Kerry Francis 1

Scent is the most emotionally powerful sense a human has, so why has it been neglected for so long in the development of new media technologies? Kerry Francis 314748 May 2006

Kerry Francis 2

University of Plymouth School of Computing, Communications & Electronics BA/BSc Digital Art & Technology or BSc MediaLab Arts Scent is the most emotionally powerful sense a human has, so why has it been neglected for so long in the development of new media technologies? Kerry Francis May 2006

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Contents Abstract …………………………………...……………………………………….. 4 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………….. 5 1 Scientific Scent ………………………………………………………………… 7 1.1 The Anatomy of Smell ………………………………………………... 7 1.2 The Proustian Phenomenon & Olfactory research………………...11

1.3 The Exploitation of Scent …………………………………………… 14 1.4 Pheromones …………………………………………………………...16

2 The Cultural History of Scent ………………………..…………......……… 20

2.1 The Scents of the Ancients …………………………………………. 20 2.2 The Middle Ages & Renaissance .……….………………...………. 26 2.3 Scents of a Revolution ...………………………………………….….30 3 Scent and New Media …………………………..…………….……………… 34 3.1 Odorama …………………..…………………………………………. 34 3.2 Production Scent – Theatres and Films ……..……………………. 35 3.3 The Art of Scent …………….……………………………………….. 38 Conclusion …………………………………………………………….………… 42 References ………...…………………………………………………………….. 44

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Abstract: Scent is so powerful it can transcend time and space and take people back to

distant memories. Triggering powerful emotional responses emulating feelings

they had at the time of the original event and about the people they shared it

with. Scent as an emotional stimulus is more powerful than any visualisation

as it able to add a level of intimacy that no video or photograph could ever

achieve. This dissertation discusses the science behind the Proustian

phenomenon and how the use of smell has developed historically and

culturally. It exposes how large corporations are investing in scent research to

exploit the Proustian phenomenon to increase profits in their retail outlets and

how they tailoring the retail environment to make the costumers want to spend

more. It highlights the events that lead to its neglect today’s society, the

reaction to this by the work of a few select artists and scientists who are

helping to promote its importance and opening people to the experience of

scent which surrounds all of us. Through this research it was made apparent

that the only truly effective way of introduce scent into new media was to

make the media a fully immersive experience. In order for the scent to work in

this environment it is imperative that the audience is not made aware of the

fact that artificial scents are being added, this way they are not distracted

away from the other sensory stimuli and the experience is truly immersive.

If scent is such an emotionally important part of life why has it been neglected

for so long in the media industry?

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Introduction

‘Odours affect us on a physical, psychological and social level…. It is only

when our sense of smell is impaired for some reason that we begin to realise

the essential role olfaction plays in our sense of well being’

(CLASSEN, C, HOWES, D, SYNOTT, A. 1994)

Scent is the most intimate and emotionally powerful sense a person

possesses, it can transcend space and time bringing back memories long

since past. However, this potency is something that has been neglected as

new media devices have evolved, losing out to advancements in audio and

visual technologies. Scent as an emotional stimulus is more powerful than any

visualisation, as it is able to add a level of intimacy that no video or

photograph could ever achieve.

In the beginning of civilisation scent was held in high regard in all aspects of

life, Constance Classen in her book Aroma, observes its rise and decline

through history highlighting its demise. This dissertation will observe this rise

and fall in popularity in order to discover why society today is only just

beginning to except the study of olfaction as a serious matter. Scent is

notoriously difficult to study; scientists have for centuries been making claims

about how olfaction works and how it affects people, though they have not

had the medical knowledge to produce systematic results that could be

replicated. Marcel Proust in his novel ‘In Search of Lost Time’ (1913), explores

the way memories are recalled when a certain scent is present, this

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phenomenon is known as the Proustian effect. However, this was an

especially hard phenomenon to prove through scientific means in an era that

was obsessed with new advancements in audio and visual technologies.

Charles Darwin considered olfaction a primitive sense due to its animalistic

and savage nature. Darwin was held in high regard by nineteenth century

society, and in a time where social class was so important, other scientists did

not want their work to appear uncivilised and so avoided olfaction as a subject

matter. As society has become more liberal and medical knowledge has

increased the work of scientists such as Rachel Herz from Brown’s university

have become more valid in the eyes of the scientific community. Herz

explores many olfactory phenomenons in her work, including the Proustian

effect, relating scent to emotions and taking it to the next level, and

discovering how people can be conditioned to feel certain emotions with

regards to certain scents.

As society is beginning to awaken to the potency of olfactory discoveries,

people are noticing the gap within the media market for olfactory products.

This is particularly noticeable in areas such as advertising, for many years it

has been common knowledge that big chains of supermarkets use fans to

waft the smell of fresh baked bread through their stores to trigger hunger in

the consumer and therefore making them buy more products. It is not just

supermarkets that are capitalising on this form of scent exploitations; big

corporations like Sony are employing olfactory scientists to produce a

signature scent for its stores. By doing this, Sony is hoping to widen their

client base to get the consumers to spend more than they usually would. Even

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internet providers are seeing the potential gap in the market for scent related

products. Telewest have developed a Scent Dome that will work in

conjunction with emails to produce scent related adverts in peoples inbox, this

means companies like Sainsbury can pipe the smell of their freshly baked

bread directly into your home. It is not just scientists which have made the

study of scent more acceptable as an area of study; many artists were

experimenting with scent, with varying degrees of success during the time

when people said it was uncivilised. Hans Laube was the first person to

produce a cinematic scent experience during a screening of his film, ‘The

Rose Ball Game’, in 1939, using cotton balls soaked in rose oil and big fans to

waft the scent to the audience. From then on many people have tried to

emulate this experience using different techniques, though most failed as the

scents were distracting the audience from the content of the film and thus was

seen as no more than a gimmick. Artists like Hilda Kozari and her project,

‘Air’, are trying to change the way people experience scents and making

people more aware of the olfactory environments that surround them. As

people are demanding more from their entertainment experience, companies

like Disney and their team of Imagineneers are developing fully immersive

experiences that are incorporating scent and touch in addition to audio and

visual.

The first chapter will explain how scent works and the Proustian phenomenon

that links scents with emotion and memory triggers. It will highlight the

scientists which have made significant contributions to olfaction and how

companies are taking advantage of these discoveries to increase profits.

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The Second Chapter will show how scent has become neglected through

history, with the rise of education and development in audio and vision. It will

show how scientists, like Charles Darwin, view scent in regards to evolution

and civilisations had a detrimental effect on the credibility of olfactory study.

The third chapter will examine how artists are helping to change the way

people think about their olfactory environment and how companies like Disney

are using scent in conjunction with audio, vision and touch in their rides to

provide the audience with a totally subversive experience.

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1 Scientific Scent

The focus of this chapter is on the scientific functionality of smell and the brain

activity that links it emotionally to our memories. It will explore the scientists

that have produced a positive effect that has aided in our understanding of

scent, and those scientists whose misconceptions lead to the hindrance of

olfactory development. It will then talk about how big corporations are

investing large sums of money into olfactory research and technology to

increase profits.

1.1 Anatomy of smell

Before the psychology of smell can be discussed, it is important to understand

the anatomy of the olfactory system and how it works in conjunction with the

brain. Compared to animals the human sense of smell is extremely primitive,

this is because animals rely on their sense of smell to survive, whereas

humans have developed other coping techniques to aid their survival. Every

day, people are persistently and unconsciously sampling their olfactory

environment. From this data they are informed if the environment they are in

is harmful or not, for example, if a person smelt smoke they would assume

that fire was in the vicinity. People are also able to tell whether or not the food

they are consuming is safe, and even the presence of another person, all by

using the olfactory data of the objects in an environment. A human sense of

smell does not always require air in order to work; babies are able to smell the

amniotic fluid that surrounds them in the womb which then makes them able

to recognise their mothers from birth.

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Smells are produced by air borne chemicals, these molecules travel up the

nasal cavity and are dissolved in the mucus coating of the olfactory

epithelium. The epithelial tissue contains three different types of cells, the

neurons which translate the odour, support cells which protect the neurons by

secreting the mucus, and the basal cells which develop into neurons, which

help to replace any damaged or dead neurons. As olfactory perception has

been an overlooked area of study within the scientific community, many

theories exist to explain the perception process, none of which can explain the

process in its entirety. Dr John E Amoore in his paper, ‘Molecular Basis of

Odour’ (1970), established the shape theory he discovered in 1952 at Oxford

University. This theory implies that the sensation of smell occurs because of a

lock and key relationship, between the neuron and the odour molecule. Each

neuron’s receptor is a specific shape, as is the molecule. In a lock and key

structure, the molecule will have a complementary shape, thus allowing them

to fit together as a key in a lock does. It has been discovered that we possess

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347 different olfactory receptors, and as humans we can perceive 10,000

different smells. Therefore, it means the perception of smell is created when

the electrical signals of the different receptor cells combine, and is processed

by the brain to produce different scents. Luca Turin, in his paper, ‘A

spectroscopic mechanism for primary olfactory reception. Chemical Senses’

(1996), has proposed a different theory for the perception of smell, known as,

the vibration theory of olfaction. This theory implies that the odour receptors

respond to the frequency of vibrations of the odour molecules. Electrical

signals are passed through the axons of the neurons, and converge in

glomeruli on the olfactory bulb in the brain. The electronic signals are then

sent to various segments of the brain to determine the concentration,

proximity and any memory links that may already be present regarding that

specific odour. The olfactory cortex, where the processing occurs, has a direct

link with the amygdala, which is responsible for emotional memory, and the

hippocampus where memory processing occurs. Experiments by Keller and

Vosshall, written in their paper, ‘A Psychophysical Test of the Vibration Theory

of Olfaction’ (2004), set out to investigate Turin’s claim. However, the results

from the investigation provided no satisfactory evidence to support Turin’s

claim.

1.2 The Proustian Phenomenon & Olfactory research

When a scent is processed, it can prove to be a powerful involuntary memory

trigger; this effect is known as, the Proustian phenomenon. Marcel Proust

discusses this in his novel, ‘In Search of Lost Time’ (1913); he explains that

scent triggered memories lead to a more emotional response than any other

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sensory stimuli. A prominent segment of this book is called Madeline, where

Proust experiences a vivid memory of his childhood linked to the tea soaked

Madeline biscuit.

‘As humans, we're not immediately predisposed to respond to a scent and

believe that it is good or bad’ (Herz, 2005)

Rachel Herz is a psychologist at Browns University, and has conducted many

experiments to examine the link between memory and olfaction. ‘Scents and

Emotions Linked by Learning, Brown Study Shows’ (January, 2005), talks

about some of the experiments and techniques used to explore the link

between memory and olfaction. One of Herz’s experiments involved 36 men

and women, who were asked to rate six different scents, four familiar ones

(rose, peppermint, vanilla and lemon), and two newly created ones; a floral

scent and a clean watery scent. The group was then split into 3 smaller

groups, the first group played a computer card game, which was rigged to

lose and also featured an abundance of irritating sound effects, and the new

unfamiliar scent was emitted into the gaming environment via a hidden

machine. The second group were exposed to the scent whilst in a waiting

room, reading a selection of magazines. The third group were the control

group, who played the computer card game in an odourless room. Each group

went to three sessions over the course of a week, and at the end of each

session were asked to rank all the scents, including the one that two of the

groups had been exposed to. The results showed that the first group, that

played the card game and were exposed to the unfamiliar but pleasant new

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scents, rated them as unpleasant. This is proof that even if the scent was

perceived as pleasant, the first group built up a negative association over

time, due to the frustrating nature of the card game. Through Herz’s research,

the link between memory and olfaction has been further reinforced. However,

not all scientists have had a positive effect on olfactory study.

‘Idiots also resemble the lower animals in some other respects; thus several

cases are recorded of their carefully smelling every mouthful of food before

eating it. One idiot is described as often using his mouth in aid of his hands,

whilst hunting for lice. They are often filthy in their habits, and have no sense

of decency; and several cases have been published of their bodies being

remarkably hairy.’ (Darwin, 1871)

Charles Darwin is a highly respected scientist, who produced highly accurate

evolutionary studies in the nineteenth century. However, some of the evidence

he presented in his papers, ‘The Descent of Man’ (1871), and, ‘The Origin of

Species’ (1872), had a detrimental effect on the study of olfaction. Darwin

stated that our sense of smell became less acute as we evolved away from

the animals that required it for survival, and if we tried to train our noses, we

would be fighting evolution and regress back to our animalistic states, thus

reinforcing that scent was linked with animalistic savagery. It is also believed

that as we evolved to walk on two feet, with our head away from the ground,

our eyes took prevalence and we no longer need our noses to tell us about

our environment. Freud states that from the moment we are born as babies,

we rely on our primitive sense of smell to gather environmental information

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about the people and objects around us. However, as our brains develop and

we become more civilised, we should let our more rational visual sense take

prominence. Scientists who glorified olfaction during the nineteenth century

were seen as low class, uncivilised simpletons, in the eyes of high class

academia, and therefore abandoned their research in favour of visual and

audio development. This is why today we have highly developed audio and

visual systems and equipment, but we are only just beginning to make

breakthroughs in olfactory technologies, hence why the audio and visual of

today is so advanced in comparison to other sensual technologies. This is

why the work of people like Rachel Herz, is imperative if we are to further our

understanding of olfaction, and boost it’s credibility in the scientific community.

1.3 Exploitation of Scent

The majority of the world may still be fundamentally ignorant of the power of

smell, however, it appears that large corporations have picked up on the

experiments of scientist like Herz, and are developing ways to use olfaction to

maximise profit.

‘Our products are about seeing and hearing, so it seemed natural to add smell

to create an immersive sensory experience’ (Christine Belich, 2006)

Sony are using a company called, ScentAir, to create and dispense them a

brand scent for their shops to encourage people to spend money. After

analysing Sony’s statistics, it was found that their primary consumer were

men, therefore they decided that in order to broaden the spectrum of

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costumers to include more women, this new scent should be aimed at a

female audience. ScentAir achieved this by interviewing Christine Belich

(Sony store’s creative director), and other female members of staff, asking

them questions like: Where their female consumers may like to go on holiday?

The research that ScentAir are doing for Sony, highlights the use of the

Proustian effect, by Sony emulating the smells from a tropical holiday location,

they are hoping to evoke the memories that go along with it. When on holiday,

people spend more then they usually would at home, thus emulating the

holiday situation via olfactory stimulation should make the consumers spend

more money. Scent marketing is believed to be the only avenue left for

companies to use to promote their products, and is set to be worth between

$500 million - $1 billion in the US by 2016. (McArthur, K. Dec 2006).

‘People are walking around with their iPods trying to block out sound.

Fragrance is the only thing left. You cannot turn off your nose. You have to

breathe.’ (McArthur, K. quoting Vogt H. Dec 2006)

Companies are now pushing the boundaries of this technology and

incorporating it into traditional advertising media. The Clear Channel have

produced large billboard adverts that release scents, Pepsi have been utilising

scratch panel advertising in magazines to promote diet Pepsi jazz, a medium

which was once restricted to use by perfumers to promote their fragrances.

There are examples where the use of fragrance has had adverse effects. A

San Francisco bus shelters were advertising the ‘Got Milk?’ campaign, which

was a poster accompanied by a strip that released the scent of chocolate chip

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cookies. Due to the enclosed nature of the bus shelter, people were

complaining that they were having allergic reactions, so soon after they were

installed they had to be taken down again.

1.4 Pheromones.

‘It has become crystal clear that human pheromones affect us more than most

people can imagine. Our knowledge of visual input, and of how vision might

influence our sexual behaviour, pales by comparison. During this decade,

many more people will learn that our sexual behaviour is driven in the same

manner as it is in all mammals: directly via olfaction and pheromones, and

only indirectly by phenomenal associations with visual input.’ (Kohl, J.

November 2006)

Pheromones are chemical substances secreted on the surface of the skin,

which travel between members of the same species to communicate different

messages. We posses numerous different pheromones to convey different

messages, these include, sex, food location and alarm pheromones. There

has been extensive research into mammalian pheromones; however, in the

past there has been some controversy in the scientific community as to

whether or not humans produce pheromones.

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'Scientists in Philadelphia have established for the first time that the human

body produces pheromones, special aromatic chemical compounds

discharged by one individual that affect the sexual physiology of another'.

(Rensburger, B. 1986)

The first reliable evidence for the existence of pheromones was provided by

the controlled experiments of George Preti and Winnifred Cutler (1986). The

work of these two scientists remained highly secretive due to the patent they

were obtaining on four different pheromones. The research centred on

pheromones and women’s health, they found that pheromones contained in

naturally occurring male scents helped to maintain good health in women.

They conducted extensive studies at the Monell Chemical Senses Center, and

found that women who had sex at least once a week are more likely to have

regular menstrual cycles, increased fertility and a milder menopause. These

discoveries lead to the exploration of the affect of the male essence and the

well being of women, and also explored the McKlintock effect, where women

who live together experience menstrual synchronisation. The underarm

samples from seven men and women were collected from an underarm patch

they had to wear between eighteen and twenty seven hours a day for a period

of three months. The essence was then extracted and mixed with alcohol; the

mixture contained male scent was applied to the top lips of six women with

irregular menstrual cycles. The scent had a profound effect on these women;

their cycles sped up or slowed down so they were all averaging 29.5 day

cycles. The control group were just given alcohol and as expected their cycles

remained irregular. They repeated this experiment with female essence in

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order to further study of the McKlintock effect, the results showed that women

who received the female essence showed a greater tendency to synchronise

their cycles. This is overwhelming proof of the effect these hidden scents have

over human behaviour and physiology.

Cosmetic companies have been trying to isolate these chemicals so they can

be added to various products to promote well being in women. Other

companies are working towards isolation of these chemicals for a much more

sinister intention; they believe that by adding it into perfume it will make

women seem more attractive to the opposite sex. This is highly dangerous

and could lead to an increase in the amount of birth defects; pheromones are

used as signals to unconsciously advise people of a potential partner whose

genes are least similar to their own. If people started using artificial

pheromones to increase their attractiveness to the opposite sex, their olfactory

systems would not be able to tell the difference in the pheromones, thus

leading to them being attracted to biologically unsuitable partners. Every

person has 46 chromosomes which determines their genetic make up, 23

from each parent; it is possible that some genes they inherit are recessive,

which means that they posses that quality, however it is not displayed

physically if they inherit a more dominant gene from your other parent. These

genes determine their physiology from eye and hair colour to more important

defects like Down syndrome and sickle cell anaemia. So if both their parents

had the recessive gene that person would be born with the defect, this is the

danger of these artificial pheromones. As people’s biology can no longer

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determine the best partner for them, it will lead to a greater probability of these

recessive genes coming into contact.

This chapter has examined the physiology of scent and how the different cells

send signals to the limbic system of the brain, which causes the Proustian

effect, allowing the scents to trigger powerful emotional responses. It has

shown how the early scientific research was hindered by the work of Darwin

and Freud, highlighting the reason why audio and visual technologies are so

much more advanced than olfactory ones. It has introduced the aroma

marketing firms like ScentAir, who are trying to manipulate consumers with

scent related advertising. It appears that scent is the last resort for

advertisers, as people become immune to the visual bombardment of

advertisements that appear in every aspect of our lives. With the rise of

personal devices like iPods, people are shutting off the outside world audio

stimuli which would have no effect on the consumer.

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2. The Cultural History of Scent

This chapter focuses on the rich cultural history of scent, from ancient times to

the present day, highlighting the importance that scent played in medicine and

religion and contrasting it with the role of scent in modern society. To gain a

better insight into the way olfaction was perceived throughout history,

historical documents by Aristotle and religious texts will be used to

demonstrate the views of the eras. By exploring the historical and cultural

context of scent, it will help to further the understanding of how and why

scents in modern society affect people in certain ways.

2.1 The Scents of the Ancients

Scent played an important role in all aspects of ancient life from religion to

health. The Egyptians were the first aromatherapists, using aromatic herbs as

remedies to treat a variety of ailments, for example, the use of theriaque to

dismiss anxiety. They were very aware of the role scent could play in

maintaining the healthy balance of body and spirit, therefore as well as using

herbs for medicinal purposes, they were placed with the dead bodies to

ensure their needs in the afterlife were fulfilled and that their rebirth would be

fragrant and pleasant.

The burning of oils and incense was the most prevalent use of scent in

Egyptian society, the burning of these scents made up a significant part of

their daily worship of the gods. These incenses would burn not only in temples

but in homes and businesses too, allowing them to please the gods in all

aspects of their lives and in return asking for the blessing of the gods in their

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homes and businesses. One of the most prominent of these incenses was

Kyphi, which was burnt in the evenings to honour the day gods as they

prepared for their nightly journey into the underworld and to ensure the safe

return of Ra, the sun god. The burning of incense is still a very common

practise today, with many people using it in their religious practises, in

addition to those who simply burn it because they enjoy the smell.

God said to Moses;

‘Take to yourself perfumes: stacte drops and onycha and perfumed galbanum

and pure frankincense. There should be the same portion of each. And you

must make it into an incense, a spice mixture, the work of an ointment maker,

salted, pure, something holy. And you must pound some of it into fine powder

and put some of it before the Testimony in the tent of meeting, where I shall

present myself to you. It should be most holy to you people.’

(Exodus 30:34-36)

Incense is still burnt in many Roman Catholic and Eastern orthodox churches,

in a container known as thurible and used in their religious services.

Christians believe that the rising smoke from the censer represents the

prayers of the faithful rising to the heavens. Buddhists and other eastern

religions are the largest users of incense in relation to religious practise in the

world today; they use it to purify the surroundings to bring forth the realm of

adornment. Their temples are scent with large coils of incense which are

suspended from the ceiling, worshippers entering the temple wave large

bundles of incense sticks blowing the smoke towards the statues of Buddha.

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Followers of Hinduism were the first to use incense as a form of sacrifice to

the gods, it is used in all their ceremonies but it also plays an important role in

their houses, where it is placed on alters with statues of their deities.

Scent not only played an important religious role in ancient times, but the

roots of the modern day fragrance trade began here. In all eras of the ancient

world, people were creating personal fragrances, and as trade routes through

Arabia became more accessible, the diversity in ingredients increased. The

Greeks and Romans mainly used garden plants in the creation of their

fragrances until trading began with Arabia, they then had access to a

multitude of exotic spices. These growing interests in personal fragrances led

to the existence of professional perfumers, which were integrated into the

household, whose job it was to produce personal fragrances for the family and

also create a signature scent for feasts and other events held by the family.

This practise still occurs today, as mentioned previously, Sony hired the

modern day equivalent of these perfumers to create the signature scent in all

their stores. However, unlike the way in which we use perfume today, it was

common place for members of ancient society to wear more than one

fragrance on each of their different body parts. This brings to light just how

developed their olfactory tastes were in comparison to the modern nose,

where we are more than content with applying one strong scent, also showing

the derogation of scent in our modern culture. The mixture of these exotic

scents, with all the smells of the street life, produced a rich scentscape that

we could not even begin to imagine in today’s world. This is due to people in

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modern society masking the bad odours with artificial ones, which can be just

as offensive to a trained nose. Thankfully we have a covered sewage system

that carries our waste, and regular refuse collections so will never experience

many of the foul odours that existed in ancient times.

Buildings had their own distinct scents, but it was no just the heavy perfumes

inside the buildings creating the aromas, they had spices like saffron mixed in

with the mortar when the building was constructed. This shows how important

their olfactory environment was to them, the concept of mixing scent in with

our modern day brick work would seem like a very alien concept. We still do

use fragrance in our homes and a multitude of devices have been created to

help disperse the scent throughout the house. Members of Roman society

took this a stage further and applied their perfumes to the domestic animals to

scent mark them as the families property. The use of perfume in the home

wasn’t wholly a luxurious indulgence, it played a number of practical roles

within the household.

‘Clothes stored in cedar chests for example, were not only kept fragrant but

also protected from moths, which dislike the scent of cedar. Likewise, incense

burning in storerooms both perfumed the wares within and helped keep out

rodents’ (CLASSEN, C, HOWES, D, SYNOTT, A. 1994)

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Another reason for the use of scent within ancient communities was to

distinguish between people’s social classes. The richer members of the

community were characterised by their sweet smelling fragrances, clean

fragrant homes, and gardens, whereas the poor people smell foul due to the

impoverish conditions they lived in and the working conditions they endured.

However, the people of the city also considered there to be another divide

amongst the olfactory classes. People living in the country, although they lived

in a cleaner environment away from the cramped conditions of city life, were

considered simple minded folk who smelt of the animals they cared for. There

is an interesting contrast to be made with modern society, people still hold

high regard for personal hygiene, however our opinions of people are often

based more on phsyical appearance and the style of clothing they are

wearing. It would also be a lot harder for people to be distinguished by a

scent, as the perfume market is saturated by a few big brands. People in

modern society are significantly more emotionally reserved, and as scent has

such an emotional attachment, it may explain why people choose a subtle

‘fashionable’ scent to conform to the ideals of the social group in which they

have placed themselves.

‘For food, whether dry or moist, though sweet to taste, is often unwholesome;

whereas the odour arising from what is fragrant, that odour which is pleasant

in its own right, is, so to say, always beneficial to persons in any state of

bodily health whatever.’ (ARISTOLE 350 BC.)

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Perfumes and ointments were used in ancient times in the treatment of

disease, for example, people would rub ointments on their chests to promote

a healthy heart and on their heads to combat the effects of alcohol.

This is still common practise today, with various pharmaceutical companies

such as Proctor & Gamble, producing products like Vicks vapour rub, which is

applied to the chest to clear a blocked nose. We have a greater biological

understanding of the human body and its ailments, although we are still using

these scent related techniques as a form of treatments. Another strong belief

of the ancients in relation to wounds, was that treating the putrid smelling

open wounds with perfumes was the key to curing the infection. This

unexpectedly worked to a certain degree as the perfume acted as a germicide

due to the alcohol it contained, also the scent of perfume helped to calm the

patient whose condition was being made worse by the awful stench.

The odour of death was of great concern to ancient society, in particular the

Egyptians, who created mummification to preserve the bodies of their dead as

well as concealing the scent of death. During the mummification process the

body and its organs were anointed with various aromatic powders and oils, to

emulate the scent of the gods so they would be accepted into the afterlife. It

was also common practise in Roman society to burn incense in the house of

the deceased and along the route of the funeral procession, to ward off death

in the surrounding area. The aromatic burning of the bodies on the funeral

pyre was to emulate the rise and fall of the mystical phoenix, a perfumed

legendary bird which would die in the fire to be reborn again, rising from the

Kerry Francis 26

ashes.

2.2 The Middle Ages & Renaissance

‘Personal use of perfumes, in turn was considered a frivolous luxury tending to

debauchery by Church leaders.’

(CLASSEN, C, HOWES, D, SYNOTT, A. 1994)

During the middle ages the illiteracy levels were at an all time low and the

main social power lay with the churches. As the poorer population could not

read the bible, artists created horrific images of hell in order to maintain

control over the lower class. The poor were so traumatised by these images

they strictly followed the laws of the church, the church believed that the

burning of incense and the use of perfumes was a pagan act and shunned

members of the church community for using it. It was believed that they

should be proud of the natural bodily scent bestowed upon them by God; so

many people stopped washing to preserve the scent. Due to the Germanic

invasion causing the fall of the Roman Empire, a lot of the art, literature and

scents of the ancients were lost forever. This new tribe of people were

barbaric and did not have time to waste on the niceties of perfumes and art.

However, over time as Christianity spread through Europe, scent was slowly

reintroduced into church practises as cultures merged and they began burning

incense again as a symbol of prayer.

Kerry Francis 27

‘We are the aroma of Christ to God among those who are being saved’

(2 Corinthians 2:15)

The odour of sanctity was not a new idea in the middle ages, its routes lay in

ancient times when people such as the Egyptians and Greeks believed that

their gods all had scents and tried to emulate them when anointing their dead.

The odour of sanctity is the scent infused by the Holy Spirit on those who live

a holy existence honouring God. It is often said to emit from saints as they are

dying and can be smelt in the air for some time after their death. There are

numerous accounts written about these olfactory experiences, one of the

more famous accounts evolves Lydwine of Schiedam.

‘Both [Lydwine] and her cell were found to be redolent, so that those who

entered thought that divers aromatic simples [herbs] had been brought in and

scattered there. And this wonderful sweetness was perceived when she was

visited or touched by the Saviour or by an angel, or when she returned from

heaven or the regions of paradise.

(Á KEMPIS, T. trans SKULLY, V. 1912)

Lydwine had disobeyed her father and refused to marry, saying that she

would never marry a mortal man; one day she fell on the ice, breaking her ribs

and was subsequently confined to her bed for the next thirty-eight years.

During that time she was seen within the community as a virtue of religiosity

and patience. Lydwine would receive frequent visits from her guardian angel

who would lead her by the hand on heavenly journeys, this hand was said to

Kerry Francis 28

be so fragrant that it overwhelmed the visiting priest who smelt it, who would

then collapse to their knees and confess their sins to her. Being bed ridden

meant she had a lot of open sores, which ordinarily in this era should have

had the vile odour of rotting flesh however her open sores smelt of the

sweetest perfumes.

These miraculous events were causing so much disruption in the church that

officials were telling people that what they experienced was a trick of the Devil

or overactive imagination. The church wished to retain the power it had over

the communities, so by chastising them for such visions and experiences they

were able to suppress the people’s belief in these occurrences. The use of

odours in middle age teaching of the Christianity was further aided by the

large quantity of olfactory material written in the bible. The illiterate members

of the lower classes could more intensely relate with the olfactory imagery,

which created powerful metaphors of good and evil. This was another sensory

vice used by the church in order to have control over them. By using scent

along with vivid imagery the church were able to gain control, however, by

saying that these visions were hallucinations sent by the devil, they trivialised

the olfactory experiences of the people, dealing a huge blow to the

importance of sensory experience in the following centuries. In modern

society we live in a much more secular and diverse culture where people are

not told what to believe. Though due to this, many people are not committing

to any religion and leading happy secular lives, this may explain why we are

not having the kind of sensory religious experiences of the past.

Kerry Francis 29

The middle ages suffered from frequently occurring plagues for over three

hundred years. Modern science can tell us how these plagues happened, the

reasons why they spread and how to avoid an outbreak. Unfortunately for

people in the fourteenth century, they did not have the developed medical

knowledge to effectively handle the situation. Study of their history tells us that

the plagues were caused by the fleas that were carried by the rats off of

trading vessels, though people at the time believed it was the foul smells that

surrounded them. Being a sacred society they immediately blamed the foul

smells on demons that had poisoned the air making people sick, even the

scientific community blamed invisible poisons being transmitted from the Sun

and planets. The foul odours that came from plague victims was further proof

of these outlandish claims, due to the religious nature of the community it was

said that the scent of the victims was the smell of their sins. As the odour

appeared to be the most logical cause of the plague so people started to find

ways of purifying the air. Large bonfires burning aromatic woods were created

in the towns, and in the sickrooms of plague victims, aromatic herbs were

placed round the windows, doors and burnt in the fireplace. Although people

burnt garlic and lavender to purify the air, they weren’t without their medicinal

qualities; they provided powerful germicides which improved the condition of

many of the patients. The importance of these scented remedies proved so

popular that London was an olfactory wonder:

‘Such Olfactory imagery would have been powerful not only in itself but in its

emotional associations. The smells of home and town were the smells of an

Kerry Francis 30

olfactory war, an immense battle against the deadly odours of corruption in

which every pungent scent was enlisted’

(CLASSEN, C, HOWES, D, SYNOTT, A. 1994.)

It is hard to imagine this kind of olfactory landscape in London today which is

dominated by the scent of traffic and pollution. It appears that many of the

major inland towns and cities have lost their olfactory identities, though this

may be due to the fact that people in modernity do not have the time to

discover and appreciate these olfactory landscapes.

2.3 Scents of a Revolution

The end of the Eighteenth century began the sanitary revolution and the start

of the conditions we live in today. The industrial revolution had lead to a vast

increase in the populations of the larger cities; this led to the large quantities

of houses being built in very close proximity to one another. These cramped

and filthy living conditions meant that diseases were able to spread easily,

causing mass outbreaks of typhus and cholera. People were still intellectually

naïve to the cause of the disease and blamed it on the stenches coming from

the cramped dwellings of the factory workers. There was no refuge protocol in

place so it was simply put into the streets, which in turn helped spread the foul

smells and disease. However, this prompted people, for example, Hector

Gavin in his publication, 'Sanitary ramblings, being sketches and illustrations

on Bethnal Green' (1847), to go on olfactory tours of the city and record the

scents in a report to bring to the attention of the government just how bad the

living conditions of the working class were. In 1858 the smell was so bad that

Kerry Francis 31

the government considered moving the parliament outside the city, though

eventually it was decided that it would be more beneficial to address the

issues and put into place measures to increase the hygiene standards of the

city. The hygiene conditions of the working class improved through the

teachings at the local schools and thus the smell of the city greatly improved.

The French revolution saw the working class rise up against the aristocrats,

shunning the luxurious extravagances that were represented in the high

society, which included things like Perfumes and other olfactory treats. In

England, due to the increase in hygiene, people no longer had to mask their

odours, so perfume was seen as nothing more than an extravagance and a

waste of money. Members of high society still used perfume, though they

were much more restrained in the quantity they used. There was also a

gender divide occurring within the perfume industry, until now, both sexes had

worn the same perfume; the floral scents were now seen as being too

feminine and were therefore restricted to use by women. The importance of

scent was also devalued as it was seen as the sense of emotional and

irrationality which was best left to the female population. Men of the era were

concerned with the industrial revolution and exploration, therefore scientific

research concentrated on vision, for example, the development of the

microscope. This was the beginning of the society who no longer valued scent

as anything more than a trivial luxury, indulged in by women of the higher

classes.

Kerry Francis 32

The twentieth century bought about two world wars, women took over the

male roles as the men went to fight, and the financial situation of the countries

involved became increasingly unstable. People spent all their time

concentrating on the war effort and no longer had time or money for whimsical

past times. People became more emotionally resilient and hardened to the

ways of the modern society. After the war the economy was still suffering,

however people were trying to return to normality, the men came home and

the gender roles shifted again. The women once again became housewives

and reclaimed their femininity using perfume on special occasions to reaffirm

their status. As time progressed, people still continued to pursue audio and

visual research as olfaction slipped into obscurity. In twenty first century

society, people in the west have a greater disposable income than ever before

and are increasingly concerned with fashion and their appearance. Our

culture is becoming more diverse and people have become more socially

accepting of each others differences. It is now common place for men to use

as many grooming products as their female counterparts and perfume is once

again becoming fashionable. Celebrity culture is booming and people are

trying to emulate the styles of their favourite celebrities, including the

fragrances they have commissioned. Scent is once again making a triumphant

return in the public sphere; however, the scents of the modern day have an

unfulfilling sense of artificiality about them.

It can be concluded from this cultural exploration of scent that what was once

an integral part of life in the ancient society slowly became censored by the

church in the Middle Ages in an attempt to control people. As sanitation

Kerry Francis 33

improved in the late eighteenth century and people became better educated,

they began to see the use of fragrances as a frivolous expense rather than a

medical necessity. This was reinforced by the discovery of germs by Louis

Pasteur, as the cause of disease rather than foul odours. The elite members

of society also commanded how the study of olfaction was viewed, if they

described it as primitive, backwards and barbaric, the scientist studying it

were seen in the same light. In order to save their careers, they abandoned

olfaction and focused their research on more credible subjects like sight and

sound, which would provide reliable, easily measurable results to back their

discoveries.

Twenty first century society has more liberal views allowing people to study

subjects like olfaction without the fear of ridicule and have their work taken

seriously. Due to the advancements in technology and a greater

understanding of human psychology and physiology, people from all these

areas are collaborating to produce credible results which are increasing our

knowledge of olfaction. Institutes, for example, The Sense of Smell Institute,

have been set up to support the work of the olfactory scientists helping them

gain recognition. This acceptance of olfactory study has allowed artists and

scientists alike to create projects to help enlighten modern society to the

power that scent possesses.

Kerry Francis 34

3 Scent and New Media

This chapter focuses on the ways that odour has been integrated into media

products over the last hundred years and the effect this is having on the

audiences that consume it.

3.1 Odorama

Immersive museums such as the London Dungeons, recreate elaborate

scenarios featuring fabricated buildings and actors to help set the scene.

Though, no matter how descriptive the dialogues referring to the scent of that

era, people do not possess sufficient language to truly describe these scents.

Therefore, to make it totally immersive, museums have used odorama to

emulate scents of the era. Although it gives the audience some idea of what it

smelt like, the scents used are alien to the modern nose, so it makes it hard to

make the emotional relationship between what you are seeing, hearing and

smelling. People may not be able to relate to the scent emotionally, but it has

been noted that these odoramas have had another interesting effect on the

knowledge retrieval that visitors experience. An experiment was conducted by

Aggleton and Waskett, in their paper, ‘The ability of odours to serve as state-

dependent cues for real-world memories: Can Viking smells aid the recall of

Viking experiences?’ (1999), in the Jorvik centre in York, to see if the

traditional Viking scents used could help people recall the information better.

The first group were reintroduced to the scents some years after they had

visited the centre and asked questions about the information they could

remember. The control group were asked questions about the exhibit without

Kerry Francis 35

being reintroduced to the scent and the recall rate of the information was

much lower than the first group.

Subsequently, even though it may not be an accurate representation of the

scents of the day and we cannot totally appreciate it due to the nature of our

own olfactory environments, it has proved efficient in aiding the learning of

visitors.

3.2 Production Scent – Theatres and Films

The first application of scent and visual art forms dates back to the Roman

era, in coliseums where powerful odours were used to mask the scents of

burning flesh and animal remains. However, the sweet perfumes used were

contradictory to the action that was occurring in the arena. The first time

scents that were used in a complimentary manner, was during the nineteenth

century, when actors would scatter pine needles to emulate forests or cook

food in the theatre to emulate banquets and restaurants.

The screening of, ‘The Rose Bowl Game’ (1939), in a family cinema in

Pennsylvania, was the first film to use scent to compliment the action on

screen. Cotton wads were soaked in rose oil and placed in front of a large

electric fan, which wafted the scent to the audience. The first mainstream

solution to scent related cinema was created by the Swiss professor of

olfaction, Hans Laube, and debuted during the world fair of 1939. Cinemas of

the 1940s were using compressed air to transfer scents through the air

conditioning systems. ‘The Sea Hawk’ (1940) was the first film to utilise this

Kerry Francis 36

method of scent dispersal, using different scent to represent each character,

though due to the confined environment of the cinema, the scents would mix

with one another as the removal technique wasn’t efficient, therefore

producing a foul odour. For many years Laube’s technology lay dormant, until

the producers of the film, ‘The Scent of Mystery’ (1960), remembering the

technology, hired him to perfect it. Laube’s system was the only scent

dispersal system to effectively remove the scent after it was released. The

removal of scent is one of the most important factors in creating a successful

smell-o-vision experience, as the nasal cavity requires a certain amount of

time to clear the molecule of the last odour before it can effectively analyse

another one. Laube made it into a scent brain, which allowed different scents

to be released at set points during the film; the technology was an amazing

achievement, but had too many flaws to be truly successful in a cinema

environment. The scent dispersion was uneven, so whilst some audience

members sitting near the dispenser were overwhelmed, others sitting further

away could not smell anything which led to people sniffing loudly and causing

a disruption. The lack of success of ‘Smell-O-Vision’ led it to being scrapped

quite quickly after it was installed in the select American cinema.

It was not until the 1980’s when scent made a return to the performing arts.

The German Ballet, Nelken (Carnation,1982) by Pina Bausch, saw elaborate

staging involving rows and rows of pink carnations on the stage, whose scent

transcended to the viewing audience, heightening the emotion of the

performance. A similar experience was created by Moses Pendleton’s 1985

ballet, ‘Baseball’, where the smell of fried onion and marijuana were piped out

Kerry Francis 37

into the audience to provide the atmosphere of a traditional American ball

park. Film producer John Walter’s film, ‘Polyester’ (1981), paid homage to the

age of Odorama, utilising the new technique of scratch and sniff scents.

Cinema goers were given special cards with numbered regions on them,

when the number appeared on the top of the screen the audience would

scratch the corresponding number on their cards. This method was employed

by Children in Need in the late nineties with a novelty scratch and sniff book

that worked in the same way, though the smells in the book seemed foreign

to the audience that they found it hard to make the connection with what was

on screen and what they smelt. The main problem with scratch and sniff is

due to the physical act of scratching; the panels break the illusion of being

integrated into the film, which in turn emotionally detaches the audience from

the action, the main point of adding to scent in the first place.

The only way scent vision will work, is if a way can be found to effectively

introduce scent into the environment subtly without the knowledge of the

audience, this way if the audience is not consciously aware of it, they will not

become detached from the film by trying to smell the scents instead of

concentrating on the plot. Though the technology at present remains a

mystery, it would appear that this has been achieved by the Walt Disney

Imagineneers, successfully integrating scent technology into a number of their

attractions at the famed Walt Disney World parks. For example, one of this

years newest attractions to join Walt Disney World’s Epcot park is, ‘Soarin’.

Kerry Francis 38

‘[Soarin’] employs synchronised wind currents, scent machines, and a moving

musical score set to a film that wraps 180 degrees around you, making this a

thoroughly enveloping experience.’

(BIRNBAUM, S. 2006)

I believe that successful use of scent within these attractions is mainly due to

the scent being introduced as a subtle element and it is not trying to take

precedence over the other senses. The downfall of Odorama and

Smell-o-Vision was due to people being made aware of the scents being

pumped into the screening room. This was a new and exciting idea, so rather

than concentrating on the film plots, they engaged in the novelty of trying to

distinguish the scents being emitted.

3.3 The Art of Scent

The way in which scent is being treated in the majority of visual media has

meant that its uses have become no more than a novelty, which has trivialised

its emotional power. However, artists are helping to counteract this; projects

which are using scent in a much more integrated manner are helping to boost

the status of smell as a primary sense.

‘Air’ produced by Hilda Kozari, is described as an ‘Urban Olfactory

Installation’; it consists of three translucent bubbles which have videos

projected into them and a perfume, which was specifically created to

represent the scents of each of the three cities. Kozari has studied the effect

scents have on people and their perception. This understanding of scent

Kerry Francis 39

allowed her to create a subtle but powerful image of each city, unlocking the

olfactory region of the brain provoking potent emotional responses in the

viewer. Again this works well, as it is an immersive experience where scent is

presented in a subtle ethereal manner unconsciously to the audience.

‘The vision and research work of Dr Jenny Tillotson has the potential to

provide breakthrough progress in the development of the whole fragrance

industry. The application of nanotechnology, microprocessors and biosensors

to fragrance development, linked with new insight into the power of fragrance

and fragrance ingredients to affect personal well being, have the potential to

change the whole way we appreciate and apply fragrances in the future’

(AYRES, J. 2006)

Tillotson has produced many works combining senses with fashion and

personal well being. She has created some interesting pieces, including a

smart second skin which measures the well being of the wearer via biometrics

in the same way a person’s natural skin adjusts. A majority of her work

focuses on the importance of scent in relation to well being, the World health

Organisation has predicted that by 2020, depression will be the biggest

disease after heart disease, and her products aimed to help via aromatherapy

that is tuned specifically to the emotional needs of the wearer. Tillotson’s work

is phenomenal and extremely useful to olfactory society, however as these

products have not been mass released to mainstream society, their

practicality is not yet known.

Kerry Francis 40

The use of these products in the public domain could also question people’s

rights of smell. Imagine a crowded commuter train in a time where these

second skins have become common place, the emotions of the commuters

will all differ depending on age, sex, the type of work they do and the kind of

day they have had. The simultaneous release of all these scents would create

a similar effect to that experienced with the original Odorama and produce a

putrid mix of odours. Trains have poor ventilation, making it hard to breathe on

a crowded train in normal conditions; however with the addition of these

chemicals into the atmosphere it could worsen the condition for passengers.

In today’s society it has been noted that due to the amount of pollution in

cities, the asthma rate has greatly increased. With the addition of these

scented products adding extra chemicals into the environment, it could have

an untold affect on sufferers. Due to this olfactory pollution, the use of these

scent emitting products could become as controversial as the smoking ban

and they will be confined for use only within a home environment. This

controversy could however have a hidden benefit; it would highlight how

important scent is and make people more aware of the natural scentscapes

which surround them.

Scent has been used over hundreds of years in order to enhance the

audience’s experiences of entertainment being provided; this has been

achieved with varying degrees of success. The key to a successful scent

experience is to not make the audience overtly aware that scent dispersal is

occurring, that way the audience’s attention is not diverted away from the

other sensual stimuli. Artists are helping to highlight the neglect of scent in the

Kerry Francis 41

public sphere and helping to raise its profile so that people will start to

understand how important it is to their general well being. The artists are also

scientists and have created vast research groups so that the artistic pieces

they create are well informed and can achieve the maximum impact on their

audiences. The only downfall on the artificial scents used in these projects is,

the chemicals producing the odour are made from thirty or so primer

molecules used to recreate a natural scent, which is made from hundreds of

different molecules. A person’s nose is sensitive to these missing molecules

and thus will detect the scent as fake, which does not provide the person with

the same olfactory satisfaction or emotional response that the original scent

would.

Kerry Francis 42

Conclusion

This dissertation has shown the many aspects of scent that must be

considered in order to understand why scent has such a profound effect on

people. Scents carry important biological and environmental information,

informing people of suitable partners or if there is danger in the vicinity. The

scientists, psychologists and historians are collectively gathering their

knowledge of the field which has created a greater understanding of how our

olfactory organs work and the affect scent has on our well being. This

thorough research has led to olfaction having a more prominent place within

the scientific community. However, with this increased knowledge, has come

large corporations who wish to exploit olfactory reactions for their own

financial gain, without thinking about the biological consequences, for

example, companies who are adding pheromones into perfumes and cosmetic

are increasing the risk of birth defects.

Scent was seen in ancient times as a very important part of their religious and

daily routines. People burnt copious amounts of incense and bathed in various

oils and perfumes to make themselves more acceptable to the gods and

become more holy. Unfortunately, as the church came into power in the

Middle Ages, the study of olfaction became considered pagan and savage.

This view was carried right through until the twentieth century, and as a result

the area of olfaction is only now reaching the understanding we have of vision

or hearing.

Kerry Francis 43

It is my belief that through the work of companies, like the Disney

Imagineneers, producing fully immersive sensory experience and artists, such

as Tillotson, olfaction will gain the recognition it deserves. Through the novelty

technologies that are being produced with regards to scent, it will help people

gain a heightened olfactory awareness about the scents in the surrounding

environment. It is my hope that this awareness will open people up to the

natural scentscapes that exist in the natural world. With regards to Odorama,

unless it is used within an immersive context, for example, ‘Soarin’, it is not an

effective way of heightening the emotion within a film and just serves as a

distraction.

Scent is an extremely complex area of study, which even with today’s

technology people still do not fully understand every aspect of how it works

and why it affects them the way it does. However, as the knowledge in this

area increases, the use of scent in new media will transcend the trivial

gimmicks of today to provide people with a more emotional and fulfilling

relationship with the media they consume.

Kerry Francis 44

References

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