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The rules

of visualengagement

TRW

VERTIGO,CCLICENSEDFLICKRPHOTOBYDARCYNOR

MAN:

Images as Tools for Learning

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in various social contexts. Advertisements explicitly utilise

images, drawing on empirical research which shows that

pictures are more easily recognised and recalled than words.3

Educationally, research in media studies acknowledges both

the rise of visual culture in general, as well as the impact that

visual texts, including multimodal and electronic texts, have on

students.4There is significant evidence that visual and multi-

modal texts engage children and teenagers across a number ofareas, from gaming and social media to video and digital text

creation.5Visual and multimodal texts are acknowledged as

part of the textual and literary landscape in the national cur-

riculum for English,6providing an important mandate for the

study of such texts. Historically, Australian English and literacy

practice draws more on language-focused than image-focused

traditions, which in turn shapes how texts are read, taught and

created in classroom contexts.7Even the term visual texts

integrates a more language-based view into our concept of

visual images. The benefits of understanding how language

works, particularly from an educational point of view, is signifi-

cant for developing students literacy skills. However, changing

views of how we make meaning in the twenty-first century havepromoted what WJT Mitchell calls the pictorial turn, through

which images are becoming more dominant in our culture.8

From this recognition has developed the interdisciplinary body

of work that deals with images under the broad umbrella of

visual culture. This field acknowledges work across disci-

plines such as media studies, film, architecture and visual arts.

If we turn to some work that provides a comprehensive frame

for understanding visual culture, Malcolm Barnards analysis of

the various theoretical concepts that visual culture embraces

is helpful for articulating how we might work with images.9

Rather than just having one interpretive lens for a visual image,

he suggests a continuum of understanding. At one end we can

understand images as reflecting various cultural structures and

practices, like the conventions for labelling a scientific diagram,

or the careful cropping and framing of an image in a photojour-

nalism article. By learning the conventions and styles of how

images are constructed and presented, we can better interpret

and make sense of them. Towards the other end of the contin-

uum, there are more personal interpretive approaches, which

reinforce Barnards claim that understanding and meaning

are the business of individuals.10Viewing involves seeking the

intentions, desires and purposes of the image-maker, as well

as our own personal responses and interpretations. The dizzy-

ing stairwell photo on the previous pages can thus be under-stood using a variety of lenses from across the continuum,

where structures, conventions and techniques are accompanied

by stories, emotional reactions and personal histories.

While a continuum provides a helpful view of how various dis-

ciplines have engaged with the visual image, it can also lead to

one approach or lens being selected at the expense of others.

In my view it is more helpful to consider three simultaneous

dimensions of the image: affective, compositional and criti-

cal.11Rather than forming a continuum, these three dimen-

sions overlap, each one informing or influencing the other (see

Figure 1). While the affective embraces the sensual immediacy,

the personal interpretation and response to an image or multi-

modal text, the compositional considers the cultural, structural

and semiotic features (design, grammar, symbols, colour, line

and so on). Social semioticians Kress and van Leeuwen note

that images are also entirely in the realm of ideology,12so

a critical dimension is also necessary for us to consider the

power relations that are present in any type of text. The critical

may simply acknowledge the choices or perspectives presented

in a text, or move to a more thorough critique and analysis

around discourses such as power, gender or social issues.

An animated version of the model at left (viewable at http://

visualmodel.yolasite.com) reinforces the way these dimensions

overlap, exchanging places and emphasis.

Images in context

Understanding the context of an image is important in terms of

meaning and impact, particularly in educational settings. Most

images will be part of a multimodal text, where word and image

work together. In other texts, video and interactive media further

blend the various modes. While an image may be emotionally

arresting on first encounter, there is always a context a narra-

tive if you will, simple or complex working behind it, which can

give further insight for a viewer. Whether it is a very personal

holiday photograph or a historic royal portrait, engaging stu-dents through affective, compositional or critical dimensions

Figure 1: AFFective compositionAl criticAl diAgrAm originAlly used in

JON CALLOW, LITERACY AND THE VISUAL: BROADENING OUR VISION,ENGLISH

TEACHING: PRACTICE AND CRITIQUE, VOL. 4, NO. 1, 2005

Benetton victims Advertisement erik rAvelo/FABricA

http://press.benettongroup.com/ben_en/image_gallery/campaigns/?branch_id=2315http://press.benettongroup.com/ben_en/image_gallery/campaigns/?branch_id=2315http://press.benettongroup.com/ben_en/image_gallery/campaigns/?branch_id=2315http://press.benettongroup.com/ben_en/image_gallery/campaigns/?branch_id=2315

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also requires some background information, some insider

knowledge. Where is the staircase in the feature photo? How

was the shot taken? Was the photo part of a series, or a one-off

experience? Providing contextual aspects such as history, place

and cultural purpose of an image can give students a more sig-

nificant understanding of the possible meanings and analytical

approaches for all types of images and texts.

The Benetton campaign poster (see facing page), created in

response to the 2008 earthquake in Chinas Sichuan prov-

ince, was published in European newspapers in 2008 to coin-

cide with the opening of the Beijing Olympics. Visually, the sym-

metrical images of two people, facing each other in a prayer-

ful pose, immediately attracts our attention, as does the large

single word. If we understand the figures as a Tibetan monk and

a Chinese soldier, politically at odds, then an interesting oppo-

sition is apparent. Their bowing, prayerful pose disrupts the

enmity, while the word VICTIMS, represented by whirling smoke

or smudged dust, adds another intriguing layer to our reading of

the image. Who are the victims? Are they both victims of a larger

system? We could also ask who the aggressor is. Even withoutconsidering the brand or related natural disaster, the visual and

written elements have a strong immediacy for the viewer.

While images can have a swift affective impact on a viewer,

Joffe contends that visuals are readily absorbed in an unmedi-

ated manner because viewers are not generally provoked to

reflect on or deconstruct them in the way that occurs in relation

to verbal material.13It could be argued that our role as educa-

tors is to allow students to encounter a variety of images and

texts, as well as to promote reflection and analysis, so that they

have robust as well as pleasurable learning experiences. If

we consider some of the visual compositional elements of the

Benetton poster, we can help our students understand why this

image may be effective. The symmetry of praying men against a

white background gives a calm stable feel, where the use of the

mid shot creates a closer social relationship than would a long

shot. The large black lettering at the top disrupts the stability,

both in the blotching effect and the suggestion of victimisation.

That it is placed at the top of the page (the ideal or conceptu-

ally privileged space) further reinforces victims as a dominant

theme. The inclusion of the Benetton logo, if understood as a

clothing company, can unsettle a definite interpretation how

do praying adversaries promote fashion? Contextual informa-

tion helps to provide some meaning for the poster, as part of

both a fundraising campaign for earthquake victims, as wellas a political statement, something for which Benetton is

well known.14While context assists our reading, there is still

interpretive space opened up by the advertisement. Is Benetton

promoting both peace and earthquake relief, while at the same

time positioning itself as a political diplomat? How do these

multiple ideologies correspond with an international fashion

brand and advertising campaign? Whatever the possibilities,

the advertisement reinforces the powerful role that images play

in our lives.

Engaging students using visual images can be a potent way to

initially motivate and draw them into a learning experience.

Whether it is using advertising such as the Benetton piece aspart of a media studies unit, or accessing any type of visual and

multimodal work in other subject areas, the purposeful use of

images can play a key role in motivating students.

Challenging classrooms

Dan is an early-career teacher working in a large, inner-urban

primary school, in which 98 per cent of students come from

language backgrounds other than English, and which serves

many underprivileged families. In this community there are

high levels of unemployment, subsidised housing and, very

often, limited resources at home. Historically, many students

living in poverty develop a resistance to schooling, where they

dont experience education as a positive part of their lives.15

During one lesson in Dans class, the pages of the controver-

sial picture book Woolvs in the Siteeby Margaret Wild and AnneSpudvilas16were projected onto a large screen for the students

to read. In the book, Ben, alone with no family in a disturbing

post-apocalyptic world, is hiding from the woolvs, not daring

to go outside. His neighbour, Missus Radinski, doesnt believe

in the woolvs and encourages Ben to go out until one day she

disappears. The written text of the book is purposely mis-

spelt, using invented phonetic spelling, and the charcoal and

coloured-ink visual images are dramatic and disturbing. The

children in this middle-years class were listening to the writ-

ten text (which read aloud makes sense), but the focus of the

lesson was drawing out the possible meanings of the visual.

While looking at the scene of a dark and foreboding back alley,Dan asked what visual features create a dangerous feel. Shawn

Boy And FlAme - imAge From mArgAret Wild & Anne spudvilAs, WOOLVS IN THE

SITEE, penguin, cAmBerWell, 2006. courtesy oF penguin group (AustrAliA).

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pointed to the barbed wire and noted that being in the fore-

ground, it is drawn to make it look big. Thats brilliant, said

Dan, immediately praising the student and building on the idea

of visual perspective.

Dans questions were clearly focused on the pictures, encour-

aging his Year 6 students to find multiple meanings. He urged

them to put their Year 6 hats on, reminding them that to ayounger child a picture might only seem like a bike or door, but

to older students like them, it can hold much more. Stopping at

a page that shows the main character and a fire, Dan asked why

there might be fire in the picture. He then went deeper, asking

them What does fire symbolise? As the lesson unfolded, it

was clear that Dan was teaching quite specific visual features

of the text, using terms like symbolism, perspective, colour,

tone and angles. When studying stories like these, students in

Dans class will also create their own texts, blending words and

images in order to extend their English and literacy skills.

Dans classroom features a combination of intellectual rigour,

hands-on activities and a very positive learning environment.His students are highly engaged in their learning, which is clear

in their facial expressions, speech and body language. The

class use a variety of visual resources and technology, where

students problem-solve, discuss, take digital photographs and

share their ideas. The hum of activity that often characterises

a positive learning environment is clearly evident, with all the

students actively and happily involved. So what makes the dif-

ference? Is engagement just a fleeting moment, or the skill of a

very talented teacher?

The Fair Go team came together over ten years ago, concerned

with the issue of student engagement for children and schools

in areas of high poverty. Based at the University of Western

Sydney, the team of academics have co-researched with class-

room teachers to develop a theoretical framework that offers

both a description of student engagement and a pedagogical

guide for teachers who want to enhance learning and engage-

ment in their classrooms. Their initial publication, School is

for Me,17details a number of school case studies from South-

western Sydney. Teachers for a Fair Go is their most recent

research project, in which twenty-eight exemplary teachers

from across NSW, working with K12 students, have been co-

researching with their academic partners to detail the qualities

and pedagogical practice that make a difference in engaging

students living in poverty. The following section defines engage-ment as part of a broader theoretical framework and pedagogy,

and then considers the role of visual texts as contributing to

student engagement in a variety of classroom contexts.

The risky business of student engagement

An engaging classroom is a motivating space, where everyone has a

share in that space. Kids are comfortable in it to take risks and also

the teacher is comfortable with taking a risk in teaching.

Sue, high school teacher in South-western Sydney

Sue believes that student engagement is about being in task,not just on task. She explains that this means students are

While caring and support

are definitely necessary,

they are not sufficient

to address the broader

challenges of schooling

for students in poverty.

Its here that the discourse

that surrounds students

schooling experience needs

to be positive, resilient

and supported by effective

pedagogy.

Figure 2: FAir go project clAssroom chAnges model From FAir go teAm,

SCHOOL IS FOR ME: PATHWAYS TO STUDENT ENGAGEMENT, NSW DEPT OF EDUCATION

AND TRAINING, SYDNEY, 2006

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actively engaged in what they are doing, not just churning out

work for the teacher. She also believes engagement means

kids wantingto come to school, seeing school as a place for

them. This is the practical application of the Fair Go Projects

theoretical frame. The project defines student engagement at

two levels, termed small e and big E engagement. Small e

engagement happens in the everyday learning experiences.

Substantive engagement at this level is the combination of highcognitive challenge, high affective feelings and high operative

involvement18 in other words, thinking hard, feeling good and

working well. The type of learning experience described in

Dans classroom lesson above illustrates this.

At the big E engagement level, the framework draws on socio-

logical and pedagogical research. Educational sociologist Basil

Bernstein argues that classrooms often deliver strong mes-

sages to students through assessment, pedagogy and curricu-

lum.19The Fair Go Project posits that these messages strongly

shape students attitudes and engagement with schooling, in

both positive and negative ways. Unfortunately, many students

in low socioeconomic status schools have received negativemessages about learning and their own abilities and situations,

leading to the rejection of schooling and education as a positive

or enabling experience.20

The social and personal implications of this rejection are power-

ful, detailed in both academic research and media reports.21

Schools in the Fair Go Project are those serving the poorest 18

per cent of communities in NSW. Teachers work with stu-

dents whose oppositional behaviour often creates challenging

classroom contexts. These types of students and schools are

represented in several popular films, from the classic To Sir with

Love (James Clavell, 1967),to the more recent Good Will Hunting

(Gus Van Sant, 1997), Freedom Writers (Richard LaGravanese,

2007) and The Class (Laurent Cantet, 2008). Students in films

like these are often disconnected from knowledge and learn-

ing, having lost a sense of their own ability and a voice in the

school culture. The classroom is a place of power struggles

and control, although in some schools student disconnection

is evidenced by passive but uninterested compliance, where

teachers need to convince students that learning is active,

enjoyable and collaborative. While film representations can be

stereotypical, a lot of research from Willis seminal work in

the 1970s to more recent work by Connell in 1993 and Hayes

in 2006 demonstrates consistent evidence of disengagement

and lower academic outcomes for students living in poverty.22

Other challenges for teachers in the Fair Go research included

students with academic and language learning needs, those

from impoverished inner-urban communities and suburban

housing estates, and students living in remote contexts. At a

pastoral level, one of the key aspects of teachers working with

students is the importance of building emotionally safe learning

environments.

Students appreciate you as a staff member because you are not

leaving them [or] going anywhere. These kids do not have a lot of

stability in their lives.

Rebecca, English teacher from westernNew South Wales

But while caring and support are definitely necessary, they are

not sufficient to address the broader challenges of schooling

for students in poverty. Its here that the discourse that sur-

rounds students schooling experience needs to be positive,

resilient and supported by effective pedagogy.

To counter the phenomenon of disengaging messages, the

Fair Go Project argues that a model of pedagogy is required

that involves the interplay of classroom learning experiences

(small e) with the broader classroom and educational learning

processes that promote engaging messages about the value

of education for all students (big E) (as in Figure 2, facing

page).23Thus, a classroom like Dans will not only enact the

broader classroom processes described in the model, empha-

sising positive, engaging messages to students, but will also

shape learning experiences around the three aspects of high

cognitive, high affective and high operative. The Fair Go Project

argues strongly that a teacher must be explicitly aware of

working at both levels (small e and big E) to enhance student

engagement. The everyday learning experiences are critical,

but they are embedded in a larger educational context. It is in

the everyday learning that the use and impact of visual and

multimodal texts can play a role in small e engagement, thus

contributing to the wider work of big E engagement.

Should images just be considered a decorative enticement to

attract students before the real learning begins? Or are they

significant as both affective incentives and objects of study in

their own right? Earlier work in the Fair Go Project included

action research with a specific focus on visual literacy. This

work suggested that visual images provided many pathways

into learning, engaging students in ways that written text could

not.24Media studies research from academics such as David

Buckingham and Julian Sefton-Green similarly details stu-

dents strongly engaging with visual and multimedia texts. 25

The challenge in teaching is to build on this initial response

or reaction to visual images to productively engage studentsin learning.

Should images just be

considered a decorative

enticement to attract

students before the real

learning begins? Or are they

significant as both affective

incentives and objects of

study in their own right?

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Visual engagement

Initial findings from the Teachers for a Fair Goproject showed

that twenty-six of the twenty-eight teachers explicitly used

visual texts and resources when teaching, whether in the pri-

mary school with English and literacy activities, or within their

subject area in secondary school settings. Data was collected

from classroom observations, teacher interviews, studentinterviews and cross-case analysis workshops, where teachers

were co-researchers with the academic partners.26

Teachers use of visuals in their classrooms can be grouped

under two broad categories: learning throughvisuals, and

learning aboutvisuals.

LEARNING THROUGH VISUALS LEARNING ABOUT VISUALS

Photos to share classroom learn-ing experiences, such as a visuallearning journey for the class

Visual images to instruct andexplain tasks for students, suchas maths or science activities

Reading and discussing picturebooks

Viewing and manipulatingvisual images on the interactivewhiteboard

Creating films and digital anima-tions

Visual scaffolds, posters andcards to assist students in every-day activities and routines

Visual images as stimulus forwriting or designing activitiessuch as poetry or classroomdisplays

Use of videos to illustrate ideasor key points, such as viewing dif-ferent versions of ShakespearesShylock on YouTube

Analysing visual texts forkey information using visualfeatures such as symbols and

use of colourModelling how to extractinformation from factual textsand photos

Discussion of the interplaybetween written and visualimages

Analysing charactersexpressions in picture books

Using images as a storytell-ing aid

Viewing a film and writing areview about key elements

Learning about key film tech-niques in order to make shortvideo clips

Deconstructing visual images inrelation to film in order to writecritical responses

The distinction between learning through and learning about is

important. Whether a teacher analyses an image (as shown inthe Benetton advertisement discussion in the previous section)

or uses a visual text to illustrate a concept or idea will depend

on the broader purpose of the learning experience. Its appar-

ent that teachers in the project regularly utilise visual images

for a variety of reasons. If we apply the student engagement

framework, teachers appear to use visuals at different levels.

While the affective is a powerful element when students

respond to a visual or multimodal text, the use of visual

images in student engagement incorporates this in a more

purposeful way. So while students may connect with a visual

text for a variety of reasons from popular culture references

to the immediacy that a visual image offers the critical factor

is then how the teacher develops this as part of the biggerlearning experience.

Image matters in the classroom

Bronwen helps her Year 8 English class come to grips with

Shakespeare by showing two YouTube clips featuring Shylock,

the main protagonist from Shakespeares The Merchant of

Venice. Introducing the concept of rhetorical questions, they

view two versions of Shylocks monologue, one by Orson Welles,

the other by Al Pacino. Learning throughthese visual texts, theyexplore the intent of the character, using this as the basis for

their own speeches that they will present to peers. Being able

to see two very different actors present the character helps

these students to better understand Shakespeare.

Dan from our earlier scenario notes how scaffolding students

to discuss visual images garners an enthusiasm, which then

leads from reading and viewing into writing. Enthralled by the

story, its then possible to step back and analyse how the visual

elements work in a picture book, before using them as inspira-

tion for their own writing. In another lesson, the class read the

wordless graphic novel The Arrivalby Shaun Tan. They used this

as inspiration for writing haikus about the characters situation,adding their own digital images to their written text. Hands-on

learning activities, with students taking their own photos or

creating images, further builds their engagement with the

tasks they are involved in.

Vanessa, working with an early years class, shows a digi-

tal animation program that they will use to create their own

animations. Students work together to create a script in which

two Australian animals will be digitally animated, speaking

the words that the children are writing. As they embed facts

about Australian animals into their scripts, students are keen

to develop their story in preparation for adding the visual and

animated aspects. The excitement and enjoyment they gain in

planning and seeing their work on the big screen is obvious.

Each of these examples serves to illustrate the use of visual

texts in classroom learning, either as the vehicle for conveying

information or the object of study itself. While the inclusion of

images may initially motivate students to engage with the task,

it is the pedagogy around the visual resource and task that

develops the more significant level of engagement. This entails

supporting high intellectual challenge, the development of

high-level operative skills as well as a high affective response

to the various aspects in the lesson, including the visual ele-

ments.

Engagement for all students

There is an obvious need to support students from difficult

socioeconomic circumstances, who may be likely to disengage

with schooling, often at an early age. Motivating them through

visuals, as well as learning aboutthe visual and multimodal

texts that engage them, is one aspect of engagement. At

the same time, this work has implications for all students,

both in Australia and internationally. Australian youth spend

over two hours watching television and other screen media

each day, while the average daily screen time for eight- toeighteen-year-olds in the US is four and a half hours. 27The

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attraction and prevalence of the image in the wider media

further confirms the importance of both engaging students

and providing them with the tools to enjoy, understand and

critique. The classroom activities described above, as well as

many similar scenarios in the Fair Go Project, suggest that

teachers understand the power of visual images to attract

their students interest. The critical element is how they extend

this when using images to craft learning that engages studentsat high cognitive, operative and affective levels. Visual images

may well pique a disengaged learners attention, but it is what

follows and surrounds this initial attraction that makes images

matter for all students.

This article has been refereed.

Dr Jon Callow lectures in primary English at the University of

Sydney. His research areas include visual literacy, multimodal

literacies, and issues of equity and pedagogy for students living in

poverty.

Endnotes

1 Peter J Lang et al., Looking at Pictures: Affective, Facial,

Visceral, and Behavioral Reactions, Psychophysiology,

vol. 30, no. 3, 1993; Shahira Fahmy et al., Visual Agenda-

Setting after 9/11: Individuals Emotions, Image Recall, and

Concern with Terrorism, Visual Communication Quarterly,

vol. 13, no. 1, 2006; Shahira Fahmy & Wayne Wanta, What

Visual Journalists Think Others Think: The Perceived

Impact of News Photographs on Public Opinion Formation,

Visual Communication Quarterly, vol. 14, no. 1, 2007; David

Bordwell, Poetics of Cinema, Routledge, New York, 2008.2 Helene Joffe, The Power of Visual Material: Persuasion,

Emotion and Identification, Diogenes, vol. 55, no. 1, 2008.3 Surendra N Singh, V Parker Lessig, Dongwook Kim, Reetika

Gupta & Mary Ann Hocutt, Does Your Ad Have Too Many

Pictures?,Journal of Advertising Research, 2000, p. 11;

Deborah J MacInnis & Linda L Price, The Role of Imagery in

Information Processing: Review and Extensions,Journal of

Consumer Research, vol. 13, no. 4, 1987, pp. 47391.4 David Buckingham, The Media Literacy of Children and Young

People: A Review of the Research Literature on Behalf of Ofcom,

2005.5 James Paul Gee, What Video Games Have to Teach Us About

Learning and Literacy, 1st edn, Palgrave Macmillan, New

York, 2003; Amanda Lenhart, Kristin Purcell, Aaron Smith& Kathryn Zickuhr, Social Media & Mobile Internet Use

among Teens and Young Adults, Pew Internet & American

Life Project, 2010; Andrew Burn & David Parker, Making

Your Mark: Digital Inscription, Animation, and a New Visual

Semiotic, Education, Communication & Information, vol. 1, no.

2, 2001, pp. 15579.6 ACARA, The Australian Curriculum: English, Australian

Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority, 2011,

www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/English/Rationale,

accessed 16 January 2012.7 Allan Luke, Critical Literacy in Australia,Journal of

Adolescent & Adult Literacy, vol. 43, no. 5, 2000.8 WJT Mitchell, What Do Pictures Want?: The Lives and Loves of

Images,University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2005.

9 Malcolm Barnard,Approaches to Understanding Visual Culture,

Palgrave, New York, 2001; Marita Sturken & Lisa Cartwright,

Practices of Looking: An Introduction to Visual Culture, 2nd edn,

Oxford University Press, New York, 2009.10ibid., p. 6.11Jon Callow, Literacy and the Visual: Broadening Our Vision,

English Teaching: Practice and Critique, vol. 4, no. 1, 2005.

12 Gunther R Kress & Theo van Leeuwen, Reading Images: TheGrammar of Visual Design, Routledge, London & New York,

1996, p. 12.13Joffe, op. cit., p. 85.14 SA Tinic, United Colors and Untied Meanings: Benetton

and the Commodification of Social Issues,Journal of

Communication, vol. 47, no. 3, 1997, pp. 325.15Paul E Willis, Learning to Labour: How Working Class Kids Get

Working Class Jobs, Saxon House, Farnborough, Eng., 1977.16 Margaret Wild & Anne Spudvilas, Woolvs in the Sitee, Penguin,

Camberwell, 2006.17 For a more detailed summary of the most recent phase of

the Fair Go Project see Priority Schools Programs, Teachers

for a Fair Go, Curriculum Leadership, vol. 9, no. 13, 2011,http://www.curriculum.edu.au/leader/teachers_for_a_fair_

go,33406.html?issueID=12413, accessed 16 January 2012.18 Jennifer A Fredricks, Phyllis C Blumenfeld & Alison H Paris,

School Engagement: Potential of the Concept, State of the

Evidence, Review of Educational Research, vol. 74, no. 1, 2004.19Basil B Bernstein, Pedagogy, Symbolic Control, and Identity:

Theory, Research, Critique, Taylor & Francis, London &

Washington, DC, 1996.20RW Connell, Schools and Social Justice, Temple University

Press, Philadelphia, 1993.21 For example, the Save our Schools website lists a number

of studies and media releases dealing with educational and

equity issues in government schools. See www.saveour

schools.com.au, accessed 15 August 2011.22Willis, op. cit.; RW Connell, op. cit.; Debra Hayes, Martin

Mills, Pam Christie & Bob Lingard, Teachers & Schooling

Making a Difference: Productive Pedagogies, Assessment and

Performance Studies in Education, Allen & Unwin, Crows

Nest, 2006.23Fair Go Team, School Is for Me: Pathways to Student

Engagement, NSW Dept. of Education and Training, Sydney,

2006.24 Jon Callow, Debbie Hunter & Teresa Walsh, Visual Literacy,

in School Is for Me: Pathways to Student Engagement, ibid.25

David Buckingham, Moving Images: Understanding ChildrensEmotional Responses to Television, Manchester University

Press, Manchester & New York, 1996; Julian Sefton-Green

& David Parker, Edit-Play: How Children Use Edutainment

Software to Tell Stories, British Film Institute, London, 2000.26 All teachers in the current research project agreed to be co-

researchers with the Fair Go team and thus their names are

used in the data. All student names are pseudonyms.27Australian Communications and Media Authority, Trends

in Media Use by Children and Young People: Insights from

the Kaiser Family Foundations Generation M2 2009 (USA),

and Results from the AcmasMedia and Communications in

Australian Families 2007, 2010, http://www.acma.gov.au/

webwr/_assets/main/lib310665/trends_in_media_use_by_children_and_young_people.pdf, accessed 16 January 2012.