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Saving threatened species inAfghanistan: snow leopards in theWakhan CorridorAnthony Simms a , Zalmai Moheb a , Salahudin a , Hussain Ali a ,Inayat Ali a & Timothy Wood aa Wildlife Conservation Society, International Programs , 2300Southern Blvd, New York, 10460, USAPublished online: 30 Jun 2011.

To cite this article: Anthony Simms , Zalmai Moheb , Salahudin , Hussain Ali , Inayat Ali & TimothyWood (2011) Saving threatened species in Afghanistan: snow leopards in the Wakhan Corridor,International Journal of Environmental Studies, 68:3, 299-312, DOI: 10.1080/00207233.2011.577147

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Saving threatened species in Afghanistan: snowleopards in the Wakhan Corridor

ANTHONY SIMMS*, ZALMAI MOHEB, SALAHUDIN, HUSSAIN ALI,INAYAT ALI AND TIMOTHY WOOD

Wildlife Conservation Society, International Programs, 2300 Southern Blvd, New York 10460, USA

(Received 30 March 2011)

The Wakhan Corridor in northeast Afghanistan is an area known for relatively abundant wildlifeand it appears to represent Afghanistan’s most important snow leopard landscape. The WildlifeConservation Society (WCS) has been working in Wakhan since 2006. Recent camera trap surveyshave documented the presence of snow leopards at 16 different locations in the landscape. Theseare the first camera trap records of snow leopards in Afghanistan. Threats to snow leopards in theregion include the fur trade, retaliatory killing by shepherds and the capture of live animals forpets. WCS is developing an integrated management approach for this species, involving local gov-ernance, protection by a cadre of rangers, education, construction of predator-proof livestock cor-rals, a livestock insurance program, tourism and research activities. This management approach isexpected to contribute significantly to the conservation of snow leopards and other wildlife speciesin the Wakhan.

Keywords: Snow leopard; Camera trap; Governance; Rangers; Corral; Insurance

Introduction

The snow leopard (Uncia uncia) is a moderately large cat native to the high mountains ofsouth and central Asia [1,2]. It is sparsely distributed across an area that exceeds 1.2 mil-lion square km [2] and across 12 countries: Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, India, Kyrgyz-stan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan [3], with acore habitat encompassing the Altai, Tien Shan, Kunlun, Pamir, Hindu Kush, Karakoram,and Himalaya ranges [4]. Although a flagship for conservation [5] it is threatened, listedas Endangered on the IUCN Red List [6]. Snow leopard populations are estimated to havedeclined by at least 20% over the past 16 years [6] with the wild population currentlyassumed to be between 4500 and 7500 individuals [7].

Afghanistan encompasses the far western range extent of the snow leopard’s distribution.Included within Afghanistan’s range is the Wakhan Corridor, a narrow panhandle of landin Badakhshan province, the far northeast of the country that connects Afghanistan withChina. The Wakhan is one of the most remote and isolated mountain landscapes in theworld and a place of immense beauty. The area is occupied primarily by two ethnic minor-

*Corresponding author. Email: acsimms@gmail.com

International Journal of Environmental StudiesAquatic InsectsVol. 68, No. 3, June 2011, 299–312

International Journal of Environmental StudiesISSN 0020-7233 print: ISSN 1029-0400 online � 2011 Taylor & Francis

http://www.tandf.co.uk/journalsDOI: 10.1080/00207233.2011.577147

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ities: the Wakhiwho make up the bulk of the human population, numbering around13,000, live in the western part of Wakhan; and the Kyrgyz whose population is relativelysmall, totalling around 1500, inhabit the eastern Wakhan. These people are among themost disadvantaged in the world, having high child mortality rates, in places exceeding50% by age five [8]. Like many poor communities, the people of Wakhan are heavilydependent on their natural resources for survival.

Wakhan has long been renowned for its wildlife [9–11]. It holds a number of speciesthat are of concern to conservation. Aware of this importance, WCS began working inWakhan in 2006. Their project in the Wakhan focuses heavily on the local communities,helping them to develop sustainable natural resource management plans and the capacityto implement the plans. In addition to saving threatened species in Wakhan, a major aim islivelihood improvement for the communities, in ways that harmonise with sustainable nat-ural resource management.

The first known documentation of the occurrence of snow leopards in Wakhan comes fromPetocz [10]. There is later documentation by UNEP [12] and Habib [13]. More recently,camera trap surveys have confirmed the presence of the species. This work represents thefirst camera trap evidence of snow leopards in Wakhan as well as Afghanistan. These surveyshave produced a high frequency of photos, suggesting that Wakhan could be a particularlyrich area for this species, but more work is needed to test this hypothesis. The photographsdo, however, highlight the importance of Wakhan as a place to conserve the snow leopards.

Threats

In an impoverished country like Afghanistan, rare and valuable wildlife like snow leop-ards, dead or alive, can be a source of cash. This can lead to poaching for furs, or livespecimens for private wildlife collections or zoos. Poaching, combined with retaliatory kill-ing by shepherds and the capture of live animals, has the potential to drive the speciestowards local extinction. Careful management, local enforcement of hunting laws, and pub-

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Figure 1. Location of the Wakhan Corridor and ethnic areas. � WCS.

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lic education are therefore needed to discourage illegal taking of snow leopards and othervaluable wildlife.

The illegal trade in snow leopard pelts is a major regional threat to their populations.The fur trade is not a new phenomenon for Afghanistan. Green [14] makes reference to areport from the 1970s, which stated that around 70–80 snow leopard pelts were being

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Figure 2. Snow leopard pelt for sale at Chicken Street, Kabul. � WCS.

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traded in Kabul each year. Today the fur trade in Afghanistan goes on unabated. This isevident in one of the popular shopping areas for foreigners in Kabul, Chicken Street,where shops openly sell wildlife furs, including snow leopard. Shop vendors generallyreport their snow leopard furs as coming from Badakhshan province or Nuristan provincein the east. Given the presence of snow leopards in the Wakhan, this suggests that somepelts on sale in Kabul originate from there. Mishra and Fitzherbert [15] suggest this, too;villager interviews they conducted in Wakhan revealed 10 instances of snow leopardsbeing killed and the skins sold to traders. Interestingly though, the local communities inWakhan report that the fur trade has stopped in recent years. It is not entirely clear why,or even if, this has occurred, although some people attribute it to the arrival of conserva-tion activities in the landscape. Nonetheless, with an active demand for snow leopard fursboth domestically and internationally, and with what are believed to be fast-diminishingwildlife resources across Afghanistan [12], the snow leopard is susceptible to exploitationin Wakhan.

Another threat to snow leopards in Wakhan is retaliation killing by shepherds when theirflocks are preyed upon. Human revenge is common worldwide where man’s economicinter-ests collide with those of predatory animals or birds [1, 5, 16–18] . The condition isexacerbated among poor and livestock-dependent communities [5], like those in Wakhan.There have been three known snow leopard retaliation killings in Wakhan in recent years,

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Figure 3. Live snow leopard captured in Wakhan, February 2010. � WCS, � E. Villarroel.

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Figure 4. Children present their artwork and perform dance during Parents’ Day. � WCS.

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one in December 2008, one in March 2009 and another in February 2010. It is likely thatthese are not the only such cases to have occurred during this time.

Interestingly the February 2010 incident was not only driven by retaliation, it alsoappears to have been linked to the pet trade. The snow leopard in this incident had beenkilling livestock for several days. Reliable sources informed WCS that when news of theanimal reached Faizabad, the provincial capital of Badakhshan, a cash reward was offeredto anyone capturing and bringing the animal to Faizabad alive. Sources say that a wealthy

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Figure 5. Predator-proof corral constructed in Wakhan, November 2010. � WCS.

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Figure 6. Location of Sarkand village. � WCS.

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individual from a neighbouring province wanted to take the animal as a pet exhibit. Thisnews appears to have quickly led to the animal being snared by villagers and transportedto Faizabad where it was later reported to have died as a result of the stress from its cap-ture.

For a species like the snow leopard, which occurs at low densities [3], and a countrylike Afghanistan where the rule of law is weak, the threats mentioned here are significant.There is no single solution; a diverse range of management interventions is needed. Weare developing a conservation program that is designed to lead to the recovery and long-term conservation of the species in Wakhan.

Management

Governance and protection

In order to overcome the threats facing snow leopards it is vitally important to focus onlocal governance and protection. Focusing on the community makes most sense in Wakhanbecause history and their environment have forced them to become very cohesive andresourceful. This has been a strengthening force and made them very resilient. Helping thecommunity to channel and develop these strengths in ways that achieve conservation isone of the pillars of our work in Wakhan.

The Community Development Council (CDC), a village-level structure, is the lowestlevel of governance in Afghanistan, established as part of the National Solidarity Programafter the fall of the Taliban in 2001. In Wakhan, each of the Wakhi villages has one CDCrepresentative; the Kyrgyz have 14 representatives. The CDC structure functions well atthe village level, but in Wakhan where distances and travel times across the landscape areenormous the CDC structure struggles.

With assistance from WCS the community therefore developed a governance structurethat enables functionality across the geographical area and across the two ethnic groups. Alegally recognised social organisation, the Wakhan-Pamir Association (WPA), has beenestablished. The WPA belongs to the people of Wakhan and is managed by a Board ofDirectors, a Chairman and a Secretary (BoD), who are elected by the community. Both

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Figure 7. Family markings on the ear and face of a sheep. � WCS.

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Kyrgyz and Wakhi are represented on the Board of Directors, with nine and six membersrespectively. The BoD makes decisions on behalf of the entire community. It is far easierfor the fifteen BoD members to work together than it is for all 56 CDCs. Usually, afterhaving made decisions about an issue, the BoD members will inform the CDC representa-tives in their local area, or when necessary seek their advice or approval.

The WPA is mandated to oversee sustainable natural resource management and socio-economic development in Wakhan. WCS and the government work in partnership with theWPA. This partnership extends to the point of all three groups sharing an office in thelandscape. The WPA receives support and training in conservation management and liveli-hood development. The WPA is helping to link the communities across the region, whichin turn gives them additional strength and a better ability to protect their snow leopards.

Snow leopards are also directly protected through the development of a ranger pro-gram. Since 2008, 59 rangers have been hired and trained from the local community, 54of whom are community rangers; five are government employees. The rangers have beenrecruited from across the landscape. There are 42 Wakhi rangers, one for each village,and 17 Kyrgyz rangers. The rangers are grouped into teams, with eight Wakhi and threeKyrgyz teams. The WPA and government manage their respective rangers.

Each ranger monitors illegal activities around his village, reporting to his CDC who inturn reports to the WPA or government. The teams carry out patrols and survey wildlifeon a monthly basis. The presence of the rangers provides the community with an ability toengage with and manage conservation. Rangers have been instrumental in the developmentof an information network that encompasses the entire area. As a result of this networkthere are now seldom instances where wildlife crimes are committed and not reported.Over the coming years, this should help lead to a total reduction in hunting and otherwildlife crimes.

All rangers receive a uniform and field gear, and each team is given equipment neces-sary for surveying wildlife (data book, GPS, compass, binoculars, camera trap digital cam-era). To date a structured training activity has been provided for all of the rangers once peryear. Additionally, a dedicated field trainer is employed. He works with the teams teachingthem how to carry out their duties and developing their skills. He is ethnically Wakhi andcomes from Gilgit-Baltistan (previously Northern Areas) in Pakistan, which is particularly

Table 1. Pilot project insurance and compensation rates as defined by Sarkand. � WCS

Species Sex/age class 2010 Market price (USD) Insurance rate (USD) Compensation rate (USD)

Sheep Adult male 111.00 0.45 0.20Adult female 78.00 0.45 13.00Two-yr-old 89.00 0.45 13.00

Goat Adult male 111.00 0.45 13.00Adult female 67.00 0.45 13.00Two-yr-old 33.00 0.45 5.50

Cattle Adult male 355.00 0.90 0.67Adult female 222.00 0.90 33.002–3 years old 111.00 0.89 22.00One-year-old 67.00 0.90 18.00

Horse Adult male 555.00 0.80 67.00Adult female 333.00 0.90 67.00Foal 111.00 0.90 33.00

Donkey Adult male 111.00 0.90 33.00Adult female 78.00 0.45 11.00

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rich in snow leopards. He has extensive knowledge about snow leopard ecology and moni-toring, having been trained by various organisations, and has been actively imparting hisknowledge to the Wakhan rangers. The snow leopard camera trapping results achieved inWakhan stem largely from his expertise.

Education and awareness

Strong governance and protection alone, however, cannot conserve Wakhan’s snow leop-ards. Like many conservation programs around the world, the project in Wakhan placesemphasis on education and awareness. Initially this centred on village-to-village consulta-tion activities and a number of targeted international exposure visits. One of the exposurevisits, a trip to Gilgit-Baltistan in Pakistan to look at conservation and tourism, was partic-ularly influential. Many of the people in this area of Pakistan are ethnically Wakhi andtheir environment is very similar to Wakhan. The Wakhan community members who wenton this trip were impressed by the level of development they saw and the fact that thedevelopment had been achieved in harmony with wildlife. Of particular influence on theparticipants was their ability to see wild ungulates grazing unperturbed alongside the Kar-ako-ram Highway. It was not long after returning to Wakhan that the Wakhi leadershipbegan discussing plans for their community to develop no-hunting regulations.

Table 2. Summary of Wakhan snow leopard camera trap results (April 2009 to August 2010) � WCS

Site Capture event Capture Date Capture Time Place name UTM-E UTM-N

1 1 14-Apr-09 5:45AM Wardif 335950 40955132 2 14-Apr-09 8:35PM Qala Wust 308562 40907422 3 5-May-09 4:24PM Qala Wust 308562 40907423 4 9-May-09 1:50AM Khundkun 330795 40903203 5 12-May-09 5:36PM Khundkun 330795 40903204 6 13-May-09 12:21PM Pikut 284814 40912744 7 26-May-09 9:56PM Pikut 284814 40912744 8 31-May-09 12:51AM Pikut 336408 40898414 9 7-Jun-09 5:07AM Pikut 284814 40912744 10 12-Jul-09 12:44AM Pikut 336408 40898415 11 31-May-09 1:41AM Pikut 284814 40912746 12 2-Jul-09 3:02PM Sast 304261 40904747 13 18-Aug-09 3:45AM Toopkhana 344435 40941628 14 4-Sep-10 5:48PM Wuzed 321022 41115149 15 11-Sep-09 6:34PM Sarkand 284814 40912749 16 9-Oct-09 6:28AM Sarkand 288417 4091262

10 17 12-Oct-09 4:42PM Rookut 344435 409416210 18 16-Oct-09 5:48AM Rookut 344415 409421811 19 3-Nov-09 4:31AM Mandaraz 749103 405018411 20 4-Nov-09 4:01PM Mandaraz 749103 405018411 21 13-Nov-09 8:55PM Mandaraz 749103 405018412 22 18-May-10 2:36PM Shikargah 321022 411151413 23 24-Jun-10 1:58AM Qala-e Panja 287203 409670913 24 26-Jun-10 2:54PM Qala-e Panja 287203 409670914 25 25-Jul-10 5:48PM Ishmorgh 273446 409015314 26 28-Aug-10 7:04PM Ishmorgh 273446 409015315 27 3-Aug-10 9:49AM Patukh 291859 409404416 28 12-Aug-10 2:40AM Sarkand 284892 409124416 29 16-Aug-10 6:43PM Sarkand 284892 409124416 30 28-Aug-10 5:51PM Sarkand 284892 4091244

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Children are also the focus of conservation in Wakhan. A School Environmental Educa-tion Program has been established, which connects students and their teachers with theirlocal environment through the collection of various forms of data (such as fuelwood con-sumption, livestock predation and wildlife observations). This program has shown itself tobe a very powerful tool for educating and changing attitudes among the adults of Wakhan.It is largely attributable to the cultural shift towards conservation.

In addition, for one day every year in the summer, each school holds a ‘Parents’ Day’event. This is a community gathering that allows the children to showcase to their parentsthe environmental learning they have undertaken through the Environmental EducationProgram. The students perform environmentally themed drama and quizzes, music, danceand other activities. These events are extremely popular, as shown by the participation ofmore than 5000 people in 2010. This activity is helping to integrate conservation with theculture of the local people.

Camera trapping is also among the awareness-raising methods being employed to con-serve snow leopards in Wakhan. As well as being useful for monitoring purposes, the cam-era traps have helped raise awareness about Wakhan’s snow leopards among the localcommunities, and in the world outside. The photographs captured have been powerful,bringing the community closer to their wildlife and fostering pride in their landscape. Thisis a positive influence for the conservation of snow leopards.

Mitigating predation

Like many mountain communities in Central Asia [19], the people of Wakhan are heavilydependent on livestock for their livelihood. The Wakhi subsist on cropping and livestockhusbandry, while the Kyrgyz subsist entirely on their livestock (the Pamir climate is tooharsh for crops to grow). Each autumn the Wakhi and Kyrgyz sell a portion of their fat-tened livestock to outside traders in order to purchase food and other basic commodities.Livestock, therefore, are central to livelihood security in Wakhan. Predation on livestockby wildlife like snow leopards threatens this livelihood. Understandably, the local peopleoften consider predator animals to be vermin, particularly following incidents of predation.

The killing of livestock by predators such as snow leopards appears to be widespreadacross Wakhan. While the actual number of livestock lost to predation only appears to rep-resent a small portion of the total livestock population, the psychological impacts of thisloss are significant and threaten snow leopards.

Research carried out in Wakhan suggests that predation is not a major cause of livestockmortality. To illustrate, a survey among 62 households in December 2006 [20] showed thatpredation accounted for less than 2.5% of livestock mortalities in the surveyed population.While another more comprehensive survey by Habib [13] across all 42 villages of theWakhan Corridor, found that less than 1% of the total livestock population, estimated tobe c. 40,000, died from predation during the winter 2006–2007. This research is supportedby data collected by Wakhan school students in 2008 as part of the Environmental Educa-tion Program, showing that predators were believed to have killed 378 yaks, horses, cattle,sheep and goats across the 42 Wakhi villages. This is a loss of below 1% based onHabib’s livestock estimate of 40,000. Compared with the 8–20% losses sustained duringthe winter as a result of food shortages and bad weather [20], these predation losses aretrivial. Additionally, it needs to be taken into account that predation levels are likely to beover-estimated for reasons of misidentification. It is not difficult for the untrained eye to

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misinterpret as predation, circumstances where, for example, an animal was sick anddying, or where after death it had been scavenged by wildlife. The true predation level inWakhan is possibly around 0.5% or even less of livestock per year.

Nonetheless, what is important in the management of snow leopards in Wakhan is todeal with the perceptions and psychological impacts of predation. If graziers feel that pre-dators are killing a significant number of their wildlife, whether this is correct or not, theywill have little desire to protect the species. Indeed, retaliation against predators such assnow leopards is one of the most significant and widespread threats facing these species[21].

Besides, in Wakhan wolves appear to be responsible for the vast majority of the live-stock killing. (It must be noted, however, that it is not clear what role domestic dogsplay in livestock predation in Wakhan; this needs to be investigated.) Yet although pre-dation is not a big killer of livestock in Wakhan, and snow leopards seem to accountfor a small proportion of the losses, and even with the community’s hunting controls inplace, retaliatory killing of snow leopards has continued. In response to this problem, in2010 WCS began working on initiatives that it hopes will reduce the incidence of stockkilling across the landscape and thereby help ease the psychological (and financial)impacts suffered when it occurs, and eventually bring about the cessation of huntingpredator species like snow leopards. It is hoped this will be achieved through the con-struction of predator-proof livestock corrals and the development of a livestock insuranceprogram.

Two corrals were constructed in the latter part of 2010 and another ten are slated forconstruction in 2011. The corrals are constructed in predation ‘hot spots’ identified by thecommunity. These structures have high walls, a wire mesh roof and secure door to preventpredators gaining access into the corral. The walls are made of stone and timber binders.No cement, mud or other material is used to render the structure together, thus minimisingcost and logistical issues.

The corrals are used communally. Livestock husbandry in Wakhan is a dynamic processwhereby grazing patterns shift according to pasture availability at different times of theyear. This changing scenario dictates where animals are housed. For part of the year, par-ticularly during the colder months, each household keeps its livestock in a corral that isattached to the house, while at other times of the year the livestock are grazed and cor-ralled communally with other families away from the village. There are c. 1300 house-holds across Wakhan, and it is impossible to improve every household corral to bepredator-proof. It is, however, possible to safeguard animals that are corralled communallywhen away from the village. This is seen as the practical approach.

In addition to building corrals, a livestock insurance program has been initiated. Sincethe level of predation in Wakhan is relatively low, reimbursement schemes have the poten-tial to succeed. Therefore, in August 2010 a pilot insurance program was started in a smallWakhi village called Sarkand. This village was selected after extensive discussions withthe community, and following a number of stock-killing incidents at Sarkand during 2009and early 2010. The primary objective of the pilot project is to test and develop aninsurance model that can be scaled up across the region and to help quantify the reality ofpredation for the community.

The insurance program has been designed to be entirely community owned andmanaged. To initiate the program, all families in the village pooled money to create a coresavings fund and WCS contributed some seed money. The village CDC holds this fund.The community decides upon livestock insurance and compensation rates (table 1). These

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differ according to the type, age and sex of the livestock. The community is careful whendefining these rates, taking into consideration past stock-killing levels, to help ensure thattheir savings fund will not get overdrawn. Through smart project design and improvedshepherding, it is hoped that the savings fund will steadily grow from year to year as theinsurance program continues. It is also hoped that there will eventually be surplus savingsfor the village to use for sustainable development activities.

All insured animals are marked with paint, either on their horns or hooves, or both, toprotect against false claims. Individual proof of ownership of an animal is determinedthrough unique family markings that are put on the ears and face.

A seven-person village committee, headed by the CDC and including their commu-nity ranger, was established to manage the program. In the event of a stock kill, theCDC will send the community ranger together with two other management committeemembers to investigate. The team will inspect the scene and attempt to ascertainwhether or not predators caused the death, and to check whether the dead animal(s)was actually insured. The team will then report back to the CDC for a final decision tobe made.

To quantify the effects of predation a monitoring protocol has been developed. Thisincludes a data sheet that will be filled out at the site of any predation incidents. Thedata will help the community to evaluate the reality versus perceptions of predation. Inorder for the community to have the capacity to manage their insurance program, WCSwill train the ranger from the neighbouring village to perfrom this monitoring function.This ensures the independence of the monitor from those with a financial interest in thehome village.

The project will also be monitored for any mismanagement. By assessing each predationevent, it is hoped that the community will be able to recognise and deal with falseinsurance claims, should they arise. In the event of such circumstances, the communitywill be engaged in conflict resolution discussions through which it is hoped the problemswill be resolved.

Other training will be provided, including training shepherds on how to use a whistleand dogs to control livestock movements in order to reduce stock loss to predators. Live-stock canbe trained to respond to sound, and so herd movements can be controlled byusing a whistle. This helps prevent stock moving into places that puts them at risk frompredators.

Through the development of the predator-proof corrals and livestock insurance it ishoped that retaliatory killing of snow leopards will be significantly reduced. This, it ishoped, may carry benefits such as increased tourist attraction to Wakhan through moreabundant snow leopards.

Research and monitoring

Since April 2009, WCS has been assisting the Wakhan rangers to carry out camera trapsurveys. From that time up until late August 2010 there had been 30 different snow leop-ard capture events from 16 different locations within the landscape (table 2). All captureshave occurred in the Hindu Kush Mountains, with the exception of two, Wardif andShikargah, both of which are in the Pamir Mountains. This disparity is believed to be morea reflection of survey effort than snow leopard abundance, because the vast majority oftrapping has focused on the Hindu Kush.

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Fourteen Reconyx PC85 cameras have been used for these surveys, mostly throughusing only one camera at each survey point. A rigorous methodology has not beenemployed for these surveys because they have mainly been aimed at teaching the rangershow to use the technology, rather than for scientific purposes. But, the rangers areencouraged to deploy the cameras for 30 days per survey, thus giving the work a level ofrigour. A number of individual recaptures have been recorded during these surveys; but,there has not yet been any systematic analysis or use of the data to generate density esti-mates for snow leopards in Wakhan.

As a result of this work, commencing in 2011, we will implement mark-recapturesurveys to begin determining snow leopard densities in the landscape. The Lincoln-Petersen approach will be adopted for estimating density in the first instance, followedby more sophisticated analysis as data accumulate. Scat collection for DNA analysiswill also occur during these surveys to help snow leopard specialists build up agenetic profile of the species across its range. It is hoped that priority areas for snowleopards will be defined, which will then lead to the development of area-specificmanagement.

The research is also intended to provide a basis from which a long-term snow leopardmonitoring program is developed for the landscape. It is intended to keep the methods ofthis program simple yet robust, so as to be within the capacity of the community and tomeet scientific standards.

Snow leopard data collected in Wakhan are also being used to develop spatial modelsfor the species through GIS. This modelling is a continuing process. The models help withthe development of conservation plans for the area.

Tourism and handicrafts

Despite the troubles of Afghanistan, tourism offers real hope for livelihood improvementamong the communities of Wakhan. This is one of the few peaceful places in Afghanistan,its people never having engaged in any of the violence and strife elsewhere. Tourist num-bers in Wakhan have been increasing rapidly since 2005 with the yearly total currentlybeing between 200 and 250. This is providing a much needed cash stimulus to the localeconomy, and it is one of the few livelihood alternatives available to the community thatblends well with wildlife conservation. Wakhan is a spectacular and remote mountainouslandscape with a deep history and rich local cultures. These factors alone attract tourists,but abundant populations of wildlife such as snow leopards will have a positive effect andenhance the attraction.

Over time it is hoped that tourism focused on the snow leopard can be developed inWakhan, thus generating more local income – through conservation. This, it is hoped, willbe achieved either by attracting visitors to certain areas which are known to hold snowleopards, or through the development of a local ‘snow leopard friendly’ certification forvillages that are compliant with conservation regulations set down by the WPA and gov-ernment. It is hoped that this certification can extend to the production of handicrafts,which the community can market.

By directly linking snow leopards to sustainable forms of income like this, it is believedthat the local community will have increased willingness and incentive to conserve thespecies over the long term.

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Conclusion

Conserving species like snow leopards in a war-torn country like Afghanistan and aremote and impoverished landscape like Wakhan is difficult. It calls for the fostering ofrelationships and a focus on developing bottom-up management. Through the broad rangeof activities being undertaken in Wakhan, it is believed that the threats to snow leopardswill dissipate and conditions prevail that will see the species conserved over the long term.But we acknowledge that challenges lie ahead in Wakhan, and irrespective of current suc-cesses, future management must continue to adapt to changing circumstances and newideas; there is never a hard-and-fast blueprint to conservation management. Through com-munity-led and adaptive management, it is believed that the restoration of balanced ecosys-tems will be achieved across Wakhan and snow leopards will proliferate. This shouldbring increased stability to local livelihoods and open doors to new opportunities for thelocal people and government of Afghanistan.

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[2] Jackson, R.M., Roe, J.D., Wangchuk, R. and Hunter, D., 2005, Surveying Snow Leopard Populations withEmphasis on Camera Trapping: A Handbook (Sonoma, CA: The Snow Leopard Conservancy).

[3] Hussain, S., 2003, The status of the snow leopard in Pakistan and its conflict with local farmers. Oryx, 37(1), 26–33.

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dance using photography and capture–recapture techniques. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 34(3), 772–781.[8] Duncan, A. and Duncan, E., 2006, Report of Survey of Kirghiz in the Great Pamir, Wakhan District,

Badakhshan Province, Afghanistan. Unpublished report for Orphans Refugees Aid International.[9] Gerard, Sir M.G., Holdich, T.H., Wahab, R.A. and Alcock, A.W., 1897, Report on the Proceedings of the

Pamir Boundary Commission 1896, Government of India Central Printing Office, Calcutta.[10] Petocz, R., 1978a, Report on the Afghan Pamir. Part 1: Ecological Reconnaissance. United Nations Environ-

ment Programme and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.[11] Fitzherbert, A. and Mishra, C., 2003, Afghanistan Wakhan Mission Report. United Nations Environment

Programme and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.[12] UNEP, 2003, Afghanistan: Post-conflict Environmental Assessment. United Nations Environment Program,

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unpublished.[14] Green, M.J., 1988, Protected areas and snow leopards: their distribution and status. Proceedings of the

Seventh International Snow Leopard Symposium, p. 3–10.[15] Mishra, C. and Fitzherbert, A., 2004, War and wildlife: a post-conflict assessment of Afghanistan’s Wakhan

Corridor. Oryx, 38(1), 102–105.[16] Inskip, C. and Zimmermann, A., 2009, Human-felid conflict: a review of patterns and priorities worldwide.

Fauna and Flora International. Oryx, 43(1), 18–34.[17] Maclennan, S., Groom, R.J., MacDonald, D.W. and Lawrence, F.G., 2009, Evaluation of a compensation

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[20] Ostrowski, S., 2007, Wakhi livestock in Big Pamir in 2006. Afghanistan Ecosystem Health Project. WCS,unpublished.

[21] Jackson, R.M. and Wangchuk, R., 2001, Linking snow leopard conservation and people-wildlife conflict res-olution: grassroots measures to protected the endangered snow leopard from herder retribution. EndangeredSpecies Update, 18, 138–141.

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