals;they should be guided to establish and pursueenjoyable goals which do not bring harm tothemselves or the community and may evenbe enhancing to either or both. Mason-Mul-let (1995) and Widmer and Ellis (1997) ad-vised that leisure service models include anethical dimension. Enjoyment is a worthyoutcome of TR services only if the individualor community does not experience harm asa result of the enjoyment.

Future and ContinuedDevelopment of Model

The model needs greater refinement andspecification to facilitate systematic re-search. Refinements to the model may beencouraged by qualitative analysis of partici-pant and service providers' experiences.With further development and application ofthe model, including construct clarificationand specification, influences of variables onone another can be examined through quanti-tative analysis.

Some leisure education interventionshave incorporated aspects of this model (e.g.,leisure awareness, choice-making, decision-making, resource awareness) in their ap-proaches. Recent studies of these interven-tions have demonstrated positive effects ona variety of people, including people withcognitive impairments (Bedini, Bullock, &Driscoll, 1993; Dattilo & Hoge, in press;Mahon & Bullock, 1992; Williams & Dat-tilo, 1997) and older adults (Dunn & Wilhite,1997; Lovell, Dattilo, & Jekubovich, 1996;Searle et al., 1995). Nevertheless, whilethese interventions utilized a variety of tech-niques, only the impact of the overall pro-gram was determined in each study. System-atic examination of effects of interventionsassociated with various components of themodel is still much needed.

ConclusionWehmeyer, Agran, and Hughes (1998)

stated that too many people with disabilitiesdo not have the chance to learn and use self-determination skills, and they agreed withHalloran (1993) that there is a critical needto enable people with disabilities to be incontrol of their lives. We concur with theseauthors but add that self-determination ismade more likely when enjoyment is facili-tated. With the model presented here, wehope to encourage not only functional im-provements, but also the promotion of parti-cipants' self-determination associated withleisure participation, creation of leisure envi-ronments conducive to the development ofintrinsic motivation, cultivation of percep-tions of manageable leisure challenges, andfostering of investment of attention so thatoptimal experience and enjoyment will beabundant in their lives.

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