SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY: ITS PURPOSES AND DIRECTIONS DONALD A. LETON

University of Hawaii

Although all psychologists receive essentially the same training in their under- graduate and graduate work, as they enter their professional fields and in the sub- sequent course of their careers, they tend to divert into two separate groups. The first of these groups is identified as the practitioner group and includes all of the clini- cal, school, industrial and counseling psychologists. The second group is comprised of the academicians and research psychologists. As these two groups perform their functions and carry out their professional responsibilities the nature of their work becomes more distinct.

The major task of the academician and researcher has traditionally been to develop and verify new knowledge; and the major task of the practitioner has tra- ditionally been to select and to apply this knowledge, skillfully and judiciously. The manner in which this task is performed; that is, skillfully and judiciously, should be particularly emphasized for school psychologists.

It has generally been assumed that the scientific method and the experimental approach has been more exclusively the approach of the academician and the re- searcher rather than the practitioner. It was not expected that the practitioner could employ scientific knowledge and information where such information was not available or did not exist. Thus, it became necessary for him to rely on speculation, and to practice an art as well as a science. The practitioner also could not afford to be experimental in order to carry out his social obligations. Where human lives and human happiness are at stake the experimental failures which are expected as a matter of course in research cannot be afforded in practice. With psychology as a young discipline among the behavioral and biological sciences the situation has obviously been difficult. As new knowledge becomes available, and as its utility becomes recognized, however, the traditional distinction between the two groups becomes diffuse. It is imperative now that the practitioners, and the school psychol- ogists as one type of practitioner, become more scientific and experimental in the conduct of their profession. The purpose of this article is to illustrate how these directions may be implemented, or how they may already be evolving in the field of school psychology.

The school psychologist has traditionally been concerned with the classification of normal, sub-normal or abnormal children. More recently he has become involved in the prescription of special classes, remedial programs and classroom treatments. This form of practice for school psychology will eventually become outmoded. The traditional classifications of mentality and educability will be supplanted by anal- yses of specific psychological and behavioral functions, and by the study of the speci- fic variables which will influence or alter these functions. The latter change, that is, the study of educational and psychological variables which influence or alter a pupil's functioning will eventually force a shift in the practice of school psychology to one of experimentation. To illustrate this, the school psychologist will extend

'This article is a revision of a paper presented at the convention of the American Psychological Association in September 1962.

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more effort in analyzing the physical behavior and psychological characteristics of a hyperactive child in various school environments than he formerly did in obtaining an intelligence score. Even more important than this he will initiate, or help to implement those educational or psychological treatments which appear necessary to reduce or to modify the problem. This change in school practice could also be illus- trated in the study of reading disabilities, distractible behavior, social maladjust- ment, and emotional difficulties. The major references in school psychology will be the specific functioning of the child and the conditions under which this functioning can be varied, rather than broad clinical or educational classifications.

There are several foci around which school psychologists might orient their future services. The first of these is to bring clinical skills to the diagnosis and treat- ment of students’ problems. In order to do clinical case studies it is necessary for the psychologist to obtain and integrate all of the relevant data bearing on the prob- lem and to interpret these to the various persons concerned, including the student himself. He must also have subsequent responsibility to formulate treatment hy- potheses, and to obtain the follow-up data to support, confirm, or refute his clinical hypotheses. He should be allowed, and even encouraged, to undertake the psycho- educational treatment of the problem. This focus for psychological services is not an easy role, nor has it been adequately assumed up to the present time. It would appear, however, to be the best avenue for psychologists to demonstrate their value in the school setting. If this is to be a major direction for school psychology many of the present psychologists would need to extend their skills in diagnosis and treat- ment of pupils’ problems.

A second focus for school psychology may be to provide psychological consul- tation to school personnel. The clinical and consultation services provided by the school psychologist appear to be closely related in his total function; and yet there are several important distinctions which can be made. The first pertains to a theo- retical model for consultation. When the school psychologist serves as a consultant to a counselor or other guidance worker he does not assume any direct responsibility for the diagnosis or treatment of an individual’s problem. He performs a professional advisory service rather than a clinical service. If the psychologist is not a member of the regular school staff, but employed on a part-time basis his role would more logically be consultative rather than clinical. On the other hand, even as a member of the school staff his services may be those of a consultant on certain cases and a clinician on others. The school psychologist may be the only consultant on a given case, or he may serve with other consultants; for example, with a consulting psychi- atrist, physician, and other specialists. It will be important for the school psycholo- ogist to recognize the different performance requirements in various consulting roles.

Another theoretical concept pertains to the transmission and reception of infor- mation in consultation. The school psychologist should be familiar with both aspects of communication; that is, the transmission and reception of psychological infor- mation. Successful communication is the essence of consultation. He should have a recognition of the communication network which functions in school guidance. If consultation can be regarded as a communication process then it is also possible to identify the interference variables which tend to detract from successful communi- cation. Many of the unfortunate mistakes which have occurred in psychological

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consultation in schools have arisen from the problem of semantics and meaning. There is often a difference between the information intended and that which is understood. These differences would naturally affect the reliability and the validity of psychological consultation. Further theoretical understanding of the vehicles for consultation is recommended.

In order that school psychologists learn to perform as consultants it will be necessary for them to have many person-to-person transactions with teachers, par- ents, pupils and other professional personnel. They should also have extensive experi- ences in interviewing, and in analyzing their own interviews, or the typescripts of other guidance interviews. They will be required to process valid guidance data in case studies, and to tactfully alter invalid ideas where they occur. Examples of in- valid ideas may appear in interviews with students or parents who may have per- secution complexes or extremely defensive attitudes. Invalid ideas may also appear in the concepts which teachers or other school persons hold about psychological tests and procedures.

For the school psychologist to be successful in consultation it will be necessary for him to possess the scientific knowledge pertinent to his profession. It is also im- portant that this be an esoteric knowledge, rather than common-sense ideas or gen- eral information about human behavior. He should be able to communicate this in- formation clearly, and with terms that have a genuine meaning to students, par- ents and teachers, as well as to other professional personnel. If his knowledge of psychological concepts is vague or obscure then his consultation will also be obscure or inadequate.

Many school psychologists presently hold the opinion that the profession has already over-ex tended itself in assuming clinical and consultative responsibilities beyond its depth. In addition, many educators are reluctant to establish or provide special services beyond the usual teaching and curricular services. A new, or revised focus on school learning may therefore be an important direction for school psychol- ogy. The recent trend in school learning appears to be the result of a revolution, not only in education but also in psychology. To orient his services toward this focus, the school psychologist will require an understanding of the reinforcement history, stimulus generalization, and operant conditioning, as these may explain the develop- ment or expression of a pupil’s learning or adjustment problem. In order to have a practical knowledge of the new focus on learning it will be necessary for him to be familiar with programmed instruction, teaching machines, language centers, and other technical advances resulting from changes in the theory and practice of in- struction. It may also be valuable for the school psychologist to adopt an experi- mental approach in regard to his focus on school learning problems. For example, he might wish to employ a programmed sequence before recommending tutoring for an individual pupil.

A note of caution appears to be in order before school psychology assumes any new or revived emphasis on school learning. Teachers and pupils will continue to be the major practitioners in the teaching-learning process. The school psychologist’s interest and involvement in this process therefore should always be conditional to the learning problem of the pupil. It is recommended then that the school psychol- ogist extend his theoretical knowledge about learning, rather than to assume an inappropriate responsibility in the teaching and learning process. He may be less

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qualified in matters of teaching and curriculum than in the clinical and consulting roles he might assume.

In summary, the direction of school psychology appears to be toward a more scientific and more experimental approach. In view of the many recent criticisms which have been directed against school psychology by reactionary groups it be- hooves the profession to determine its purposes, and to define its directions. Those of us who are involved in choosing and providing the present services may have an important influence on the eventual status of psychology in the schools.

POTENTIAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGIST ANN F. MC HUGH

Long Beach City Schools, Lang Beach, N . Y .

As the field of school psychology reaches maturity and attempts to define its professional role (Cutts, 1955; Gottsegen & Gottsegen, 1960; White & Harris, 1961), it needs to assess its goals and its potential contributions. Often the psychologist working in the school has his role delineated by the existing need of assistance for deviant, abnormal or atypical students; by the common perception of the psychol- ogist as a clinical psychologist; and by the mental health approach to education (All- insmith & Goethals, 1962; Krugman, 1958). Clinical emphasis, while important in itself, tends to keep the school psychologist’s focus ideographic and apart from the mainstream of the educational process which is nomothetic and thus detracts from his having an impact on the total educational system. An exclusively clinical ap- proach to school psychology can have the danger of overemphasis upon the abnormal, of misapplication of the concept of deviation because the framework of “normal” is not fully understood, and of acceptance of a static position in reference to problems rather than a position which seeks to prevent the creation of problems. Many of the “problem” cases with which the school psychologist deals clinically would appear to be preventable if psychological principles were more widely understood and ap- plied in schools. Prevention of psychological-educational problems could be fostered by the school’s utilizing its psychologist’s training in areas additional to the clinical and abnormal such as child and adolescent development, differential psychology, measurement and evaluation, social psychology and group processes, personality, learning, motivation, research and experimentation, as well as educational method- ology itself.

The psychologist’s training in developmental and differential psychology en- ables him to contribute meaningfully to curriculum development. He can advise the school staff on the experiential and perceptual background necessary for the acqui- sition of new learning and on timing in the presentation of new materials. He can bring to the attention of teachers findings concerning sex, racial, cultural, and other group differences in skills and rates of growth in sensory, motor, verbal, conceptual, memory, and other areas. He can assist schools in forming groups based on develop- mental similarities and planning their long range programs. He can use his know-