SELECTION PROCESSES AND VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT: A MULTI-METHOD APPROACH Melanie J. Zimmer-Gembeck School of Psychology, Griffith U Gold Coast, Australia

SELECTION PROCESSES AND SELECTION PROCESSES AND VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT: VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT: A MULTI-METHOD APPROACHA MULTI-METHOD APPROACH

Melanie J. Zimmer-GembeckMelanie J. Zimmer-Gembeck

School of Psychology, Griffith USchool of Psychology, Griffith U

Gold Coast, AustraliaGold Coast, Australia

Jeylan T. MortimerJeylan T. Mortimer

Department of Sociology, Life Course Center and U of MinnesotaDepartment of Sociology, Life Course Center and U of Minnesota

Thanks….Thanks….

• Mikki Holmes and Michael Shanahan for Mikki Holmes and Michael Shanahan for their interviews of study participantstheir interviews of study participants.

• This research was supported by a grant, “Work Experience and Mental Health: A Panel Study of Youth,” from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (HD44138) and the National Institute of Mental Health (MH42843).

• And supplementary assistance from the College of Liberal Arts and the Hubert H. Humphrey Institute of Public Affairs at the University of Minnesota.

• Age 27 interview: “That was kind of long process. Age 27 interview: “That was kind of long process. I didn't quite know what I wanted to do when I I didn't quite know what I wanted to do when I started college and it took me awhile to finish. I started college and it took me awhile to finish. I finished in about six years, but about half way finished in about six years, but about half way through I got a job {in the public educational through I got a job {in the public educational system} and really enjoyed that and that’s what system} and really enjoyed that and that’s what started to get me on the right path as far as started to get me on the right path as far as thinking about what I wanted to do and I thought thinking about what I wanted to do and I thought maybe a counselor and I thought a social worker maybe a counselor and I thought a social worker and then finally thought about teaching...”and then finally thought about teaching...”

But, on a prospective survey at ages 18, 24 and 25, she consistently responded that she wanted to be a teacher!

OVERSELECTION

• Age 27 interview: “I mean, realistically, I Age 27 interview: “I mean, realistically, I think that I’ve never...thought about work think that I’ve never...thought about work much actually. I mean I never thought much actually. I mean I never thought about a career in high school and I always about a career in high school and I always thought it was crazy when people knew thought it was crazy when people knew what they wanted to go to college for.”what they wanted to go to college for.”

And…she has had loads of different jobs from age 18 to 27.

UNDERSELECTION

OverviewOverview

• Prospective data (age 18, 24 and 25) were used to Prospective data (age 18, 24 and 25) were used to classify individuals into 3 career aspiration groups: classify individuals into 3 career aspiration groups: overselectionoverselection, , underselectionunderselection or or one-changeone-change..

• Representatives from each group were interviewed at Representatives from each group were interviewed at age 27. age 27.

• Themes related to selection, optimization and Themes related to selection, optimization and compensation (SOC) metatheory (Freund & Baltes, compensation (SOC) metatheory (Freund & Baltes, 1998), work commitment, and the stressful character 1998), work commitment, and the stressful character of vocational development were compared across of vocational development were compared across groups. groups.

Method: ParticipantsMethod: Participants

• Longitudinal survey data from 787 Longitudinal survey data from 787 individuals (individuals (N=N=1000 in grade 91000 in grade 9))– grade 12 (about age 18; wave 4), age 24 grade 12 (about age 18; wave 4), age 24

(wave 9), and age 25 (wave 10)(wave 9), and age 25 (wave 10)

• Structured interviews with 67 Structured interviews with 67 participants. participants.

Method: Survey Measures, age 25Method: Survey Measures, age 25

• Educational aspirationsEducational aspirations– The highest level of education they planned The highest level of education they planned

to attainto attain • Career establishment, Career establishment, 3 response options3 response options

– ‘‘it will probably continue as a long-term it will probably continue as a long-term career’ (3) career’ (3)

– ‘‘it provides skills or knowledge that will it provides skills or knowledge that will prepare me for my future work’ (2)prepare me for my future work’ (2)

– ‘‘it is not linked to my long-term career it is not linked to my long-term career objectives’ or ‘I don’t know’ (1)objectives’ or ‘I don’t know’ (1)

• Job satisfaction and income Job satisfaction and income

Method: Survey Measures, Method: Survey Measures, age 18, 24, and 25age 18, 24, and 25

• Career/vocational aspirationsCareer/vocational aspirations– Open response (homemaker an option)Open response (homemaker an option)– 3 groups formed3 groups formed

• OverselectionOverselection: : samesame career aspirations in all career aspirations in all waves (waves (nn = 70). = 70).

• One-changeOne-change: occupational aspirations that : occupational aspirations that changed after high school (between ages 18 and changed after high school (between ages 18 and 24) but were consistent through the mid-24) but were consistent through the mid-twenties (age 24 and 25) (twenties (age 24 and 25) (nn = 131). = 131).

• UnderselectionUnderselection: : differentdifferent career aspirations at career aspirations at age 18 compared to 24, and at age 24 compared age 18 compared to 24, and at age 24 compared to age 25 (to age 25 (nn = 233). = 233).

Background: Theory & Interpretation of Background: Theory & Interpretation of Qualitative FindingsQualitative Findings

• Used Overselection, One-Change, and Used Overselection, One-Change, and Underselection categories (based on Underselection categories (based on longitudinal survey data) to compare longitudinal survey data) to compare participants and to organize qualitative participants and to organize qualitative findingsfindings

• Theory that guided this classification Theory that guided this classification system.system.– Selection-Optimization-Compensation Selection-Optimization-Compensation

(SOC) theory (SOC) theory • Freund, Li and Baltes (1999, also Lerner et al., Freund, Li and Baltes (1999, also Lerner et al.,

2001) described potential life course difficulties of 2001) described potential life course difficulties of selecting too few (‘‘overselection’’) or too many selecting too few (‘‘overselection’’) or too many (“underselection”) goals. (“underselection”) goals.


• SOC TheorySOC Theory • Expected findingsExpected findings

– Overselection may not provide sufficient options Overselection may not provide sufficient options given historical change, poor initial matches given historical change, poor initial matches between choices and individual interests and skills, between choices and individual interests and skills, and other obstacles. and other obstacles.

– Underselection may result in too little focus, Underselection may result in too little focus, impeding attainment of a level of mastery that impeding attainment of a level of mastery that enables occupational achievement.enables occupational achievement.

• Other theories…Other theories…

Results: Comparison of Results: Comparison of Prospectively Prospectively Identified Career Aspiration GroupsIdentified Career Aspiration Groups

• DemographicsDemographics– No gender or race/ethnic differences.No gender or race/ethnic differences.– Little difference in parent education or income.Little difference in parent education or income.

• Educational aspirations / outcomeEducational aspirations / outcome– At age 25, Overselection and One-Change were At age 25, Overselection and One-Change were

slightly advantaged in educational aspirations slightly advantaged in educational aspirations (trend).(trend).

– By age 25, Overselection and One-Change groups By age 25, Overselection and One-Change groups were somewhat advantaged in the education and were somewhat advantaged in the education and career arenas career arenas

• Overselection and One-Change (>30%) were more Overselection and One-Change (>30%) were more likely to have graduated from university compared to likely to have graduated from university compared to underselection group (20%).underselection group (20%).

Results: Comparison of Results: Comparison of Prospectively Prospectively Identified Career Aspiration GroupsIdentified Career Aspiration Groups

• Career establishmentCareer establishment– At age 25, no group difference.At age 25, no group difference.

• Job satisfaction and incomeJob satisfaction and income– At age 25, Overselection and One-At age 25, Overselection and One-

Change slightly advantaged in job Change slightly advantaged in job satisfaction satisfaction (trend).(trend).

– No group difference in income.No group difference in income.

• Note. A 4th group -- “missing” career aspirations at one wave Note. A 4th group -- “missing” career aspirations at one wave – were lower in career establishment, educational aspirations, – were lower in career establishment, educational aspirations, educational attainment, and job satisfaction.educational attainment, and job satisfaction.

Method: Home Interview, age 27Method: Home Interview, age 27

• Questions organized by life periods Questions organized by life periods – Current work, and general and vocational interests. Current work, and general and vocational interests. – Back to interests in high school, especially in the Back to interests in high school, especially in the

career domain.career domain.– Interests and future goals recalled from earlier Interests and future goals recalled from earlier

periods of life (e.g., junior high school) were periods of life (e.g., junior high school) were discussed briefly. discussed briefly.

– Work experiences and interests between high school Work experiences and interests between high school and the present.and the present.

– Current work and interests. Current work and interests. – Perceptions and feelings about the life trajectory, Perceptions and feelings about the life trajectory,

turning points, and a summary of the interview.turning points, and a summary of the interview.

Method: Home Interview, age 27Method: Home Interview, age 27

• Length of interviews was about 1 hour.Length of interviews was about 1 hour.– 57% in-person.57% in-person.– Others by telephone.Others by telephone.

• NN = 67. = 67.– 63% female63% female– 80% Caucasian80% Caucasian

Results: Prospective Overselection Group Results: Prospective Overselection Group ((nn = 13) = 13)

• 54% of this prospective Overselection group 54% of this prospective Overselection group also classified as Overselection based on the also classified as Overselection based on the interview transcript.interview transcript.

• Centrality of work:Centrality of work: 69% placed work as central 69% placed work as central to their lives. Yet, about 1/3 were questioning to their lives. Yet, about 1/3 were questioning their career choice and engaging in new their career choice and engaging in new selection processes.selection processes.– “…“…I think in every job, obviously, people are unhappy and I think in every job, obviously, people are unhappy and

there are drawbacks. Maybe I just think that I would enjoy there are drawbacks. Maybe I just think that I would enjoy something else more, but I don’t know what it would be. But something else more, but I don’t know what it would be. But then sometimes you think, could you give up having that then sometimes you think, could you give up having that badge and the gun and going out and telling people what to badge and the gun and going out and telling people what to do and bossing people around?”do and bossing people around?”

Results: Prospective Overselection Group Results: Prospective Overselection Group ((nn = 13) = 13)

• Stress?:Stress?: 54% thought vocational selection 54% thought vocational selection processes had been “stressful.”processes had been “stressful.”

• Other issues:Other issues: Although their aspirations Although their aspirations remained constant, a minority had to remained constant, a minority had to compensate as they were not able to achieve compensate as they were not able to achieve their goals.their goals.– ““A turning point in my life. I guess, your big one is on my third A turning point in my life. I guess, your big one is on my third

MCAT, when I didn’t get in {to medical school}. That was it. I MCAT, when I didn’t get in {to medical school}. That was it. I pretty much decided I’ve given that an honest shot. For now pretty much decided I’ve given that an honest shot. For now that door is closed. I don’t ever say it’s closed forever, but I that door is closed. I don’t ever say it’s closed forever, but I do say that door is closed for right now. That’s the biggest do say that door is closed for right now. That’s the biggest turning point in my life.” turning point in my life.”

Results: Prospective Underselection Group Results: Prospective Underselection Group ((nn = 16) = 16)

• 63% of this prospective Underselection group 63% of this prospective Underselection group also classified as Underselection based on the also classified as Underselection based on the interview transcript.interview transcript.

• Centrality of work:Centrality of work: 56% described low 56% described low commitment to work and 50% said it was just a commitment to work and 50% said it was just a way to make money – nothing more.way to make money – nothing more.

• This group was likely to have other This group was likely to have other commitments (56% marriage, 50% children, commitments (56% marriage, 50% children, 40% 2+ children). 20% had not graduated from 40% 2+ children). 20% had not graduated from high school.high school.– ““...I would rather be doing something more creative. I’m really ...I would rather be doing something more creative. I’m really

interested in photography and I’m trying to break out into that in a side interested in photography and I’m trying to break out into that in a side business.” business.”

Results: Prospective Underselection Group Results: Prospective Underselection Group ((nn = 16) = 16)

• Stress?:Stress?: One might think that career goals and selection One might think that career goals and selection would not be a priority for this group, but 50% thought would not be a priority for this group, but 50% thought vocational selection processes had been “stressful.”vocational selection processes had been “stressful.”– ““I think I put a lot of pressure on myself to…to really feel, to be I think I put a lot of pressure on myself to…to really feel, to be

directed and have this really clear idea of what I’m doing and where directed and have this really clear idea of what I’m doing and where I’m going and, and I never really have that, so I always kind of beat I’m going and, and I never really have that, so I always kind of beat myself up about that. …I feel like I’ve just found mostly that things myself up about that. …I feel like I’ve just found mostly that things just kind of, I don’t know they just kind of happen, like they just kind just kind of, I don’t know they just kind of happen, like they just kind of fall in your lap and end up being what you need at the time.”of fall in your lap and end up being what you need at the time.”

• Other issues:Other issues: The underselection group mentioned many The underselection group mentioned many careers. Still, they often neglected to mention many careers. Still, they often neglected to mention many choices they reported on their prospective surveys.choices they reported on their prospective surveys.

Results: Prospective One-Change Group Results: Prospective One-Change Group ((nn = 16) = 16)

• 63% of this prospective One-Change group 63% of this prospective One-Change group classified as One-Change based on the classified as One-Change based on the interview transcript.interview transcript.

• Centrality of work:Centrality of work: 50% described low 50% described low commitment to work. 60% married, 38% had commitment to work. 60% married, 38% had children, 1 interviewee had 2 children.children, 1 interviewee had 2 children.

• Stress?:Stress?: A minority of this group (37%) found A minority of this group (37%) found the process of vocational development to be the process of vocational development to be “stressful.” “stressful.”


• Other issues:Other issues: A focus on abstract ‘higher order’ goals A focus on abstract ‘higher order’ goals rather than particular job pursuits. rather than particular job pursuits. – Selected broad areas of interest that directed their pursuit Selected broad areas of interest that directed their pursuit

of career that “fit,” rather than a specific occupation (e.g., of career that “fit,” rather than a specific occupation (e.g., police officer), as was more often reported by individuals in police officer), as was more often reported by individuals in the overselection group.the overselection group.

• ““I never saw any of the options before they came. The options were I never saw any of the options before they came. The options were opportunities that fit, they were right fits. I didn’t have them picked out opportunities that fit, they were right fits. I didn’t have them picked out before. I didn’t know I was going to do forestry before I did it. I didn’t before. I didn’t know I was going to do forestry before I did it. I didn’t know I was going to do urban forestry until I did it. I didn’t know I was know I was going to do urban forestry until I did it. I didn’t know I was going to...so they just fit. I found things that fit...I mean, I didn’t know going to...so they just fit. I found things that fit...I mean, I didn’t know what I wanted to do, but I knew I didn’t...I realized that, I didn’t have what I wanted to do, but I knew I didn’t...I realized that, I didn’t have anything to put in the box for career, so it worried me, but I was just anything to put in the box for career, so it worried me, but I was just actively seeking them out as they occurred, when I suddenly needed actively seeking them out as they occurred, when I suddenly needed a career or needed to decide something I would choose and make the a career or needed to decide something I would choose and make the choices along the way.” choices along the way.”


• As active or more active than the prospective As active or more active than the prospective Overselection group in selecting and constructing Overselection group in selecting and constructing career pathscareer paths– Considered more options, but became committed to a Considered more options, but became committed to a

career somewhat later in life. career somewhat later in life. • A few were more similar to the prospective A few were more similar to the prospective

Underselection groupUnderselection group– still considering options and exploring their interests to still considering options and exploring their interests to

find/optimize their career trajectories. find/optimize their career trajectories. • A few were more focused on making choices in other A few were more focused on making choices in other

domains.domains.• This group perceived the This group perceived the leastleast amount of distress amount of distress

about vocational development and career aspirations.about vocational development and career aspirations.

Substantive ConclusionsSubstantive Conclusions

• The interviews revealed more career The interviews revealed more career advantages in the prospective Overselection advantages in the prospective Overselection and One-Change groups (especially the One-and One-Change groups (especially the One-Change group) than in the Underselection Change group) than in the Underselection groupgroup– including more commitment to work, more focus on including more commitment to work, more focus on

optimizing vocational pathways, and a less stressful optimizing vocational pathways, and a less stressful SOC process.SOC process.

• Processes of selection and optimization Processes of selection and optimization provided some orderliness to the career provided some orderliness to the career trajectories of the Overselection and One-trajectories of the Overselection and One-Change groups.Change groups.

Substantive ConclusionsSubstantive Conclusions

• Survey indicators of educational attainment Survey indicators of educational attainment and career establishment at age 25 did and career establishment at age 25 did notnot reveal as many differences between the reveal as many differences between the prospective Overselection, One-Change and prospective Overselection, One-Change and Underselection groups as were expected. Underselection groups as were expected.

• It may be that larger group differences will It may be that larger group differences will emerge as participants move into later periods emerge as participants move into later periods of adulthood. of adulthood. – The interviews, completed at age 27, revealed some The interviews, completed at age 27, revealed some

of these potential future differences. of these potential future differences.

Underselection

2 (15%)

3 (19%)

10 (63%)

9 (41%)

Retrospective Career Aspiration Groups (age 27) b

Prospective Career Aspiration Groups

(age 18, 24, 25) a Overselection One Change

Overselection 7 (54%) 4 (31%)

One Change 3 (19%) 10 (63%)

Underselection 1 (6%) 5 (31%)

a Determined by prospective reports of occupational aspirations at age 18, 24 and 25. b Determined by coding of career aspirations reported during interviews at age 27.

Kappa = .39 (excluding "missing" category).

Missing 7 (32%) 6 (27%)

Note . Numbers and percentages indicate cell sizes and row percentages.

Methodological Issue: Agreement between Methodological Issue: Agreement between Prospectively and Retrospectively Identified Prospectively and Retrospectively Identified Career Aspiration GroupsCareer Aspiration Groups

Methodological ConclusionsMethodological Conclusions

• Although there was moderate amount of Although there was moderate amount of consistency in classificationconsistency in classification– Caution about drawing conclusions from one methodCaution about drawing conclusions from one method

• Retrospective interview sometimes overemphasized Retrospective interview sometimes overemphasized continuitycontinuity

• BUT sometimes illustrated more discontinuity and BUT sometimes illustrated more discontinuity and indecisionindecision

– Survey may not have provided enough flexibility in Survey may not have provided enough flexibility in answersanswers

• Consider asking about future plan for a course of study Consider asking about future plan for a course of study or further training rather than career aspirationsor further training rather than career aspirations

Future DirectionsFuture Directions

• Why these individual differences?Why these individual differences?– Dispositional traits?Dispositional traits?– Environmental experiences?Environmental experiences?

• Are the findings question-, age-, and/or context-Are the findings question-, age-, and/or context-specific?specific?– Wiese et al. (2002) found that Wiese et al. (2002) found that selectionselection was of less was of less

importance than importance than optimizationoptimization among individuals age 25- among individuals age 25-36 living in Germany36 living in Germany

• Selection of vocational goals did NOT seem to be a Selection of vocational goals did NOT seem to be a salient issue for a large proportion of young people salient issue for a large proportion of young people during high school.during high school.– Is this associated with less than optimal and less Is this associated with less than optimal and less

satisfying vocational pathways in later (e.g., middle) satisfying vocational pathways in later (e.g., middle) adulthood?adulthood?


• Other theoriesOther theories– Emphasize Emphasize selectionselection of goals and planning during adolescence / of goals and planning during adolescence /

emerging adulthood:emerging adulthood:• Exploration as a process of gathering information about Exploration as a process of gathering information about

oneself and the environment in order to make vocational oneself and the environment in order to make vocational choices and to set career goals (e.g., Blustein, 1997; choices and to set career goals (e.g., Blustein, 1997; Clausen, 1991; Grotevant, 1992).Clausen, 1991; Grotevant, 1992).

• Expressions of vocational commitment include the Expressions of vocational commitment include the number number of occupational choices under considerationof occupational choices under consideration, the specificity , the specificity and and certainty of career planscertainty of career plans, and the strength of , and the strength of commitment to occupational choices (Blustein, Pauling, commitment to occupational choices (Blustein, Pauling, DeMania, & Faye, 1994; Vondracek & Skorikov, 1997).DeMania, & Faye, 1994; Vondracek & Skorikov, 1997).

• Lent, Brown & Hackett (1994Lent, Brown & Hackett (1994) and ) and Savickas (1999) also Savickas (1999) also identify goal-setting and planning.identify goal-setting and planning.


• Other theoriesOther theories– Theories also describe processes of Theories also describe processes of

compensationcompensation that might occur when goals and that might occur when goals and commitments must be modified.commitments must be modified.

– Lerner, Freund, De Stefanis & Habermas (2001)Lerner, Freund, De Stefanis & Habermas (2001)• Identity formation was conceived of as a SOC process Identity formation was conceived of as a SOC process

including goal selection, pursuit and including goal selection, pursuit and maintenance/alteration, given limited time and energy. maintenance/alteration, given limited time and energy.

– Selection of goals must occur because limited Selection of goals must occur because limited resources are available.resources are available.

– Many theories assume much individual agency Many theories assume much individual agency in vocational development.in vocational development.

Documents

SELECTION PROCESSES AND VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT: A MULTI-METHOD APPROACH Melanie J. Zimmer-Gembeck School of Psychology, Griffith U Gold Coast, Australia