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Science 10 Review Package
Description of the Final Exam
The final exam consists of:
o 40 machine score questions (evenly spread across all four units)
o one or two multi-part written response questions (that span across multiple units)
What do I need to bring?
o A CALCULATOR!
*The school will NOT provide you with a replacement if you forget your calculator*
Replacement batteries are recommended
Any calculator with memory capabilities will be cleared prior to entering the gym, and before leaving at the end of the exam.
o A pencil and eraser
the exam is machine scored, and an HB pencil and eraser are required
o School ID
Will be checked when you walk into the gym, and must be left on your desk thoughout the duration of the exam
What can I NOT bring?
o portable electronic devices of any kind other than approved calculators (iPod, phones, music players)
o jackets or large sweaters, hats
o backpacks
o food or drink that will cause a disruption to others
o a data booklet (one will be provided for you)
Unit A – Chemistry – Review
Key Concepts: A1.0 Key concepts:
Lab safety o WHMIS / Household Safety o MSDS sheets
Physical & chemical properties of matter Division of matter
o pure substances (elements & compounds) vs. mixtures
o different types / examples of mixtures Physical vs. chemical changes
o characteristics of all chemical reactions
Development of chemistry o food chemistry o metallurgy o alchemy
Models of the atom o Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford & Bohr o current understanding – protons,
neutrons, electrons A2.0 Key concepts:
Periodic table organization o metals, metalloids, non-metals o rows (periods) o columns (families) – Groups 1, 2, 17,
18 Properties of metals
o physical properties o giving away electrons to form ions
Properties of non-metals o physical properties o taking in electrons to form ions o sharing electrons to form molecules
Neutrons and isotopes Electrons and energy levels
o drawing Bohr diagrams o atoms vs. ions
Naming ionic compounds o binary compounds (simple metal +
non-metal)
o multivalent metals o polyatomic ions o using the solubility table
Naming molecular compounds o using prefixes o recognizing molecular compounds
with common names Explaining properties of ionic compounds
o solid, crystals, dissolve in water o solutions conduct electricity o high melting/boiling points, strong
and inflexible bonds Explaining properties of molecular
compounds o lower melting/boiling points o solutions do not conduct o special properties of water – polar
covalent bonds Acids
o pH & properties of o naming – IUPAC and Classical system
A3.0 Key concepts:
Endothermic / exothermic reactions Law of Conservation of Mass Writing chemical equations
o word equations o skeleton equations o states (s or aq) o balancing
5 types of reactions o recognizing them o which are endo/exothermic o predicting products
moles o definition o molar mass
calculating molar mass of compounds
o formula n = m/M
Practice Questions:
1) Which of the following is a physical property of a substance?
a. combustibility b. tendency to tarnish c. tendency to corrode d. solubility
2) Which of the following is a chemical property of a substance?
a. flash point b. magnetism c. malleability d. ductility
Use the following list of scientists to answer the next two questions.
1 – Dalton 2 – Rutherford 3 – Bohr 4 - Thomson
Numerical Response 1)
Match the following discoveries with the scientist listed above. Discovered the electron (Record in the first column). Performed the Gold Foil Experiment (Record in the second column). Found that electrons travel in specific energy levels (Record in the third column). Proposed that atoms of different elements can combine in specific ratios to form new substances (Record in the fourth column).
Numerical Response 2) When listed in order from the first to last discovery, the scientists are listed: ____. _____, ______, and ______ .
(Record your four-digit answer in the numerical response section).
3) Which of the following is a physical change?
a. using yeast to cause dough to rise
b. fermenting an apple
c. boiling water
d. frying an egg
4) J.J. Thomson experimented with beams of particles produced in a vacuum tube. By testing many elements he showed
that they all produced the same type of beam. This suggested that
a. atoms of different elements have different properties.
b. atoms of different elements contain smaller particles that are identical.
c. all elements are made of atoms.
d. the centre of an atom has a small positively charged nucleus.
5) The modern atomic model comes from the theory of quantum mechanics. In this model, an electron is described as
a. moving like a propeller spinning very quickly.
b. a tiny negative particle moving very quickly.
c. a cloud of negative charge.
d. orbiting the nucleus like a planet orbiting the Sun.
6) John Dalton proposed four ideas in his model of the atom. Which of the following is NOT part of his model?
a. Atoms are never created or destroyed during a chemical reaction.
b. Atoms of different elements have different properties.
c. All the atoms of an element are identical in properties such as size and mass.
d. All matter is made of small indivisible particles.
Use the following list of terms to answer the next two questions.
1 – Mechanical mixture 2 – Compound 3 – Solution 4 – Suspension 5 – Element 6 – Colloid
Numerical Response 3) Match the following descriptions with the correct term listed above. One type of homogeneous mixture (Record in the first column). A pure substance that cannot be further broken down (Record in the second column). A mixture where the two parts are in different states (Record in the third column). A heterogeneous mixture where the two parts are visible (Record in the fourth column).
Numerical Response 4) Match the following foods with the correct term listed above. Whole milk (Record in the first column). Iced tea (Record in the second column). Bubble tea (a liquid with solid “beads” in it) (Record in the third column). Water (Record in the fourth column). 7) The idea that electrons were negative particles embedded in a sphere of positive charge was first proposed by
a. Bohr b. Thomson c. Rutherford d. Aristotle
8) Rutherford was correct in many of his theories about the structure of the atom. In which part of his theory was he
incorrect?
a. the nucleus is very small compared to the empty space around it
b. the electrons occupy some of the empty space
c. the nucleus has a positive charge
d. the electrons move around the nucleus in a random pattern
9) The correct procedure for mixing water and an acid is
a. pour both into a beaker simultaneously (at the same time)
b. add the water slowly to the acid
c. add the acid slowly to the water
d. pour one slowly into the other, but the order does not matter
Use the following list of properties to answer the next two questions.
1 – ductility 2 – malleability 3 – reaction to litmus 4 – conductivity 5 – flash point 6 – reactivity with water 7 – boiling point
Numerical Response 5) Match the following descriptions below with the correct term listed above. The ability to conduct heat or electricity (Record in the first column). The ability to be stretched without breaking (Record in the second column). The temperature needed to ignite a flame (Record in the third column). The tendency to rust or corrode (Record in the fourth column).
Numerical Response 6) The properties listed above that are physical properties are: _____, _____, _____, and _____.
(Record your four digit answer in order from smallest to largest in the numerical response section.)
Classifying matter Place the following substances into the matter classification chart:
aerosol hairspray
water
Kool-Aid
sulfur
trail mix
homogenous milk
Subatomic particles
Particle PROTONS NEUTRONS ELECTRONS
symbol
charge
number in an atom
location
10) In the periodic table, the chemical family that magnesium and calcium belong to is called the
a. noble gases b. alkali metals c. halogens d. alkaline-earth metals
11) In the periodic table, the chemical family that iodine and fluorine belong to is called the
a. noble gases b. alkali metals c. halogens d. alkaline-earth metals
12) When metallic elements form ions,
a. they gain electrons to become anions.
b. they gain electrons to become cations.
c. they lose electrons to become anions.
d. they lose electrons to become cations.
13) An element’s reactivity is related to
a. the number of electrons it has in its valence energy level
b. the number of neutrons it has in its nucleus
c. the number of neutrons it has in its valence energy level
d. the number of protons it has in its nucleus
14) The magnesium ion, Mg2+, has
a. 10 electrons and 12 protons
b. 10 electrons and 10 protons
c. 12 electrons and 12 protons
d. 12 electrons and 10 protons
Numerical Response 7. Consider the element lithium. An ion of lithium has: _____ protons, _____ neutrons, _____ electrons, and an atomic number of _____.
(Record your four-digit answer in the numerical response section of this answer sheet.)
15) What is the formula for sodium carbonate?
a. S2CO3(s) b. NaCO(s) c. Na2CO3(s) d. Na3CO3(s)
16) What is the formula for aluminium hydroxide?
a. AlOH3(s) b. Al3OH(s) c. Al(OH)3(s) d. Al(III)OH(s)
17) Which of the following is an ionic compound?
a. HCl(aq) b. KCl(aq) c. ClO3(g) d. NCl3(g)
18) Which of the following is a multivalent metal (has more than one possible ion)?
a. copper b. ammonium c. aluminium d. sulfate
19) Which of the following properties are characteristic of all ionic compounds?
I – dissolves in water
II – solid at room temperature
III – contains a cation and an anion
a. I and II only b. I and III only c. II and III only d. I, II, and III
Isotopes
Isotope Mass
number Number of protons Number of neutrons
Most common isotope?
(Y/N)
oxygen-18
nitrogen-14
lithium-6
20 10
19 21
13 yes
Atoms & ions
Element Metal or
non-metal
Number of
protons
Number of
electrons in
an atom
Number of
electrons in
an ion
Number of
electrons
gained or lost
Ion charge
calcium
nitrogen
magnesium
chlorine
potassium
fluorine
oxygen
argon
Summary of ionic and molecular compounds
IONIC MOLECULAR
How to recognize them
Type of bonding
What’s happening to the electrons
What the formula represents
How do you know how many of each
element?
Properties of acids and bases
ACIDS BASES
Flavour / Feel
Examples
Look for formulas that contain…
Reaction with metals
pH
Reaction with litmus
Naming acids
Formula IUPAC name Classical name
H2CrO4(aq) aqueous hydrogen chromate chromic acid
HI(aq) hydroiodic acid
H3PO4(aq)
CH3COOH(aq) aqueous hydrogen acetate
chlorous acid
aqueous hydrogen carbonate
boric acid
20) Sometimes when ionic solutions are mixed, they form a precipitate, which is
a. an aqueous solution that forms when two liquids are mixed
b. a solution that conducts electricity
c. a solid substance that forms when two solutions are mixed
d. a homogeneous mixture of dissolved ions
21) Which of the following are typical of a solution having a pH of 12?
a. litmus is red, solution does not conduct electricity
b. litmus is blue, solution conducts electricity
c. litmus is red, solution conducts electricity
d. litmus is blue, solution does not conduct electricity
Numerical Response 8. 3The following is a list of compounds. 1. silver sulfate
2. calcium sulfide
3. phosphoric acid
4. beryllium hydroxide
5. lead (I) chloride
6. ammonium nitrate
The four compounds that are very soluble in water are numbered _____, _____, _____, and _____.
(Record your four digit answer in numerical order in the numerical response section of the answer sheet.)
22) When HNO2(aq) is named correctly according to the classical naming system, the correct name is
a. aqueous hydrogen nitrite
b. hydronitric acid
c. nitric acid
d. nitrous acid
23) Water has several special properties compared to other molecular compounds of similar composition. This is due to
a. its neutral pH
b. its charged ions
c. its ability to form crystals
d. the unequal sharing of electrons in its bonds
Numerical Response 9. Balance the following reaction.
____Ba(NO3)2(aq) +____LiOH(aq) ____Ba(OH)2(s) + ____LiNO3(aq)
(Record your four-digit answer on your answer sheet.)
24) The following reaction CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g) is an example of a
a. formation reaction
b. combustion reaction
c. single replacement reaction
d. double replacement reaction
25) The decomposition reaction of copper(II) phosphide produce
a. 6 moles of copper
b. 6 moles of phosphorus
c. 2 moles of copper
d. 2 moles of phosphorus
Numerical Response 10. The number of moles in 10 g of lithium oxide is mol.
(Record your three-digit answer on your answer sheet.)
For each reaction described below, write the full balanced chemical equation for this reaction. Do not forget to include states for each of the reactants and products. (4 marks each) (1) Glucose burns in the presence of oxygen. (2) Beryllium sulfate solution reacts with lead. (3) Table sugar (sucrose) reacts with oxygen in the air. (4) Solid francium bromide reacts with solid aluminum carbonate. (5) Aqueous solutions of zinc chloride and sodium sulfide react. (6) Barium and bromine react. (7) Silver chlorate and cadmium acetate solutions react. (8) Aqueous hydrogen phosphate reacts with aqueous strontium hydroxide. (9) Sulfur dioxide gas decomposes. For the calculations below, show all your work, including the chemical formulas of the compounds described. (10) What is the mass of each of the following?
a. 8.77mol of yttrium oxide b. 0.652mol of cesium nitride c. 5.15mol of sulfur trioxide
d. 10.3mol of phosphorus
(11) How many moles are in the following? a. 10.0g of nitric acid b. 200g of ammonium acetate c. 45.5g of helium d. 0.550g of methanol
UNIT B – Physics – Review uniform motion
o motion is the movement of an object from one position to another o motion is considered uniform when an object is traveling in a straight line (no change of direction)
at a constant speed (no +/ – acceleration) o an “ideal” situation – rarely occurs for long periods of time o other forces such as friction or air resistance interfere with uniform motion o when an object is stopped, it is still considered to have uniform motion because it still is at a
constant speed (0m/s).
distance traveled vs. displacement o the distance traveled (d) of an object
answers the question “what is the total distance the object traveled?” is found by adding up the distance of each leg of the trip, regardless of direction
o the displacement ( ) of an object answers the question “how far away is the object from its starting point?” in this case, the direction the object traveled does matter if the object returns to its starting point, its displacement would be zero the following directions are positive:
North East Right Up
the following directions are negative: South West Left Down
Suppose a trucker drives from Calgary to Edmonton, a distance of 360km, then turns around to make a delivery in Red Deer. What is his distance traveled? What is his displacement? His distance traveled is the total distance that his truck traveled d = 360km + 180km = 540km His displacement is the difference between where he started, and where he ended up = 360km [N] + (-180km [S]) = 180km [N]
average speed (v) o represents the distance traveled over time, where
d = total distance traveled t = time elapsed
o you do not need to specify direction o measured in m/s (metres per second)
velocity ( ) o represents the displacement over time, where
= total displacement t = time elapsed
o velocity is a vector quantity, you do need to specify direction o measured in m/s (metres per second)
A ball rolls 10.0m in 4.00s, bounces against a wall, then rolls 5.0m in 2.00s. What is the average speed of the ball? What is the velocity of the ball?
v = (10.0m + 5.0m) = 15.0m = 2.5m/s (4.00s + 2.00s) 6.00s
= (10.0m [right] – 5.0m [left]) = 5.0m [right] = 0.83m/s [right] (4.00s + 2.00s) 6.00s
acceleration () ) o describes an object in motion that is not traveling at a constant speed o like velocity and displacement, acceleration is a vector quantity – you
need to list direction o two other important pieces of information are given by the acceleration of the object (e.g. -9.81m/s2)
magnitude the amount the velocity is changing per second (e.g. 9.81 m/s per second) positive or negative the + or – sign before the acceleration tells you if it is + or – acceleration
Change in velocity Direction Positive or negative acceleration speeding up (+ change) up, right, N or E (+ direction) (+ +) positive acceleration speeding up (+ change) down, left, S or W (- direction) (+ –) negative acceleration
slowing down (– change) up, right, N or E (+ direction) (+ –) negative acceleration slowing down (– change) down, left, S or W (- direction) ( – –) positive acceleration
o because acceleration describes a change in velocity over time, it is measured in m/s2 (metres per
second per second)
graphing: position-time graphs and velocity-time graphs OBJECT IS STOPPED position-time graph has a straight, horizontal line velocity-time graph is a straight line along the x-axis OBJECT IS IN UNIFORM MOTION position-time graph has a straight, sloped line velocity-time graph is a straight, horizontal line OBJECT IS ACCELERATING position-time graph has a curved line (line can curve in one of four directions, depending on the type of acceleration) velocity-time graph is upward sloping
position-time graphs o the slope of a position-time graph gives you the velocity of the object
Calculating slope:
Choose two points that are on the line To find the rise, find the difference in position between point B and point A To find the run, find the difference in time between point B and point A The formula is: E.g. A cyclist leaves home (Point A) traveling at a constant speed. After 10s, (Point B), she has traveled 100m. What is the slope of her position-time graph? What information does this give you? slope = (+100m – 0.0m) = +100m = 10 m/s [forward] (10s – 0.0s) 10s tells you her velocity
velocity-time graphs o the slope of a velocity-time graph gives you the acceleration of the
object o the area under the line gives you the displacement of the object
Calculating area under the line: (1) Choose two points that are on the line, and connect Point B to the x-axis (2) Determine the shape of the area under the line (rectangle or triangle) (3) Find the base and height of the shape (4) If the shape is a rectangle, you only need to multiply the base by the height
area = b x h (5) If the shape is a triangle, you will multiply the base x height and divide by two
area = b x h 2
force (F) o a push or pull on an object o a force is required to change an object’s motion from uniform motion
to accelerated motion o often, there is more than one force acting on an object at the same time
if the two forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction, they are considered to be balanced, and the object will remain in uniform motion
if the two forces are unequal in magnitude, or in the same direction, they are considered to be unbalanced, and the object’s motion will change
o the effect of a force on an object depends on the mass of the object (kg), and amount of change in the velocity of the object (the acceleration, m/s2) the unit of force is newtons (N) and is equal to one kg∙m/s2
work (W) o work is done on an object when:
there is a force applied to the object, AND the object moves in response, AND the force and the movement are in the same direction
o work is measured in joules (J) o doing work on an object involves transferring energy to that object, so the amount of work done on the
object is equal to the change in energy of the object
energy (E) o energy is a difficult concept to define – early scientists o all types of energy are measured in joules o different types of energy exist
chemical energy the potential energy stored in chemical bonds of compounds examples: food, hydrocarbons
electrical energy the work done by the movement of electrical charges e.g. Volta Pile (the first battery), thermoelectric converter (thermocouple)
nuclear energy the potential energy stored in the nucleus of an atom, released when atoms fuse
(nuclear fusion) or split (nuclear fission) solar energy is a type of nuclear energy, and results from the fusion of hydrogen atoms
kinetic energy the energy of motion
gravitational potential energy the potential energy stored in an object raised above the Earth’s surface
mechanical energy the sum of kinetic and potential energy
thermal energy the energy of heat – the feeling of heat is due to the transfer of thermal energy from a
hot object to a cool object heating an object (giving it thermal energy) results in its particles having more kinetic
energy Joule studied the relationship between heat and kinetic and potential energies
potential energy (Ep(grav)) o potential energy is only useful when it is converted into a different form (e.g. into kinetic energy) o for gravitational potential energy, the formula is Ep = mgh, where
m is the mass of the object in kg g is the acceleration of an object towards Earth due to gravity, in m/s2 h is the height above the Earth
o other types of potential energy exist, though you are not required to know formulas for them: elastic potential energy is the energy stored in a stretched elastic, or compressed spring chemical potential energy is the energy stored in the chemical bonds of a compound – break the
bonds, release the energy kinetic energy (Ek)
o the energy of motion, which is influenced by the speed and the mass of the object o the formula is Ek = ½ mv2, where
m is the mass of the object in kg v is the average speed of the object
mechanical energy (Em) o the sum of the potential energy and mechanical energy of an object at any given moment o assuming there are no outside forces acting on an object (e.g. air resistance), the mechanical energy of
an object will remain constant Law of Conservation of Energy:
energy can neither be created nor destroyed the total amount of energy in a system remains constant energy can be converted from one for to another
in situations where an object is rising straight up in the air, or where an object is falling, energy is converted between Ep and
Ek, but Em remains constant At the top of the diving board, the diver has a maximum amount of gravitational potential energy, but as he is not yet falling, no kinetic energy As the diver falls, his height above the Earth decreases, so as he nears the water, his potential energy decreases As he falls, his velocity is increasing because gravity causes objects to accelerate as they fall. As he speeds up, his kinetic energy increases The moment the diver strikes the water’s surface, he is at “ground level” and no longer has potential energy. However, he has reached his maximum velocity, so his kinetic energy is at a maximum.
Throughout the fall, the total mechanical energy remains constant.
Example: if the diver has a mass of 50kg, and the diving platform is 10m high, what will be the diver’s velocity when he reaches the water? m = 50kg Ep = mgh = (50kg)(9.81m/s2)(10m) = 4905J Ep(top) = Ek(bottom) h = 10m g = 9.81m/s2 Ek = ½ mv2 v= 2Ek/m = 2(4905J)/(50kg) = 14m/s v = ?
o pendulums
another example of a conversion between Ep and Ek at position A, the pendulum is not moving, but is at a maximum
height maximum Ep, minimum Ek at position B, the pendulum is moving at a maximum speed,
but is the closest to the ground minimum Ep, maximum Ek
at position C, the pendulum is at the same position as position A
energy conversions
o evidence of energy conversions change in position (e.g. falling object) change in shape (e.g. trampoline or spring) change in temperature (e.g. pot on the stove)
o energy conversions in nature photosynthesis (solar E chemical E) cellular respiration (chemical E kinetic E, thermal E, etc)
o energy conversions in technological systems hydroelectric power station
water in an elevated reservoir falls down a penstock and causes a turbine to turn which creates electricity
gravitational potential energy kinetic energy (water) kinetic energy (turbines) electrical energy
coal-burning power station coal is burned in a combustion chamber, which creates superheated steam that turns a
steam turbine and creates electricity chemical potential energy thermal energy kinetic energy (turbines) electrical
energy nuclear power station
e.g. Canadian CANDU reactor uranium atoms split by nuclear fission, releasing nuclear energy, which is used to heat
steam and turn a steam turbine. The turbines turn to create electricity nuclear potential energy radiation thermal energy kinetic energy electrical
energy solar cells
convert solar energy directly into electricity (no moving parts or intermediate steps) fuel cells
convert chemical energy from a fuel (e.g. hydrogen) into electrical energy functions like a battery, except that it does not require recharging
systems:
o since energy transfers and work are done all around us, in order to analyze a particular energy transformation, it is easier to set boundaries
o a system is a set of interconnected parts involved in the transfer everything else is considered to be the surrounding environment
o types of systems: open system – energy and matter are exchanged with the surroundings
e.g. human body, Earth closed system – only energy is exchanged with the surroundings
e.g. closed food container, house with locked doors isolated system – neither is exchanged with the surroundings
only an ideal – doesn’t exist in reality
Laws of Thermodynamics o thermodynamics refers to a change in heat o changes in energy
there are two ways to increase the energy of a system (e.g. human body) add heat from the surroundings (e.g. stand by a fire) do work on the system (e.g. make the body move)
there are two ways to decrease the energy of a system heat can flow out of the body into the surroundings (e.g. climb into a cold bath) the system can do work on the surroundings (e.g. lifting weights)
o law of conservation of energy energy cannot be created or destroyed
o first law of thermodynamics the total energy of a system (including heat) remains constant whenever energy is added to a system, it is transformed into an equal amount of some other
energy form (e.g. mechanical energy, heat) o second law of thermodynamics
energy naturally flows from hot objects to cold objects
perfect machines o a perfect machine would be a machine that was 100% efficient
energy input = energy output all energy is converted to a useful form, not lost to heat, friction & air resistance
o these machines are also called perpetual motion machines human attempts to build perpetual motion machines have as yet been unsuccessful
heat o heat is a measure of the amount of thermal energy in a system o there is no way to measure cold – “cold” simply indicates a lack of heat o a heat engine is a device that converts heat into mechanical energy
heat engines can be helpful in using up some energy that would otherwise be wasted examples:
internal combustion engine (the type of engine in today’s cars) o fuel (gasoline) is burned o the heat causes a piston to move and gain mechanical energy
thermocouple (a.k.a. a thermoelectric converter) o two parts of the thermocouple collect different amounts of heat (usually
because they are made up of two different metals) o as heat flows from hot to cold, the thermal energy flows through a metal
junction and is converted to electric energy
o in order to get thermal energy to move from a cold object to a hot object, work must be done o a heat pump is a machine that uses energy to pump heat against the natural flow
examples: air conditioner refrigerator
o uses electricity to pump a refrigerant, Freon gas, through copper pipes in the back of the fridge
o as the gas condenses into liquid, it absorbs heat from the interior of the fridge
o as the Freon absorbs heat, it vaporizes into a gas again and the process cycles again
technological advancements o new technologies arise out of a need that cannot be satisfied by current technology
for most of human history, man was satisfied with primitive tools and fire for survival in England in the 1600s, they were running out of natural resources that they could obtain
without inventing new ways of collecting it (e.g. getting coal from deeper and deeper mines) Archimedes screw
o uses a crank system and corkscrew-like ridges to pull water upwards o limitation – mass of water was too heavy to lift a significant distance
reciprocating pump o uses a difference in atmospheric pressure to lift water upwards o limitation – water can only be lifted 9m high
o new technologies and new
scientific understanding go hand in hand
engine technology o the Watt engine was a big improvement in steam engines because it used a separate condenser for
heating and cooling the water, which made it much more efficient o internal combustion engine
an example of a heat engine – thermal energy produced from the combustion of gasoline causes air in pistons to expand, pushing pistons upwards
most improvements to this engine involve new types of fuel from coal to gasoline (burns much hotter, so engine can be smaller) with an impending shortage of fossil fuels, new alternative fuels are being developed
energy conversions and efficiency o the energy input is the amount of work done on an object
in a perfect machine, all the energy put into a system would be useful work output, but in reality, some energy is converted into waste energy (e.g. heat)
o the energy output is the amount of energy actually gained by the object, or the energy the object has available to do work
o efficiency is a measurement of the ratio between energy input and output o recall, no machine invented by humans is 100% efficient o the more efficient a machine, the smaller the difference between the energy input and the useful
energy output o most often, the rest of the energy is lost as heat
knowledge of science
grows
a new machine is invented
attempts are made to improve the
machine
Example: 300 J of electric energy are used to power a light-bulb. If the light emits 120 J of light energy, what is the efficiency of the bulb?
Win = 300J Wout = 120J efficiency = work output = 120J x 100% = 40%
work input 300J
Example: A 0.500kg rubber ball is bounced from a height of 1.0m. It hits the floor and bounces back up, but because the energy conversion is only 80%, the ball does not reach its original height. How much potential gravitational energy does the ball have after the bounce, and how high does it bounce? m = 0.500kg Energy input = Ep1 = mgh1 = (0.500kg)(9.81m/s)(1.0m) = 4.91J h1 = 1.0m g = 9.81m/s2 % efficiency = Eout / Ein Eout = (efficiency)(Ein) efficiency = 80%=0.80 = (0.80)(4.91J) = 3.92J Energy output = Ep2 = 3.92J Ep2 = mgh2 h2 = Ep2/mg = (3.92J)/(0.500kg)(9.81m/s) = 0.80m
energy supply
o solar energy sources any energy source derived directly or indirectly from the sun
wind energy – caused by uneven heating of the Earth’s surface, causing convection currents
water energy – caused by heating of the Earth’s water, water evaporates and falls as precipitation, causes movement of water, converted to electricity
biomass – any form of organic matter that stores energy from the Sun by photosynthesis
o e.g. plants, wood fossil fuels – formed from plants and animals that lived and harnessed solar energy
millions of years ago o e.g. oil, coal, natural gas
o non-solar energy sources do not rely on the sun
nuclear energy – energy obtained from the nucleus of atoms undergoing nuclear fusion (2 atoms fuse), or nuclear fission (1 atom splits)
geothermal energy – thermal energy from the heat of Earth’s core o evidenced by geysers, hot springs, volcanoes
tidal energy – movement of ocean water, caused by the gravitational pull by the Moon
o renewable energy continuously and infinitely available using these energy types do not deplete their supply e.g. solar, wind, water, geothermal, tidal, biomass
o nonrenewable energy limited and irreplaceable e.g. fossil fuels and nuclear energy
energy demand o demand for energy has increased because of several factors
exponential population growth increased industrialization greater reliance on non-renewable energy sources than on renewable energy
o key terms: energy consumption: use of energy energy conservation: limiting the amount of energy used cogeneration – uses waste energy from one industrial process to power another
e.g. using waste heat from a power station to heat local buildings sustainable development – economic development that meets current needs without
jeopardizing future generations’ ability to meet their needs.
Practice Questions:
1. Which of the following in not a result of an energy transfer or transformation? a. an object undergoes a change in status or significance. b. an object undergoes a change in temperature. c. an object undergoes a change in motion. d. an object undergoes a change in shape or position.
2. As a machine is improved, its efficiency should:
a. increase as the amount of waste energy decreases. b. decrease as the amount of waste energy decreases. c. increase as the amount of waste energy increases. d. decrease as the amount of waste energy increases.
3. Jupiter’s acceleration due to gravity is 26.2 m/s2. The amount of potential energy stored in a 300g object 1.75m
above Jupiter’s surface would be: a. 5.15 x 103 J b. 13.8 J c. 13.8 x 103 J d. 5.15 J
4. A vehicle will have traveled fastest when it covers: a. more distance in more time. b. less distance in more time. c. more distance in less time. d. less distance in less time.
5. Objects A and B have the same kinetic energy, but object B has three times the speed of object A. The mass of object B must be:
a. three times the mass of object A. b. nine times the mass of object A. c. one-third the mass of object A. d. one-ninth the mass of object A.
6. If the mechanical energy remains constant and the height above the ground of an object decreased, the kinetic energy would:
a. increase, because potential energy increases. b. decrease, because potential energy increases. c. increase, because potential energy decreases. d. decrease, because potential energy decreases.
7. The acceleration of an object in motion is positive when:
a. its speed increases, traveling North. b. its speed increases as it falls. c. its speed stays constant, traveling East. d. its speed decreases as it is rolled up a hill.
Use the following graph to answer the next three questions: 8. The object with the greatest speed after 2.0s is:
a. object 1. b. object 2. c. object 3. d. all three objects have the same speed.
9. The object that has covered the greatest distance after 2.0s is: a. object 1. b. object 2. c. object 3. d. all three objects have covered the same distance.
Numerical Response 1. The acceleration of object 2 is m/s2.
(Record your two digit answer)
10. A vendor selling hot dogs at a football game carries a 5.0kg tray. Work would be done by the vendor when he: a. stands waiting for money b. walks across the aisle to a customer. c. makes change. d. climbs a flight of stairs.
11. A 2.50kg trophy is moved from a shelf 2.00m high to another shelf 3.00m from the floor. The work done to move the
trophy from the lower shelf to the higher one is: a. 24.5 J b. 73.6 J c. 49.1 J d. 123 J
12. A 0.300 kg arrow is shot directly upwards at a speed of 10.0m/s. What height does the arrow reach? a. 2.0 m b. 5.1 m c. 15 m d. 98 m
Numerical Response
2. A steam engine has a heat input of 1000 J and does 350 J of useful work. What is the percent efficiency of the engine? (Record your three-digit answer in the numerical response section of this answer sheet.)
Numerical Response
3. The list below are some types of energy: (1) potential (4) electrical (2) kinetic (5) chemical (3) thermal (6) nuclear
In a coal burning power plant, the energy transfers that occur, in order, are: _____ _____ _____ _____ (Record your four digit answer in the numerical response section of this answer sheet.)
13. Which of the following is a scalar quantity? a. velocity b. displacement c. force d. energy
14. A newton is a measurement of force, and is equal to
a. 1 𝑘𝑔∙𝑚
𝑠 b. 1
𝑘𝑔∙𝑚2
𝑠 c. 1
𝑘𝑔∙𝑚2
𝑠2 d. 1
𝑘𝑔∙𝑚
𝑠2
15. Which statement is true about an object that travels forward, then back to its starting point?
a. its distance traveled is zero b. its displacement is twice the distance of the forward leg c. its distance traveled is the forward leg minus the backward leg? d. its displacement is zero
Use the following information to answer the next two questions.
When merging on to a highway, a car accelerates west from 15 m/s to 35 m/s in 5.0 s.
16. The acceleration of the car is
a. 4.0 m/s2 [W] b. 20 m/s2 [W] c. 4.0 m/s2 [E] d. 10 m/s2 [E]
17. If a position-time graph were sketched for the motion of the car, the appropriate shape of the line would be a. b. c. d.
18. The main reason a pen doesn’t roll off the table but remains in place is: a. The pen has no forces acting on it b. Unbalanced force is applied on the pen c. All forces acting on the pen are in balance d. Balanced forces are acting in the same direction
Use the following information to answer the next two questions.
A student draws the following graph but forgets to title it and label the vertical axis.
19. If the student’s graph is a position-time graph, the object is a. traveling at a constant speed of 10 m/s b. stopped 10 m from the starting point c. speeding up by 10 m/s d. returning to its starting point 20. If the student’s graph is a speed-time graph, it indicates that a. the object is traveling at a constant speed of 10 m/s b. the object is stopped 10 m from the starting point c. the object is speeding up by 10 m/s d. the object has traveled 10m
Numerical Response:
4. A toy car travels at 9.0m/s for 11 s. Its displacement is m. (Record your two-digit answer)
Use the following information to answer the three questions.
21. The slope of the graph is a. 0.0 m/s b. 0.0 m/s2
c. 1.2 m/s d. 5.0 m/s2
22. The distance traveled by the student over the five
second period is a. 0.0 m b. 5.0 m
c. 6.0 m d. 7.5 m
23. If we were to graph the motion of the student using a distance-time graph, the line would be
a. a straight horizontal line at 0 m b. a straight horizontal line at 1.2 m c. a straight slanted line d. a curved, upward sloping line
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Spee
d (
m/s
)
Time (s)
Speed-time graph of a student as he walks down the hallway
0
5
10
15
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
Time (s)
24. What force needs to be applied to maintain the height of the book that is being subject to a gravitational force of -5.0 N [down]?
a) 10 N [up] b. 5.0 N [up] c. 10.0 N [down] d. 5.0 N [down]
Numerical Response: 5. If two movers applied a force of 60N to move a couch across the room, and expended a total of 2000 J of energy, they
moved the couch m. (Record your two-digit answer)
6. A dad carries his child (with a weight of 200N) to the top of a waterslide tower, a distance of 0.130 km. If the work
done by him is a.bc x 10d J, the values of a, b, c and d are: _____, _____, _____, _____. (Record your four-digit answer)
Written Response: 1) A baseball thrown at 35.0m/s strikes a catcher’s mitt and slows down to rest in 0.500s. What is the magnitude of the ball’s
acceleration?
2) A water balloon is dropped from a height of 12.0m. Determine the speed of the balloon just before it hits the ground.
3) Identify the following vectors, using both the X-axis and navigator methods.
4) A tsunami travels a distance of 4.0 x 106 m in 3.6 x 104 s. What is the average speed of the wave?
5) Choose two types of energy generation. a. Identify each as solar/non-solar, and renewable/non-renewable b. Describe two specific advantages and disadvantages to each. c. Identify the type of energy input in each one.
6) What is the speed of a 300g ball with 304J of kinetic energy?
7) A boat travels at 8.00 m/s[N] for 14.0s. What is the displacement of the boat?
8) A large crane did 2.2 x 104 J of work in lifting a demolition ball a vertical distance of 9.5 m. Calculate the average force exerted by the chain of the crane on the demolition ball.
9) Describe a device or situation where the following energy conversion takes place: a. Kinetic to thermal b. Chemical to electromagnetic (light) c. Nuclear to electrical
10) A small electric motor has an efficiency of 85%. In lifting a small load, it produces 15 J of mechanical energy input.
Calculate the useful output of the motor.
Unit C – Biology – Review
Key concepts:
C1.0: Microscopy
Scientists – contributions to microscopy / cell
theory
Janssens
Hooke
Van Leeuwenhoek
Redi
Needham
Spallanzani
Pasteur
Brown, Schleiden & Schwann
Cell theory
Parts of the microscope
Microscopy skills
Calculating magnification
Measuring field of view (low power)
Calculating field of view (high power)
Calculating actual size
Calculating scale
Unit conversion (e.g. mm to µm)
Advancements in microscopy
Magnification, resolution, contrast
Light microscopes vs. electron
microscopes
Applications in industry & medicine
C2.0: Cells
Organelles – structure/function
Differences between animals and plants
Photosynthesis, Cellular respiration, Energy
storage
Chemical reactions
Molecules used by the cell to store excess
energy
Fluid Mosaic Model
Cell membrane as phospholipid bilayer
Roll in cell communication & transport
Transport – compare, contrast
Diffusion
Osmosis
Facilitated Diffusion
Active transport
Endo/Exocytosis
Tonicity and its impact on the cell
Applications in industry & medicine
Surface area to volume ratios
Implications of multicellularity
Calculations – what the numbers mean
C3.0: Plants
Organization of a multicellular organism
(cells, tissues, organs, systems)
Structure & function of plant tissues
Dermal tissue – upper & lower epidermis
Ground tissue – Palisade layer & spongy
mesophyll
Lenticels
Guard cells / stoma
Xylem & Phloem
Control systems in plants
Opening and closing the stoma
Phototropism
Darwin’s experiment
Auxin
Gravitropism
Transport in plants
Root pressure
Cohesion
Adhesion
Transpirational pull
Pressure-flow theory
Practice Questions:
Numerical Response 1 If a microscope has a 10× objective lens in place with a 15× eyepiece lens, the magnification of this system is ×. (Record your three-digit answer)
1. Which one of the following scientists was first to identify the nucleus as an important cell structure?
a. Brown b. Hooke c. Pasteur d. Schleiden
2. Which of the following statements is not part of the cell theory? a. Cells are the smallest unit of life. b. Cells come from pre-existing cells. c. Cells can form from non-living matter. d. All living things are made of one or more cells.
3. Compound microscopes contain more than one a. lens b. eyepiece c. diaphragm d. light source
4. When a specimen is stained, which characteristic of the image is improved?
a. fixation b. contrast c. transmission d. magnification
5. One advantage of using a light microscope over a transmission electron microscope is that a. resolution is better b. more detail is observed c. live specimens can be observed d. specimens are imbedded in plastic
Numerical Response 2 A student using a microscope measured the low-power field diameter to be 20mm. The student then switched from the low-power (4x) objective lens to the medium-power (10x) objective lens. Assuming a 10x ocular lens, the medium-power field diameter is mm. (Record your two-digit answer)
6. If you were looking at the letter G under a compound microscope, which of the following would correctly illustrate what you see?
a. b. c. d.
7. What part of the microscope holds the objective lens? a. eyepiece b. nosepiece c. mouthpiece d. headpiece
Numerical Response 3 An object that is 1.0mm in size is 1.0x10-a m, 1.0x10-b cm and 1.0x10cµm. The value of a, b, and c are: , , and . (Record your three-digit answer)
8. If you placed a small piece of onion on a slide and looked at it, then shifted the slide towards the left,
the image would appear to a. move left b. move right c. move closer d. become blurry
9. The amount of light that passes through a sample on a slide
a. is adjusted by the coarse magnification knob b. is adjusted by the diaphragm c. is adjusted by the slide d. cannot be adjusted, just turned on or off
10. The ability to see two objects as separate refers to the microscope’s
a. magnification b. contrast c. resolution d. illumination
Use the following information to answer the next question.
Changes in a microscope image: 1 - increase in magnification 2 - decrease in magnification 3 - increase in field diameter 4 - decrease in field diameter 5 - increase in eyepiece lens power 6 - decrease in eyepiece lens power
Numerical Response 4 Switching from a low power to high power objective lens would have which effects, as numbered above? (Record your answers in numerical order)
Use the following information to answer the next question.
Activities in the development of science 1. Identification of the nucleus as the cell’s command centre 2. Theory that cells can only arise from other cells 3. Development of the first compound microscope 4. Investigation of the structure of cork
Numerical Response 5 Match the individual associated with each activity as numbered above.
Hooke Brown Virchow the Janssens
(Record your four-digit answer)
11. When a specimen is observed with Microscope A, it appears large, but out of focus. Under Microscope B, it appears smaller, but the image is crisper. Compared to Microscope A, Microscope B has
a. better magnification but poorer resolution b. poorer magnification but better contrast c. poorer contrast but better resolution d. better resolution but poorer magnification
12. State the three points of the cell theory.
13. Suppose that you observe a specimen under high power of your microscope and estimate that it takes up
about one third of the field diameter. The high power field diameter is 0.450 mm. What is the length of the specimen in micrometers? Explain how you reached your answer.
14. The cell organelle whose primary function is packaging and transporting cell materials is the
a. lysosome b. Golgi apparatus c. vacuole d. ER
15. Because it will burst to contain a cancerous or infected cell, the cell organelle also known as the “suicide sac” is the
a. ribosome b. lysosome c. vacuole d. liposomes 16. The cell structure associated with lipid (fat) production is the
a. ribosome b. Golgi apparatus c. mitochondria d. smooth ER
17. Which two organelles perform opposite functions? a. chloroplast and mitochondria b. lysosomes and vacuoles
c. smooth ER and rough ER d. cytoplasm and centrioles
18. Complete the table by putting a check where the statement is true.
Statement PLANT CELLS ANIMAL CELLS have a cell wall have a cell membrane contain a cytoskeleton contain chlorophyll undergo cellular respiration undergo photosynthesis
19. Suppose a plant and an animal both take in extra energy that they need to store in their cells.
a. Which stores the energy as glycogen and which as cellulose? b. Which of these chemicals is likely to make the organism more rigid/crunchier?
20. Label the following structures:
21. Draw a diagram of the phospholipid bilayer, and label the following: a. channel proteins b. carrier proteins c. hydrophilic (“water loving”) d. hydrophobic (“water hating”)
22. Match the following terms with their definition and an example
TERM DEFINITION EXAMPLE a. permeable 1) does not let anything through i) raincoat b. semi-permeable 2) lets everything through ii) cell membrane c. impermeable 3) lets some things, but not others through iii) open door
Use the following diagram to answer the next five questions
23. Where is the solute concentration higher, a. inside or outside the cell?
b. How can you tell?
24. Compared to the cell, the solution in the extracellular fluid
(outside) is tonic. 25. Consider the membrane.
a. Why would you consider this cell membrane to be semi-permeable?
b. what is it permeable to? c. what is it impermeable to?
26. What kind of molecular movement would you expect across this membrane?
a. the solute molecules will move into the cell b. the solute molecules will move out of the cell c. water molecules will move into the cell d. water molecules will move out of the cell
27. At which point will you stop seeing movement of molecules?
a. when there is roughly equal numbers of solute molecules on either side b. when there is roughly equal numbers of water molecules on either side c. when the ratio of solute to water molecules is roughly equal d. never, water molecules will continue to move either direction, but eventually in equal amounts in
and out
10
11
28. Complete the following table:
29. Briefly compare and contrast hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis in terms of
a. the disease they are designed to treat b. the direction of movement of toxins and waste c. the direction of movement of water and nutrients d. the invasiveness of the procedure
30. Use the diagram to the right to answer these questions a. what process is being depicted?
b. how do you know?
c. if this diagram were to be changed to represent the
opposite process, what would be different?
d. if this is a four-step process, what is occurring at each step? i.
ii. iii. iv.
31. Describe two advantages of being unicellular, and two advantages of being multicellular.
32. Consider the following cells: CELL A CELL B Diagram
Surface area calculation (Use formula provided)
Surface area of a cube: 6s2 (s = side length)
Surface area of a prism: 2(l•w)+2(w•d)+2(l•d) (l=length, w=width, d = depth)
Volume calculation (Use formula provided)
Volume of a cube: s3
Volume of a prism: l•w•d
Surface area to volume ratio (use formula in data booklet)
Favored for survival? why?
Diffusion Osmosis Facilitated diffusion
Active transport
What moves across the membrane?
Does it go along or against the concentration gradient?
Does it require proteins, such as carrier or channel proteins?
Does it require energy (ATP) to occur?
33. Plants have two systems: the shoot and root systems. a. What are the differences between each system? b. Which parts does each system include? c. In both systems, cell division occurs in specific growth areas. What
are these areas called in each system? What can these growth areas produce?
34. For each of the layers below, identify 3 characteristics and their importance
to plant growth:
35. The xylem and phloem are crucial to a plants growth and survival. Finish each sentence or fill in the correct word that makes each statement true:
a. Xylem moves water and dissolved minerals from __________________________________. b. The water and nutrients moved by the xylem are used for __________________________. c. Even if xylem cells die, their ______________ remains intact, forming a transportation network. d. Phloem moves ___________________ from the source (________________) to the sink (__________________).
36. List three specialized plant cells and their function.
a.
b.
c.
37. Gas Exchange in Plants a. label the following diagram b. write the balanced chemical formulas
for i. photosynthesis
ii. cellular respiration
Dermal Tissue:
Ground Tissue: (includes spongy mesophyll & palisade tissue)
Vascular Tissue
38. Describe in point form below each picture what is happening at each stage of gas exchange through the stoma:
39. How do plants in tropical climates differ in their number of stomata from plants in hot, dry climates?
40. The following picture shows the movement of water and
minerals through a plant. In no less than 6 sentences, describe the movement of substances through plant tissues. You must describe the process of root pressure, transpirational pull, cohesion and adhesion in order to fully understand the movement of materials through a plant. Also be sure to mention the respective areas of the plant at which each process takes place.
41. Compare positive phototropism and positive gravitropism. a. Where does each process take place? b. How can you tell each process has occurred?
42. Compare negative phototropism and negative gravitropism.
a. Where does each process take place? b. How can you tell each process has occurred?
43. The picture to the right illustrates Darwin’s experiment on
phototropism. a. Plants #3 and #4 are both covered with a cap. Why
did plant #4 experience positive phototropism? b. Which plant is considered the control? Why? c. Name the substance responsible for this response in
plants and describe how it works.
Unit D - Environment Review
Key Concepts:
The biosphere includes all living things and the physical environment that supports those living things
subdivided into three components that interact:
atmosphere – layer of gases that surround the Earth
lithosphere – a.k.a. Earth’s crust – the solid portion off the Earth (includes the land under the oceans)
hydrosphere – all the water on Earth (includes liquid, vapour and ice)
Atmosphere
made up of a mixture of gases,
78% N2(g), 21% O2(g), 1% other
also includes tiny solid particles called atmospheric dust
including living things (e.g. pollen, micro-organisms) and non-living (e.g. soot)
Divided up into four layers based on altitude (distance from sea level)
Atmosphere layer #1 - troposphere
only layer of the atmosphere with a mix of gases and
temperature to support a variety of life (including
humans)
contains most of the CO2 and H2O and
atmospheric dust present in the
atmosphere
where most of our weather occurs,
including wind and precipitation
Atmosphere layer #2 - stratosphere
contains most of the ozone layer
Atmosphere layer #3 - mesosphere
Atmosphere layer #4 - thermosphere
named for the high temperatures near the edge of the layer (closest to the sun)
Lithosphere
floats on top of the fluid layer called the mantle
extends from the Earth’s surface inward
as thin as 5 km, as thick as 100 km in places
warmed both by the heat from the sun and the heat from Earth’s core
Hydrosphere
about 97% is salt water in the oceans
the other 3% fresh water, but is mostly frozen in snow and glaciers
the total amount of water on Earth remains constant
Weather vs. climate
weather
day-to-day conditions, including
temperature & air pressure
cloud cover & humidity
precipitation
climate
average conditions occurring over a period of
30 years or longer
Effect of climate on living organisms
The better suited to its climate an organism is, the better its chances of survival
an adaptation is a change in the structure or functioning of an organism that makes it more suited to its
environment
Changing climates
a variety of evidence exists to demonstrate that the climate of the Earth has varied throughout its history
this change continues today, and is often referred to as global warming
some of the evidence we use depends upon humans, so only describes the last few thousand years
some of the evidence allows us to look back at the Earth’s conditions prior to humans arriving
Ice core sampling
By obtaining a sample of a column of ice 10,000 feet down in our ice sheets, we are looking at ice made
over 700,000 years ago
By analyzing the tiny bubbles of air trapped in this ice, scientists can collect information about
the quality of the air at that time,
CO2 levels
approximate air temperature.
Insolation & the Angle of Inclination
Not all regions of the Earth receive the same amount of the Sun’s energy
Insolation is the amount solar energy received by a region of the Earth’s surface
Angle of Inclination
the angle of inclination refers to the angle of the Earth’s axis compared to the
vertical (23.5o)
the Earth orbits the Sun once per year
the Earth’s tilt is the reason for the seasons
remember, you have to distinguish between
hemispheres when discussing seasons
An equinox occurs when the Earth is tilted sideways
relative to the sun
the number of daylight hours = the number of
hours of darkness
Spring Equinox – March 21
Fall Equinox – September 21
*in the Northern Hemisphere
A solstice occurs when the Earth is tilted toward or away from the sun
the number of daylight hours are at their maximum or minimum
Summer solstice – June 21
Winter solstice – December 21
*in the Northern Hemisphere
Areas close to the equator:
experience short sunrises and sunsets
have very little variance in their number of daylight hours from season to season
12 hours of daylight, 12 hours of darkness every day
Areas close to the poles:
experience long sunrises and sunsets
have significant variance in their number of daylight hours
in summer, more than 23 hours of daylight, 1 hour of darkness
in winter, less than one hour of daylight, 23 hours of darkness
The Angle of Incidence is the angle between the incoming sun ray and a line perpendicular to the Earth’s
surface
at the equator, the angle is 0o and sun is intense
at higher latitudes, the angle is larger (about 40o for us) and the sun is diffuse
Albedo
the albedo of a surface is the percent of solar radiation that it reflects
a white shiny surface (e.g. snow) has a high albedo
a dark, dull surface (e.g. forest, dirt) has a low albedo
the average albedo for Earth’s surface is 30% (or 0.30)
Implications of Albedo
because snow and ice have a much higher albedo, regions that are frozen reflect more snow than regions
without snow or ice
the albedo of most regions in Canada is significantly higher in winter than in summer
in the arctic, the albedo is high year-round
deserts also have high albedo because they lack vegetation to absorb the sun’s rays
Natural Greenhouse Effect
when sun’s rays reflect off the Earth’s surface
the energy gets radiated back into the atmosphere in the form of thermal energy
normally, a portion of this thermal energy is lost to space, and a portion is absorbed by the atmosphere
the trapping of this heat by the atmosphere is called the Natural Greenhouse Effect
Greenhouse gases
Greenhouse gases are gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect
The main naturally-occurring greenhouse gas is water vapour
Net Radiation Budget
Before human activity made such an impact, the Earth’s radiation budget was balanced
that is, some thermal energy was reflected out into space, and some absorbed by the atmosphere
the net result was zero
net radiation budget = incoming radiation – outgoing radiation
it is important to note that the budget is balanced on a planetary basis, but some regions are in surplus and
some in deficit
the areas at the equator tend to have higher insolation, which gives them a surplus
the areas closer to the poles tend to have lower insolation, which gives them a deficit
if a build-up of greenhouse gases causes more radiation to be absorbed by the atmosphere, we have a
surplus this will cause global temperatures to rise
Thermal energy transfer in the atmosphere
the temperature of the air in the atmosphere near the equator warms and rises toward the poles
the air at the poles then cools and sinks back down
because the cool air has higher atmospheric pressure, it moves toward the equator where the pressure is
lower
wind is the movement of this cooler air from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure
if the Earth were still (and not spinning), there would be a continuous convection current between the
equatorial and polar air
Convection currents causes air to move directly North-South
However, since the Earth is spinning, the winds are deflected
to the right (in the Northern Hemisphere) or the left (in the
Southern Hemisphere)
this deflection is called the Coriolis Effect
Global wind patterns
As a result of convection currents and the Coriolis Effect, global
winds follow a predictable pattern
trade winds are the normal wind patterns that transfer heat around
the globe
jet streams are bands of fast moving air in the stratosphere that
travel much faster than wind in the troposphere
changes in normal jet stream patterns are important in predicting
weather changes and extreme weather events such as storms and
cyclones
Thermal energy transfer in the hydrosphere
The hydrosphere transfers thermal energy in a similar way as in the atmosphere
Surface water is pushed by trade winds
Deeper water travels by convection currents
Warmer waters near the equator are driven by convection currents toward the poles
currents in the Northern Hemisphere circle clockwise
currents in the Southern Hemisphere circle counterclockwise
Unlike air currents which don’t have to circulate around something, water currents are disrupted by the
continents
Specific heat capacity
There is one more property of water that affects global energy transfer: water has an unusually high
specific heat capacity
Specific heat capacity refers to the ability of a substance to absorb thermal energy without changing
temperature
The high specific heat capacity of water means that it absorbs much of the sun’s radiant energy but
stays at a constant temperature
Cities next to oceans experience more moderate (less extreme) temperatures because water can absorb
heat without changing temperature
Quantity of Thermal Energy, Q
the quantity of thermal energy (Q) is the amount of thermal energy (measured in joules) that is absorbed or
released when the temperature of a substance changes
it is affected by
the mass of the substance (measured in grams)
the amount of change in temperature (measured as the number of oC it changes)
how easily the substance changes temperature (as indicated by its specific heat capacity)
The formula is Q = mc∆t , where:
Q = quantity of thermal energy (J)
m = mass of the substance (g)
c = specific heat capacity of the substance in (J/g•˚C)
∆t = change in temperature (oC)
Understanding specific heat capacity
The specific heat capacity of water is 4.19 J/g•oC
this means it takes 4.19 J of energy to warm one gram (one milliliter) of water by one degree Celsius.
This number is quite high compared to other substances, for instance:
aluminium:0.900 J/g•oC copper: 0.380 J/g•oC lead: 0.130 J/g•oC
Which means, compared to these metals, it takes a lot more energy to make water change temperature
Or, put another way, water can absorb a lot more energy without changing temperature
Phase changes
During a phase change, water changes state without changing temperature
this occurs because the thermal energy is going toward breaking the bonds between water molecules,
rather than making the water molecules move faster
Since water molecules undergo many phase changes in the cycle, a lot of energy is transferred in the biosphere
without any change in temperature
this helps to keep average global temperatures relatively stable
Heat of Fusion & Heat of Vaporization
The heat of fusion of a substance is the amount of
energy absorbed when 1 mol of the substance melts
from solid to liquid without changing temperature
The heat of vaporization of a substance is the amount
of energy absorbed when 1 mol of the substance
evaporates from liquid to gas without changing
temperature
Heating curve of water
Calculating the Heat of Fusion or Vaporization
The amount of energy absorbed or released during a phase change can be calculated from the following two
formulas
𝐻𝑓𝑢𝑠 = 𝑄
𝑛 or 𝐻𝑣𝑎𝑝 =
𝑸
𝒏
where
Hfus = heat of fusion, or Hvap = heat of vaporization, in kJ/mol
Q = quantity of thermal energy, in kJ
n = number of moles, in mol
Biomes
because they exchanges both energy and matter with
the surroundings, biomes are considered to be open
systems
The six biomes
Each biome has a typical range of temperature &
precipitation
The biomes are:
tundra
taiga
desert
grassland
deciduous forest
rainforest
Climatographs
Climatographs are summary graphs that describe the
average temperature and precipitation each month
for a given region
the horizontal axis is divided by month
average precipitation is marked along the left vertical axis
and is represented by bars on the graph
average temperatures are marked along the right vertical
axis and are represented by a line graph
Changes in Greenhouses Gases although water vapour plays the largest role in the
greenhouse effect, it is naturally kept in balance by the hydrologic cycle
the greenhouse gases that we’re most concerned about, therefore, are the gases that aren’t kept in balance, especially carbon dioxide
Measuring a change in greenhouse gases Evidence of increasing atmospheric CO2, N2O, and CH4 comes from a combination of ice core samples and
atmospheric measurements by weather balloons Carbon sinks & Carbon sources CARBON SINKS
Any process that removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
The most significant carbon sink is photosynthesis
Other carbon sinks include: dissolving of CO2 in the ocean carbon sequestration initiatives
CARBON SOURCES Any process that releases carbon dioxide into
the atmosphere The most significant carbon source is fossil
fuel production and combustion Other carbon sources include:
cellular respiration weathering of rock decomposition of living organisms
Other sources Agriculture contributes to the greenhouse effect because
manure and fertilizers release nitrous oxide livestock contribute methane
Halocarbons are man-made chemicals used in coolants CFCs, have a GWP of 12 000 (recall, this is 12 000x more than CO2) but have been banned worldwide
since the 1980s, when it was discovered that they break down the ozone layer
dry PRECIPITATION wet
cold
TEM
PER
ATU
RE
ho
t
Political Collaboration on Climate Change The Montreal Protocol was an international agreement signed in 1987 by 182 nations
agreement was made to replace CFCs with less harmful chemicals in products such as refrigerators and air conditioners
first international agreement concerning an environmental issue United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change was an agreement to stabilize greenhouse gas
emissions caused by human activity the UNFCCC was not an action plan – it set out a process for future actions on climate change
support sustainable development (the meeting of today’s needs without jeopardizing future generations’ ability to meet their needs)
Kyoto Protocol in 1998, 161 countries signed an agreement to reduce their emissions to 5% lower than they were in 1990,
by 2012 countries could also earn “credits” toward their reduction
in 2010, Canada became the first nation to publicly quit the agreement Impacts of Climate Change As a result of climate change, ecologists predict that we will see a
change to the distribution of biomes in Canada these maps illustrate the predicted changes:
the appearance of desert in southern Alberta the reduction of tundra and taiga biomes the redistribution of grassland from southern Alberta to
Saskatchewan and Manitoba With the reduction of permafrost and snow cover, we will also see a
significant reduction in albedo as open water reflects less radiation than ice, global warming is
expected to accelerate
Practice Questions:
1. Many types of evidence exist that support the notion of climate change.
a. What kind of direct evidence do we have?
b. How far back does it go?
c. What kind of indirect evidence do we have (give 2 examples)
d. How was each kind of evidence collected?
e. How far back does each go?
2. The Earth’s atmosphere consists of four layers. List the layers in order of increasing altitude: (closest to
Earth furthest from Earth)
3. There are a number of factors that contribute to a region’s climate. Define each term, and describe the
effect it has on the climate in Edmonton.
a. albedo
b. angle of inclination
c. angle of incidence
d. insolation
4. Label the following points in the diagram.
(Assume northern hemisphere and clockwise rotation.)
a. winter solstice
b. summer solstice
c. spring equinox
d. fall equinox
e. the day with the maximum number of daylight hours
f. the day with the minimum number of daylight hours
5. Wind patterns:
a. Define convection and relate it to global wind patterns.
b. Distinguish between our regular pattern of winds and jet streams.
c. Define the Coriolis effect.
6. Draw and label the heating curve of water.
7. Determine the quantity of thermal energy required to heat 50 g of ice from -20°C to -10°C.
8. Determine the quantity of thermal energy required to make that same 50 g of ice melt at 0°C. The
theoretical heat of fusion of water is 6.01 kJ/mol and the molar mass of water is 18.02 g/mol.
9. Climatographs:
a. Contrast the climates of the two cities
based on their relative temperatures
and precipitation levels.
b. Knowing that these two cities are both
located in Canada but in different
biomes, suggest the possible biomes
they could be located in.
c. Describe the type of plant life you’d
expect in each biome.
10. Describe the predicted changes to our
distribution of biomes in Canada if global
warming trends continue.
11. If climate change has always occurred
throughout Earth’s history, suggest three
reasons why it is an issue of concern now.
-25.0
-15.0
-5.0
5.0
15.0
25.0
0
50
100
150
200
250
Jan Mar May July Sept Nov
Tem
pe
ratu
re (°C
)
Pre
cip
itat
ion
(m
m)
City 1
Precipitation (mm) Temperature (°C)
-25.0-15.0-5.05.015.025.0
050
100150200250
Tem
per
atu
re (
°C)
Pre
cip
itat
ion
(m
m)
City 2
Precipitation (mm) Temperature (°C)
ANSWER KEYS:
Chemistry
MC / NR 1 d 2 a NR1-4231 NR2-1423 3 c 4 b 5 c 6 a
NR3-3541 NR4-6312 7 b 8 d 9 c NR5-4156 NR 6-1247 10 d 11 c
12 d 13 a 14 a NR7-3423 15 c 16 c 17 b 18 a 19 d
20 c 21 b NR8-2356 22 d 23 d NR9-1212 24 b 25 a NR10-0.33
Written 1) C6H12O6(s) + 6 O2(g) 6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(g) 2) BeSO4(aq) + Pb(s) PbSO4(s) + Be(s) 3) C12H22O11(s) + 12 O2(g) 12 CO2(g) + 11 H2O(g) 4) 6 FrBr(s) + Al2(CO3)3(s) 2 AlBr3(s) + 3 Fr2CO3(s) 5) ZnCl2(aq) + Na2S(aq) 2 NaCl(aq) + ZnS(aq) 6) Ba(s) + Br2(l) BaBr2(s) 7) 2 AgClO3(aq) + Cd(CH3COO)2(aq) 2 AgCH3COO(s) + Cd(ClO3)2(aq) 8) 2 H3PO4(aq) + 3 Sr(OH)2(aq) 6 H2O (l) + Sr3(PO4)2(s) 9) 8 SO2(g) 8 O2(g) + S8(s)
10) m = nM
a. Y2O3 m = (8.77 mol)(225.82 g/mol) = 1.98 x 103g
b. Cs3N m = (0.652 mol)(412.74 g/mol) = 269 g
c. SO3 m = (5.15 mol)(80.07 g/mol) = 412 g
d. P4 m = (10.3 mol)(123.88 g/mol) = 1.28 x 103 g
11) n = m/M a. HNO3
n = 10.0g / 63.02 g/mol = 0.159 mol b. NH4CH3COO
n = 200g / 77.10 g/mol = 2.59 mol c. He
n = 45.5 g / 4.00 g/mol = 11.4 mol d. CH3OH
n = 0.550 g / 32.05 g/mol = 1.72 x 10-2 mol
Physics
MC/NR 1 a 2 a 3 b 4 c 5 d 6 c 7 a
8 a 9 c NR1-1.5 10 d 11 a 12 b NR2-35.0 NR3-5324
13 d 14 d 15 d 16 a 17 c 18 c 19 b 20 a
NR4-99 21 b 22 c 23 c 24 b NR5-33 NR6-2604
Written 1) a = vf – vi / ∆t = (0 – 35.0 m/s) / 0.500s = - 70.0 m/s2 2) v = √(2gh) = √(2 x 9.81 m/s2) (12.0 m) = 15.3 m/s 3) v = ∆d/∆t = 4.0x106m / 3.6x104s = 1.1 x 102 m/s 4) 2 of: Solar/Non-Solar Renewable/Non c. input
coal solar non chem potential solar solar ren nuclear (solar) tidal non-solar ren grav potential hydro solar ren grav potential geothermal non-solar ren thermal wind solar ren kinetic nuclear non-solar non nuclear
5) v = √(2Ek/m) = √(2 x 304 J / 0.300 kg) = 45.0 m/s 6) ∆d = v∆t = (8.00m/s)(14.0s) = 112 m [N] 7) F = W/d = 2.2x104J / 9.5m = 2.3 x 103 N 8) answers may vary
a. rubbing your hands together b. battery-powered flashlight c. nuclear reactor
9) output = (% efficiency / 100) x input = (0.85)(15J) = 13 J
Biology
NR1-150 1 a 2 c 3 a 4 b 5 c
NR2-8.0 6 d 7 b NR3-313 8 b 9 b
10 c NR4-14 NR5-4123 11 d 12 see notes
13-0.450mm/3 = 0.150 mm = 150µm 14 b 15 b 16 d 17 a
18
Statement PLANT CELLS ANIMAL CELLS have a cell wall X have a cell membrane X X contain a cytoskeleton X X contain chlorophyll X undergo cellular respiration X X undergo photosynthesis X store energy as glycogen X tend to be round in shape X
19 glycogen = animals / cellulose = plants, crunchier 20 1) nucleus 2) rough ER 3) Golgi 4) mitochondria 5) chloroplast 6) cytoplasm 7) vacuole 8) cell membrane 9) cell wall 10)
centrioles 11) lysosomes 21 see notes 22 a. 2 iii b. 3 ii c. 1 i 23 a. outside, b. more solute compared to water 24 hyper 25 a. some substances get through, others don’t b. water c. solute 26 d 27 d 28-31 see notes 32 CELL A: SA=96 V = 64 SA:V=1.5 CELL B: SA=19 V= 5 SA:V=3.8 favoured due to higher SA:V 33-34 see notes 35 a. roots to rest of plant b. photosynthesis c. cell walls d. dissolved sugars, leaves, rest of plant 36-37 see notes 38 1) light stimulates K+ ions to be pumped in through active transport, 2) water follows, cell becomes turgid and stoma opens, 3) a lack of light allows K+ ions to no longer be pumped in, 4) water flows out, cells lose turgidity and stoma closes 39 more stomata due to higher humidity 40 root pressure – as nutrients are pumped in through active transport, water follows by osmosis, which pushes water molecules further
up the xylem transpirational pull – as water is lost from the stomata in warm conditions, it creates a vacuum which sucks more water up the plant cohesion – water molecules stick to each other adhesion – water molecules stick to the inside of the xylem tubes 41 a. shoots / roots b. they move toward light / gravity 42 a. roots / shoots b. they move away from light / gravity 43 a. the cap in plant #4 is transparent, b. plant #1 because it had no treatment, c. the hormone auxin causes cells on the dark side to
elongate
Environment
1 a. temperature measurements (historical data) b. few thousand years c. tree rings / ice cores d. count rings of trees / drill column of ice from permafrost e. 500 years / 200 000 years
2 troposphere stratosphere mesosphere thermosphere 3 a. % radiation reflected, it’s higher in winter due to the snow b. tilt of the Earth from vertical (23.50) – explains the seasons c. angle of sun hitting the Earth, higher here than at equator so sun is less intense d. amount of solar radiation that hits Earth surface 4 a. right b. left c. bottom d. top e. left f. right 5-6 see notes 7 Q = mc∆t = (50 g)(2.00 J/goC)(10oC) = 1.0 x 103 J 8 n = 50g / 18.02g/mol = 2.77 mol Q = Hfusn = (6.01kJ/mol)(2.77mol) = 17 kJ 9 a. City 2 is warmer and wetter in the winter than City 1 b. City 1 could be taiga and City 2 deciduous forest c. City 1 – evergreen trees such as spruce and pine, City 2 – leafy trees such as maple and oak 10 increased desert, decreased tundra, relocation of grassland toward central Canada 11 first time it’s due to human activity, rate of change and degree of change
photosynthesis
cellular resp.
chloroplast
mitochondria
CO2 + H2O O2 + C6H12O6
