MAPPING THE MIND WITH MUSHROOMS

AN OVERVIEW OF PSILOCYBIN

Schedule

The “Mush”Room 11:20 - 12:00 - Yoga12:20 - 1:00 - Mushroom Growing Workshop1:10 - 1:50 - Mushroom Growing Workshop2:00 - 2:45 - Andy Letcher2:45 - 3:30 - Break3:35 - 4:00 - Dianne Solano4:30 - 6:00 - Room Closed6:05 - 7:00 - Documentary (A New Understanding)

The Mind Room

12:05 - 12:10 - Opening remarks12:10 - 12:55 - Marc Blainey1:05 - 1:50 - Anderson Todd2:00 - 2:45 - Andrew Camargo2:45 - 3:30 - Break3:40 - 4:25 - Teri Krebs4:30 - 5:20 - John Vervaeke5:25 - 6:25 - Kenneth Tupper

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‘Magic’ mushrooms have played an interesting role in human history. From their use as a sacrament in ancient Mesoamerica, to the CIA’s attempt to use psilocybin as a mind control agent under project MK-ULTRA, there is much mystery and mythos surrounding psilocybin containing mushrooms As with any mythos, there is a great deal of misrepresentation involved. The implications of such misrepresentation (some of which admittedly stem from our best attempts to articulate the psychedelic experience) are now reflected in the strict government restrictions on accessing what might more accurately be called a plant teacher than a drug. The purpose of this guide is to clarify what exactly psilocybin is, why it is interesting, and what it might be useful for.

Author of overview: Daniel GreigBackground of Cover Art: Zachary Nathanial McCrae https://zmcrae.przm.com/Notice: Many of the experiment results and statis-tics are direct quotes from their sourceYear: 2016

About The 920 Movement

The 920 Coalition is a network of non-profit organizations and like minded individuals. We organize events around the world each year on 9/20 (September

20th), focused on the role that psilocybin mushrooms play in our society and health care system, and how they might be used in the future. This movement is made

possible by the so called “psychedelic renaissance” that is currently ongoing, with more research being published on psychedelic compounds since the “war on drugs”

began in the 60s.

2015 was our first year and we had more than 30 wonderful events in Canada, Mexico, Netherlands, UK, Australia, and the United States.

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Table of Contents

What is Psilocybin? ............... 3

Psychological Effects ............. 4

Cognitive Effects ................. 5

Possible Negative Experiences ..... 7

Addiction ......................... 8

Safety ............................ 9

Brain Activity Signatures ........ 11 The Short Version .......... 15 EEG ........................ 16 fMRI ....................... 17

Chemical Action ............ 19

Possible Research Applications ... 20

Resources ........................ 21

What is Psilocybin?

Psilocybin is a naturally oc-curring tryptamine alkaloid found in over 200 species of mushrooms; most popularly the psilocybe cubensis.1

Psilocybin is not directly responsible for psychedelic experiences. It is quickly broken down into psilocin by Monamine Oxidase, which binds to the brain.

Tryptamines are structur-ally similar to the amino acid tryptophan. Seroronin is a naturally occurring tryptamine. Serotinin is an important neurotransmit-ter involved in mood and emotional regulation. It also plays a key role in the psy-chedelic effects occasioned by psilocybin and psilocin, which stimulate serotonin receptors.2

The role that psilocybin plays to mushrooms themselves is still un-known. Some speculations are:

- Chemical defense against Bacterial competitors- Deterrent to herbivores- An interface point between human consciousness and the extended network of planetary life

via - shroomery.org3

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Psychological Effects

The effects of psilocybin vary greatly depending on the dose. Very low doses are used by some to enhance cognition in areas such as focus, creativity, and the ease of entering flow states (being “in the zone”)4. No studies have so far been done on this method of using psychedelic compounds, known as ‘microdosing’. Low doses can also sometimes cause drowsiness or amplify existing mood. Medium doses induce a well controllable altered state of consciousness.1 High doses (for reference, 5 grams of dried mushrooms is often referred to as a ‘heroic’ dose) initiate full psychedelic experiences.

This includes: 1

Changes in perception (dream-like states, illusions, hallucinations, synes-thesiae)

Changes in body image (e.g. tingling, dream ness or somatic hallucinations)

Atered self-perception

Distorted perception of time and space

Magical thinking, unusual ideas or delu-sions Elation/Joy

Mystical experiences

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Cognitive Effects1

Reduced ability to visually distinguish between faces with negative and neutral expressions but not positive-neutral faces

Disrupts sustained attention

Altered visual information processing (binocu-lar rivalry tests)*

Interestingly, psilocybin produces similar alterations to binocular rivalry re-sponses to those observed in deep meditative states engaged by experienced meditation practitioners, such as prolonged duration of one of the competing

stimuli.

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*Binocular rivalry occurs when two different images are presented to each eye at the same time... Only one of the two images will be in focus

at any given time and they will switch every few seconds. This also occurs with ambiguous images like the one below:

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Possible Negative Experiences

Psychological discomfort is much more likely than physical risks*. Some of the unpleasant reactions that can occur are:1

• Anxiety• Paranoid experiences• Derealisation• Depersonalization• Long lasting unpleasant experiences (bad trips)• Psychotic reactions• Rare hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD)** are sometimes reported5

*Most negative experiences can be redirected with psychological support.6 This is the motivation behind the growing movement of psychedelic harm reduction at music festivals.

**Incidences estimated to be only a few cases per million6

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Addiction

Risk of addiction is very low - One studies used the phrase “zero potential to cause addiction”1

Chronic administration of psychedelics temporarily reduces the number of 5HT2Areceptors and leads to a rapid onset of short-lasting tolerance7

Monkeys did not seek psilocybin as a reward8

In humans, psilocybin does not cause craving or withdrawal6

It does not directly affect the mesolimbicdopami-nergic pathway and so does not activate the reward system9

Drug dependencies are the result of habitual, unexamined, and obsessive behaviour; these are precisely the tendencies in our psychological make-

up that the psychedelics mitigate.- Terence Mckenna (Plan, Plant, Planet, 1989)

http://deoxy.org/t_ppp.htm

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Although the use of psychedelics can trigger nonspecific psychotic episodes, or accentuate psychotic symptoms, these substances do not play a causal role in the occurrence of mental illness. The risk of psycho-sis that lasts longer than 48 hours in otherwise healthy subjects after a single dose of psilocybin is extremely low. Cases where it does occur are typically associated with personality predispositions.(1)(5)

The prevalence of lasting psychiatric symptoms after the use of serotogenic psychedelic compounds in thousands of healthy subjects and psychiatric patients was 0.08–0.09% and 0.18%, respectively. Some re-ports even find possible positive psychological effects amongst populations using psychedleics.27

Safety

- Psilocybin showed no specific signs of toxicity in the isolated organs (intestine, heart) of rats and pigs.10

- It is not neurotoxic5

- It has a lower toxicity rating than vitamin A1

- To bring on death would take approx. 19 grams of the pure drug, or eating one’s body weight in fresh psilocybin mushrooms11

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Possible Concerns:

• Hypertension and persistent abnormal fast heart rates may affect predis-posed individuals negatively if given extremely high doses of psilocybin (several times higher than in clinical trials). Potential adverse effects of this case could include coma, hyperthermia, and respiratory failure (symptoms of serotonin syndrome)1.•No such cases have been reported with psilocybin mushrooms • Mushrooms that look similar to psilocybin containing mushrooms can cause organ damage,14 so amateur mushroom scavenging is not advised.

Approx. 2000 subjects had received psilocybin under controlled experimental conditions by 20051, without causing any serious side ef-fects12. None have been reported in the studies since this time.

Psilocybin is very likely to have no genotoxic effects13.

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Brain Activity Signatures

Psilocybin, and other psychedelics, provide an interesting window into the functionality of the brain. Network theory has been applied to the data obtained from neuroimaging research and the unique dynamics of the psychedelic state has so far proven to be an unparalleled method for investigating conscious experience and revealing certain functional qualities of the brain. Network Theory is based on a holistic view of brain functioning, compared to views that see brain anatomy in terms of indepen-dent modules built for specific tasks. The mathematical methods of network theory are also the foundation for many projects in computer science, including Google’s Deep Dream AI system18. In short, network theory measures the average patterns of connec-tivity between the nodes (in this case neurons) of a given net-work, and identifies stable networks (i.e., those that are regularly visited). There has been much recent interest in what the brain is doing while at rest and in the transition between resting states and task focused states.

The image above is a visual representation of the average neural connectivity between brains under normal conditions (left) and under the influence of psilocybin (right) taken from: https://www.wired.com/2014/10/magic-mushroom-brain/

Neuroimaging studies at the Imperial College of London have focused on the transition between the waking state and the psychedelic state. There are 11 resting state networks in the brain. The most talked about is the Default Mode Network, which Robin Carhart-Harris and Karl Friston argue is the nerual correlate of the ego19. This network is effectively dissolved by psilocybin, which activates receptors at the key nodes that maintain it. Car-hart-Harris’ lab noted the striking similarity between psilocybin’s effect of dissolving this and other networks that constrain waking cognition and the ‘reducing valve’ metaphor used by Aldous Hux-ley in his seminal book “The Doors Of Perception”20. Chronicling his experiences with Mescaline under the supervision of University of Saskatchewan LSD researcher Humphrey Osmond, Huxley observed that the psychedelic state seemed to be characterized by a richness of information not typ-ically available21. Rather than deadening the senses, or distorting them as many recreational substances do, psychedelics seem to turn off the brain’s ‘reducing valve’ that filters out irrelevant information from the world and opens the mind to a wider array of experience than the brain typically allows for during normal waking consciousness. This idea is a research project in its own right. For now, the limited information from studies using fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) and EEG (Electroenceph-alography) can be found on the following pages. While prelimi-nary, the results are almost as stimulating for the mind as ‘magic’ mushrooms appear to be!

Philosophical food for thought - no one organ or brain network can be said to be a ‘re-ducing valve’ The whole brain/body apparatus plays a role in reducing, or constraining the possibilities for experience within an environment (for example, vision is dependent on the structure of the eyes and brain in addition to environmental stiumli).

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fMRI image showing the key nodes of the Default Mode Network. It is generally agreed that this network integrates function across distal brain areas. It is not present in infants and develops over childhood19. Some of the func-tions that this network is involved in are autobiographical memory, self-reference, reflecting on one’s emotions and mental states, remembering the past, imaging the future, and moral and social reasoning.

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“To make biological survival possible, Mind at Large has to be funneled through the reducing valve of the brain and nervous system. What comes out at the other end is a measly trickle of the kind of consciousness which will help us to stay alive on the surface of this particular planet. To formu-late and express the contents of this reduced awareness, man has invented and endlessly elaborated those symbol-systems and implicit philosophies which we call languages. Every individual is at once the beneficiary and the victim of the linguistic tradition into which he or she has been born -- the beneficiary inasmuch as language gives access to he accumulated records of other people’s experience, the victim in so far as it confirms him in the belief that reduced awareness is the only awareness and as it be-devils his sense of reality, so that he is all too apt to take his concepts for data, his words for actual things.” - Aldous Huxley, The Doors of Perception

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Here is a quick summary for those not familiar with neuro-science or pscyhology. So far we know that psilocybin has the following primary effects on the brain:

1 - There is a higher average number of neurons connected in the brain under the influence of psilocybin compared to normal waking consciousness

2 - There is less overall activity in many subcortical areas, measured by reduced brain blood oxygen levels. These are the parts of the brain that are phylogenetically “older” (i.e., they evolved earlier).

3 - Increase in desynchronization in the cortex, especial-ly at the 5th cortical layer (there are 6 cortical layers; the cortex is the more recently evolved area of the brain implicated in abstract thought and integration of cognitive processes)

4 - Reduction in the overall activity and integrity of other-wise stable networks, notably the Default Mode Network.

5 - Increase in connectivity between areas and networks that often do not communicate

The Short Version:(1)(19)(20)

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ElectroencephalogramEEG scanning technology detects electri-

cal activity using electrodes attached to the scalp to pick up the electrical impulses

neurons use to communicate.

• Psilocybin(0.215 mg/kg p.o.) decreased basal alpha power precluding a subsequent stimulus-induced de-crease and attenuated VEP N170 in the parieto-occipital area22

• Psilocybin (2 mg i.v.) also decreased broadband spon-taneous cortical oscillatory power during resting state in MEG, with large decreases being in the areas of the default-mode network (DMN) and other resting state net-works1

• Posterior cingulate (central hub of DMN) desynchro-nization can be explained by increased excitability of deep-layer pyramidal neurons23.

• A human Ayahuasca study with low-resolution brain electromagnetic tomography (LORETA) supports the generalization of these effects to all psychedelics24.

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Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

• Decrease of blood-oxygen-level-in a variety of subcor-tical regions. High-level association of activity between fronto-temporo-parietal regions and in the important connectivity hubs of thalamus and midline cortex (ante-rior and posterior cingulum and precuneus).20

• The intensity of the subjective effects was predicted by decreased activity in the anterior cingulate and medi-al prefrontal cortex (mPFC). 20

- Reduction of connectivity between the posterior cin-gulate and mPFC indicates that the subjective effects of psilocybin could be caused by decreased activity and connectivity in the brain’s key hubs of functional con-nectivity, the Default Mode Network.20

fMRI uses magnets to take measurements of changes in blood flow within the body and brain. This gives us pictures like the ones on the left and indicates what might be the most active structure

at a given time.

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• Increase in the blood oxygen signal in the early phases of autobiographical memory recollection (within 8 s) in the striatum and limbic areas. This is also observed in the later phases within the medial prefrontal cortex and sensory areas of the cortex.

• Increased functional connectivity after 2 mg i.v. of psi-locybin between the two specific neuronal networks. The first (default mode network), is typically activated during a resting state and introspection, whilst the second, task-positive network, is activated during focused atten-tion. These two networks reciprocally alternate in their activity during normal waking consciousness, but under meditation, psychosis, propofol sedation and the influ-ence of psilocybin they closely interact. However, unlike propofol, thalamo-cortical connectivity was preserved after the administration of psilocybin and it would dis-criminate in a substantial way the psychedelic experience from sedation25. • Reduced amygdyla (responsible for fear and startle responses) reactivity to negative and neutral stimuli. Psilocybin-induced attenuation of right amygdyla activity in response to negative stimuli was related to psilocybin induced increase in positive mood state26.

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Chemical Action

- Psilocybin is rapidly metabolizes to psilocin, which is a potent agonist at serotonin 5-HT1A/2A/2C receptors. 5-HT2A receptor activation is directly correlated with human hallucinogenic activity(1)(15).

- Psilocybin produces a global increase in cerebral metabolic rate of glucose, mostly in the frontal cortex, anterior cingulate, and temporomedial cortex. These changes were correlated with measures of psychologi-cal state1

- A recent study16 found that psilocin binds to many different receptors, including dopamine, in the follow-ing order: 5HT2B>5HT1D>D1>5HT1E>5HT1A>5HT5A>5HT7>5HT6>D3>5HT2C>5HT1B>5HT2A.

- The effects of psilocybin in humans is blocked by the 5-HT2A/C antagonists17

- Psilocybin also indirectly increases (via 5HT recep-tors) the release of dopamine in the ventral striatum in humans, an effect that correlated with symptoms of depersonalization and euphoria1.

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Possible Research Applications

- Addiction treatment

• Psychotherapeutic adjunct for the dying

• Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

• Anxiety disorders

• Depressive disorder

• Cluster headaches

• Perception research - Revealing brain function

- Educational Tool

- Insight Problem Solving - Implicit Learning

- Attention and perception - Language and semantic coherence/association - PTSD treatment - Role of serotonin - Mystical Experiences - Emotion - Memory - Neural networks

- Positive Psychology (Flourishing)

- Neurology of Psychosis

-Salience and Construal

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Resources1 Tylš, F., Páleníček, T., & Horáček, J. (2014). Psilocybin – Summary of knowledge and new perspectives. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 24(3), 342-356. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2013.12.006

2 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tryptamine

3 https://www.shroomery.org/forums/showflat.php/Number/15171770/fpart/all/vc/1

4 Fadiman, J. (2011). The psychedelic explorer’s guide: Safe, therapeutic, and sacred journeys. Rochester, VT: Park Street Press.

5 Strassman, R.J.,1984.Adverse reactions to psychedelic drugs. A review of the litera-ture. J.Nerv.Ment.Dis.172(10),577–595.

6Johnson, M.,Richards, W., Griffiths, R., 2008. Human hallucinogen research: guidelines for safety. J.Psychopharmacol.22(6), 603–620.

7 Roth, B. L. Berry, S. A.,Kroeze,W .K.,et al., 1998. Serotonin 5-HT2A receptors: molecu-larbiology and mechanisms of regulation. Crit.Rev.Neurobiol.12(4), 319–338.

8Fantegrossi, W. E.,Woods ,J. H.,Winger, G., 2004.Transient reinforcing effects of phenylisopropylamineandindolealkylamine hallucinogensinrhesusmonkeys. Behav. Pharmacol.15(2), 149–157.

9 Nichols, D. E.,2004. Hallucinogens.Pharmacol. Ther.101(2), 131–181.

10 Cerletti, A.,1958.Etudepharmacologiquedelapsilocybine.In: Heim, R.,Was-son,R.G.(Eds.),1sted.Editionsdu Museum National d’HistorieNaturalle1958,1965–66, Paris,pp.268–271.

11 https://www.erowid.org/plants/mushrooms 12 Metzner, R., 2005. Sacred Mushroom of Visions: Teonanácatl: A Sourcebook on the Psilocybin Mushroom. Park. St. Press Roche- ster, Vermont. 13 van Went,G.F.,1978.Mutagenicity testingof 3 hallucinogens: LSD, psilocybin and delta 9-THC, usingthemicronucleustest. Experientia 34(3), 324–325.

14 Franz, M.,Regele,H.,Kirchmair,M.,etal.,1996. Magicmushrooms: hope for a ‘cheap high’ resulting in end-stage renal failure. Nephrol.Dial.Transpl.11(11), 2324–2327

2115 Griffiths, R.R.2007.Psychopharmacology of Psilocybin in Cancer Patients(ClinicalTri-als.govIdentifierNCT00465595).Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Clinical-Trials.gov(online Available From URL: čhttp://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/study/NCT00465595?term=Psilocybin&rank=5č 16 Ray, T.S., 2010. Psychedelics and the human receptorome. PLoS One 5 (2), e9019. 17 Vollenweider, F.X., Vollenweider-Scherpenhuyzen, M.F., Babler, A., et al., 1998. Psilocy-bin induces schizophrenia-like psychosis in Vollenweider, F.X., Vollenweider-Scherpen-huyzen, M.F., Babler, A., et al., 1998.

18 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DeepDream 19 Carhart-Harris, R. L., & Friston, K. J. (2010). The default-mode, ego-functions and free-energy: A neurobiological account of Freudian ideas. Brain, 133(4), 1265-1283. doi:10.1093/brain/awq010

20 Carhart-Harris, R. L., Erritzoe, D., Williams, T., Stone, J. M., Reed, L. J., Colasanti, A., Nutt, D. J. (2012). Neural correlates of the psychedelic state as determined by fMRI studies with psilocybin. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(6), 2138-2143. doi:10.1073/pnas.1119598109 21 Huxley, A., & Huxley, A. (1963). The doors of perception ; and, Heaven and hell. New York: Harper & Row.

22 Kometer, M., Schmidt, A., Jancke, L. ,et al., 2013. Activation of serotonin 2A receptors underlies the pslocybin-induced effects on alpha oscillations, N170 visual-evoked potentials, and visual hallucinations. J.Neurosci.33(25),10544–10551.

23 Muthukumaraswamy, S. D., Carhart-Harris, R. L., Moran, R. J., et al., 2013. Broad-band cortical desychronization underlies the human psychedelic state. J.Neuros-ci.33(38),15171–15183.

24 Riba, J., Anderer, P., Jane, F., et al., 2004. Effects of the South American psychoactive beverage ayahuasca on regional brain electrical activity in humans: a functional neuro-imaging study using low-resolution electroencephalography

25 Carhart-Harris, R. L., Leech, R., Williams, T. M. ,et al., 2012b. Implications for psy-chedelic-asisted psychotherapy: functional magnetic resonance imaging study with psilocybin. Br. J. Psychiatry 200(3),238–244

26 Kraehenmann, R., Preller, K. H., Scheidegger, M., Pokorny, T., Bosch, O. G., Seifritz, E., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2015). Psilocybin-Induced Decrease in Amygdala Reactivity Cor-relates with Enhanced Positive Mood in Healthy Volunteers. Biological Psychiatry, 78(8), 572-581. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.04.010 Krebs, T. S., & Johansen, P. (2013). Psychedelics and Mental Health: A Population Study. PLoS ONE, 8(8). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0063972