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The Official Faculty Publication
of the College of Arts and Sciences
San Beda College Alabang Alabang Hills Village, Muntinlupa City
Volume 7 No. 1 (October 2014)
ISSN 2243-8963
ii
iii
FOREWORD
Ugong Faculty Journal October 2014 issue
features the scholarly researches of the faculty members
of the College of Arts and Sciences of San Beda
College Alabang whose interests are in various
disciplines of business, information technology,
philosophy, and arts and sciences. The aim of this
journal is to promote research among the CAS faculty
members and to keep readers informed of the latest
trends and developments in various fields.
The current issue employed a double-blind peer
review process. Submitted articles were examined by
two guest editors who are both active in the field of
education and four internal reviewers, including the
Head of the Research, Planning, Development and
Quality Management Office.
The faculty journal follows the standard format
for scientific journal, which includes the Title,
Introduction, Methodology, Results and Discussion, and
Conclusion. The inclusion of Recommendation and
Acknowledgement is optional to the author/s of the
article. The citation of references is presented based on
the standard format set by each discipline; thus, the
authors decide on the style of reference citation to use.
The views expressed in each article of the current
volume are solely that of the author and do not represent
the opinions of the editors nor of San Beda College
Alabang.
The Editors
iv
Table of Contents
Foreword ………………………………………….. iii
Research Works
Acceptability of an Experiential Learning
Laboratory for Aspiring Entrepreneurs in
San Beda College Alabang
Caryl Charlene E. Jimenez and
Cynthia A. Zarate, DBA…………………………………. 2
Faculty Ranking with Online Portal System
(FROPS) for SBCA-CAS Department:
A Proposed Enhancement to the Current
Faculty Ranking Software
Mark Cherwin L. Alejandria,M.I.T…………………. 25
Knowledge Management Systems
Implementation: Lessons From Education
Champions
Shirley A. Padua, MA…….……………………………. 38
The Extraordinariness of Ordinary Language:
A Critical Evaluation of George Edward
Moore’s Concept of Ordinary Language
Gilbert I. Yap…………………….………………………. 73
Profile and Teaching Styles of Dance
Educators in the Philippines
John Paul R. Domingo, MPES……………………….. 98
About the Contributors ………………………… 122
Notes to Contributors …....................................... 126
ACCEPTABILITY OF AN EXPERIENTIAL
LEARNING LABORATORY FOR ASPIRING
ENTREPRENEURS IN SAN BEDA COLLEGE
ALABANG
Caryl Charlene E. Jimenez, MBA &
Cynthia A. Zarate, DBA
ABSTRACT
Entrepreneurship education requires a
supportive environment that is conducive to learning.
Essentially, the teaching style is action-oriented and
accompanied by the practical application of the concepts
and theories discussed in the classroom. The practical or
applied learning is a key component to the improvement
of an entrepreneurial environment in an educational
institution. One of the more popular manifestations of
applied learning in entrepreneurship education is through
experiential learning laboratories or more popularly
called student enterprise centers.
There is now a proliferation of experiential
learning laboratories in many colleges and universities
all over the world. In the Philippines, Ateneo de Manila
University has successfully put up a student enterprise
center in its Loyola campus. It is in this light that the
researchers studied the acceptability of concretizing and
improving an entrepreneurial environment in San Beda
College Alabang through the conversion of the gazebos
located in the college parking area to stalls or kiosks
managed by the college students.
The 9-item acceptability indicators for the
proposed student enterprise center reveal positive results.
The students approved the proposed student enterprise
center based on their willingness to test their business
3
skills in a hands-on environment. Majority of the
students also agreed to convert the gazebos into stalls or
kiosks to be managed by them.
Majority of the students would like to engage in
the food business and are willing to pay a rent between
15,000-20,000 per month, on a semestral basis.
Majority of the students are willing to devote
their time and financial resources for the business,
submit their business proposals and comply with
business requirements.
The projected demand and supply of the
proposed student enterprise center on a five-year period
shows the potential to succeed if it will push through.
There is a significant relationship between the
year level of students and the following acceptability
indicators: being business-minded, willing to engage in
a hands-on environment, conversion of the gazebos to
kiosks, the kind of business they are going to put up, the
willingness to rent the kiosk and pay the amount of lease.
Keywords: experiential learning laboratory/student
enterprise center, entrepreneurship education
INTRODUCTION
There has been a growing interest in building
and creating an entrepreneurial culture among countries
in the different parts of the world. This is based on the
context of job creation, company survival, technological
change and economic and political stability.
4
In the academe, there is a marked increase in
entrepreneurship education in many colleges and
universities all over the world. Thus, they have designed
their curricula specifically for entrepreneurial learning.
In recent years, entrepreneurship education has never
gone this far, for example, more than 1500 schools in the
US have offered entrepreneurship courses (Lim, Lee and
Cheng 2012).
Entrepreneurship education requires a
supportive environment that is conducive to learning.
Essentially, the teaching style is action-oriented and
accompanied by the practical application of the concepts
and theories discussed in the classroom. The practical or
applied learning is a key component to the improvement
of an entrepreneurial environment in an educational
institution.
One of the more popular manifestations of
applied learning in entrepreneurship education is through
experiential learning laboratories or more popularly
called student enterprise centers. For example, the
Columbia University has established its own student
enterprise, which dates back to 1965 when students
created their own businesses to offset the cost of tuition
fees. Today, these businesses provide employment
opportunities to around two hundred Columbia students
each year.
Meanwhile, the University of Manchester in the
United Kingdom also encourages entrepreneurship
through learning and business start-up support, which
students transfer knowledge from classrooms and
laboratories to market opportunities.
In fact, there is a growing interest in the aspect
of academic entrepreneurship in Asia wherein both
technological and economic progress is attributed to the
University’s role and impact of a supportive
5
environment of entrepreneurship. According to the
research of Wong, Ho and Singh (2011), the NUS
Entrepreneurship Center (NEC) embarked on a multi-
comparative study of university technology transfer and
commercialization funded by the Sasakawa Peace
Foundation of Japan. Researches from major
universities around Asia examined the emerging role of
selected universities in their national and regional
innovation systems. Spanning a two-year period, this
study brings together researches from Japan, China,
India, Korea, Taiwan, Malaysia, Thailand and Singapore
to study 13 selected leading universities in these
economies that contributed richer insights on how each
individual university contributes to its national and
regional innovation system while at the same time draw
policy implications for senior university administrators
taking into account the diversity of Asian universities
and their national contexts.
The results of the research identified physical
infrastructure support programmes such as incubator
facilities and even large scale science park developments
while others have highlighted support programmes that
involve “software”and other intangibles, including
entrepreneurship education programmes targeted at
fostering students and faculty interest in
commercializing their invention and equipping them
with relevant knowledge on entrepreneurial start-up
formation. Other commercialization supporting
activities identified include seed-funding programmes,
schemes for mentoring and informal networking and
university-owned enterprises to market the university’s
knowledge assets directly.
In the Philippine context, academic
entrepreneurship is still underperforming as compared to
its Asian counterparts as entrepreneurial development
initiatives are not fully supported by the university and
its administrators. However, there are also visionary
6
universities such as the Ateneo de Manila University
(ADMU) who pioneered in its program, the John
Gokongwei School of Management (JGSOM) Student
Enterprise Center, wherein it supplements its
entrepreneurship program with a commercial building
which houses nineteen food stalls in Ateneo de Manila
University campus. These food stalls are all managed
exclusively by students. It is a business laboratory
which provides the opportunity for budding student
entrepreneurs to hone their skills in food, merchandise or
services in a real life setting,just like how actual business
operations are done inside a mall.
It is in this light that the researchers studied the
acceptability of concretizing and improving an
entrepreneurial environment and culture in San Beda
College Alabang through the conversion of the gazebos
located in the college parking area to stalls or kiosks
managed by the college students.
The history of entrepreneurship education dates
back in 1938 when Shigeru Fijii, who was the teaching
pioneer at Kobe University, Japan, initiated education in
entrepreneurship (Alberti, Sciascia et al.2004). However,
entrepreneurship courses and programs were introduced
in American universities (Franke and Luthje
2004;Raichaudhuri 2005). Entrepreneurship education,
according to Binks (2005), refers ‘to the pedagogical
process involved in the encouragement of
entrepreneurial activities, behaviors and mindsets.
Entrepreneurship has created and increased awareness as
well as promote self- employment as a career choice
among young people (Clayton 1989; Fleming 1996).
Thus, entrepreneurship education is tasked to
build an entrepreneurial culture among the youth which,
in turn, would improve their career choices towards
entrepreneurship (Deakins, Glancey et al. 2005). The
objectives therefore of entrepreneurship education are to
7
change the students’ behavior towards entrepreneurship.
It is also the intention of entrepreneurship education to
form new businesses as well as new job opportunities
(Fayolle and Gailly 2005; Hannon 2005; Venkatachalam
and Waqif 2005). In achieving this, the design of
entrepreneurship education curriculum needs to be
creative, innovative and imaginative and most
importantly, to tie up academic learning to the real world
(Robinson and Haynes 1991).
In the Philippines, entrepreneurship education in
the tertiary level is best achieved in a well-designed
curriculum, effective teaching model founded on
experience-based learning and strong institutional
support (Gatchalian, 2010).
Entrepreneurship can be explained through
David McClelland’s achievement motivation theory
(McClelland, 1971, cited in Srivatsava, 2011).
According to McClelland, entrepreneurial growth can be
explained in terms of the need for achievement
motivation, which is a major determinant of
entrepreneurial development. According to McClelland,
achievement motivation is a desire of a person to
achieve. This motivation is imbued in one’s culture in
terms of values, norms and beliefs.
Evertt Hagan’s approach to entrepreneurial
development is similar to McClelland’s theory.
(Hagan,1964 cited in Srivatsava, 2011). Hagan’s theory
presents the concept of a creative personality as a
characteristic of entrepreneurs. They are interested in
accelerating the change and are driven by a motivation to
achieve.
To produce students who are capable to deal
with real entrepreneurial activity which can create a
creative personality and a desire to achieve,
entrepreneurship education should transform students’
8
entrepreneurial competencies. Brown (1999) indicates
the core structure of entrepreneurial activities in the
school which should draw on the following: a. critical
thinking, b. reliance on experience and c. thinking about
entrepreneurship as a career.
Vesper (2004) indicates four kinds of knowledge
useful in entrepreneurship education:
a. Business-general knowledge which applies to
new firms including new ventures;
b. Venture-general knowledge which applies to
most start-ups but not so much to going firms;
c. Opportunity-specific knowledge is about the
knowledge about the existence of an un-served
market and how the resources need to be
ventured in; and
d. Venture-specific knowledge is about the
knowledge on how to produce a particular
product or goods.
To be involved in an enterprise activity is not only
about starting a business. It is also about learning and
developing skills that students can use in various ways
both inside and outside the workplace. The experiential
learning laboratory is a business incubator not only for
business students but also for students in other non-
business courses who may consider entrepreneurship as
an alternative career to being an employee. The students
may learn to acquire an entrepreneurial spirit which
showcases such traits as innovative and creative flair,
initiative, hardwork, determination, flexibility,
perseverance, time management and strong
communication skills. These skills can make anybody
standout and succeed in the work environment.
Exposure in the real life entrepreneurial setting will
help students be equipped with all the abovementioned
traits. Whatever the students’ motivation is at the
9
moment, the experiential learning laboratory can help
students to be prepared in their future entrepreneurial
activities.
The main problem of this study is the acceptability
of an experiential learning laboratory in the form of a
student enterprise center by converting the gazebos
located in the college parking area to stalls or kiosks
managed by the College of Arts and Sciences (CAS)
students of San Beda College Alabang.
Specifically, the researchers seek answers to the
following questions:
1. What is the acceptability level of the students in
the College of Arts and Sciences in the proposed
student enterprise center?
2. What is the projected demand and supply on a 5-
year period of the proposed student enterprise
center?
Based on the main and sub-problems stated, the
researchers have come up with the following null
hypothesis of the study. There are no significant
relationships between the year level of the respondents
and the acceptability indicators of the proposed student
enterprise center.
METHOD
The researchers used the descriptive research
design using a survey questionnaire. The purpose of the
survey is to determine the feasibility of establishing a
student enterprise center in the vicinity of the College of
Arts and Sciences by converting the gazebos located in
10
the college parking area to stalls or kiosks managed by
college students.
The study was conducted during the 2nd
semester
of SY 2012-13 where the total population of the College
of Arts and Sciences is 1,962. Using Slovin’s formula
with a margin of error of 5%, the total sample size was
333 students.
Using stratified sampling, the table below shows
the breakdown of the student-respondents per course.
Table 1
Frequency of respondents per course
Frequency Percentage
BACMS 46 13.81
BAIST 46 13.81
BAPSYC 30 9.01
BSED 3 0.90
BSA 27 8.11
BSBA-FM 40 12.01
BSBA-HRDM 9 2.70
BSBA-MM 56 16.82
BSE 23 6.91
BSLM 23 6.91
BSIT 30 9.01
Total 333 100.00
As previously mentioned, the acceptability of
the student enterprise center is not confined solely to
business students but is also open to non-business
students. Thus, the total sample size of 333 students
11
represents the total population of the CAS for the 2nd
semester 2012-13.
The survey questionnaire was distributed across
the 1st, 2
nd and 3
rd year levels which are broken down as
follows:
Table 2
Year level of respondents
Year level Frequency Percent
1st 152 45.60
2nd 152 45.60
3rd 29 8.80
Total 333 100.00
The survey questionnaire consists of nine
questions denoting acceptability indicators such as being
business minded, being in a hands-on environment,
willingness to engage in a business, rent, submit
proposals, among others.
The questionnaire was distributed to the students
and then retrieved, tallied and analyzed. Statistical tools
such as factor analysis, regression and t-test were applied
on the data gathered.
Secondary data were gathered through books,
journals and electronic materials.
12
RESULTS
Based on statement of the problem number 1,
the following tables show the responses of students on
the acceptability indicators for the proposed student
enterprise center.
Table 3
Acceptability indicators (questions 1-4)
on the proposed student enterprise center
13
Table 4: Acceptability indicators (questions 5-9) on the
proposed student enterprise center
14
Tables 3 and 4 show the acceptability indicators
through questions 1 to 9. Majority of the students are
business-minded (79.88%) and are willing to test their
business skills in a hands-on environment (75.98%).
About 70.27% are willing to convert the gazebos into
stalls or kiosk s and engage in a business of their choice.
About 63.66% of the respondents would like to
put up food stalls and rent each kiosk between 15,000-
20,000 per month (84.98%). The term or period of lease
is on a semestral basis or 64.86%. About 60.66% of the
respondents are willing to devote their time and financial
resources on the entire duration of the business.
Meanwhile, half of the respondents or 54.65% are
willing to submit business proposals subject to approval
of SBCA management and 67.27% of them are willing
to comply with the submission of business requirements.
Overall, the students express optimism and
enthusiasm on the proposed student enterprise center.
Based on the results of the survey questionnaire,
the researchers have projected demand and supply on a
five-year period on the proposed student enterprise
center.
To project demand and supply, the researchers
totally relied on the results of the survey questionnaire.
The following assumptions were made to project
demand and supply on a five-year period.
1. The demand is taken from the survey question 3,
that 70% of the 333 respondents is willing to
convert the gazebos into a student enterprise
center.
The total population for 2nd
sem SY 2012-2013 is
1962. (70% of 1962 is 1373.)
15
2. The supply is assumed at 78%, based on
question 4, on the kind of business that
respondents are willing to put up. (64% for food
and 14% for non-food). (78% of 1373 is 1071)
3. The increase in student population every year is
assumed at 10%. Thus, it is also assumed that
the demand and supply will increase by 10%.
Table 5
Projected Demand and Supply
YEAR DEMAND SUPPLY GAP
1 1373 1071 302
2 1510 1178 332
3 1661 1296 365
4 1827 1426 401
5 2010 1568 442
To test the hypothesis, pearson chi square test and
phi coefficient are used. This is to determine the
relationship between the year level of the respondents
and the acceptability indicators for the student enterprise
center.?
1. Year level and question 1: Are you business
minded?
2. Year level and question 2: If yes, do you want to
test your business skills in a hands-on learning
environment?
3. Year level and question 3: If the gazebos will be
converted to commercial stalls or kiosks, are
you willing to engage in a business of your
choice?
16
17
With a pearson chi square of 18.082, and phi of
0.233, question 1, Are you business minded?, is
moderately correlated with year level of students. On
the other hand, pearson chi square of 22.356, with phi of
0.259 means that the year level of students has a
significant relationship with question 2: Do you want to
test your business skills in a hands on environment?
Whereas, the pearson chi square of 8.437 and phi of
0.159 means that year level of students and question 3,
If the gazebos will be converted to commercial stalls or
kiosks, are you willing to engage in a business of your
choice?, are significantly related but with a low
relationship.
4. Year level and question 4: What kind of
business are you going to put up?
5. Year level and question 5: How much are you
willing to rent the kiosks on a monthly basis?
6. Year level and question 6: How long do you
want to lease out?
18
19
With a pearson chi square of 35.624 and phi
coefficient of 0.327, year level and question 4: What
kind of business are you going to put up? are
significantly related, and with a moderate relationship as
well. The year level of students and question 5: How
much are you willing to rent the kiosks on a monthly
basis? are also significantly related with a pearson chi
square value of 17.115 and phi coefficient of 0.227, with
a low relationship. On the other hand, year level of
students and question 6: How long do you want to lease
out? are significantly related with a pearson chi square
value of 16.063 and phi coefficient of 0.220, also with a
low relationship.
7. Year level and question 7: Are you capable to
devote time and resources in the entire duration
of the business?
8. Year level and question 8: Are you willing to
submit a proposal or study on the viability of the
business for approval of SBCA management?
9. Year level and question 9: Are you willing to
comply with the business requirements such as
business permits, etc.?
20
21
The year level of students and question 7: Are
you capable to devote your time and financial resources
for the entire duration of the business? is not
significantly related with a pearson chi square of 11.836
and phi coefficient of 0.189. Meanwhile, the pearson chi
square of 4.545 and phi coefficient of 0.117 means that
year level of students and question 8, Are you willing to
submit a proposal for approval of SBCA management?
are not significantly related. This is also true for year
level of students and question 9, Are you willing to
comply with business permits, etc.? with a pearson chi
square of 11.674 and phi coefficient of 0.187.
With 6 out of 9 acceptability indicators, with
significant relationship to year level, the null hypothesis
is rejected.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
After presenting and analyzing the results, the
following conclusion on the 9-item acceptability can be
given:
1. The 9-item acceptability indicators for the
proposed student enterprise center reveal
positive results. The students approved the
proposed student enterprise center based on their
willingness to test their business skills into a
hands-on learning environment. Majority of the
students also agreed to convert the gazebos into
stalls or kiosks to be managed by the students
themselves.
2. Majority of the students would like to engage in
the food business and are willing to rent between
15,000-20,000 per month, on a semestral basis.
22
3. Majority of the students are willing to devote
their time and financial resources for the
business, submit their business proposals and
comply with business requirements.
4. The projected demand and supply of the
proposed student enterprise center on a five year
period shows high potential to succeed if it will
push through.
5. There is a significant relationship between the
year level of students and the following
acceptability indicators: being business-minded,
willing to engage in a hands-on learning
environment, conversion of the gazebos to
kiosks, the kind of business they are going to put
up, the willingness to rent the kiosk and the
amount of lease.
6. There must be a conscious and planned effort to
shift towards an “entrepreneurial college”
through a focused approach in facilitating and
supporting entrepreneurial education through
business spin-offs or start-up activities to further
attract student enrollment and at the same time
inculcating entrepreneurial mindsets to the
students. There must be a transition to a focused
approach that places importance to quality and
long term impact towards innovative
entrepreneurial education rather than over-
reliance on quantitative or theoretical classroom
performance.
7. Entrepreneurial development initiatives led by
the BAE Department last 2012 through the
Investor’s Fair wherein delegates and directors
of PCCI (Philippine Chamber of Commerce)
were invited not only for student mentoring but
to also reinforce the interest of the industry to
23
the College. However, a more proactive
approach is needed to encourage entrepreneurial
incubation, start-up activities and possible seed
funding through policy reforms towards a more
business-oriented approach of entrepreneurial
education combined with active and stronger
industry partnerships.
REFERENCES
Alberti, Sciascia F. S. et al. (2004). Entrepreneurship
education: note on an ongoing debate. 14th
annual IntEnt Conference, University of Napoli,
Federico Italy.
Bines, M. (2005). Entrepreneurship education and
integrative learning at
www.nege.org.uk/download/policy/entrepreneur
ship_education_and_integrative_learning.doc.
Deakins, D., Glancey, K. et al. (2005). Enterprise
education: The role of head teachers.
International Entrepreneurship and Management
Journal.
Fayole, A. and Degeorge, J.M. (2006). Attitudes,
intentions and behavior: new approaches to
evaluating entrepreneurship education.
International Entrepreneurshipo Education:
issues and mssion. UK: Edward Elgar
Publishing Ltd.
Franke, N. and Luthje, C. (2004). Entrepreneurship
intentions of business: a benchmarking study at
www2.wu_wien.ac.at/entrep/modules/updownlo
ad/store_folder
Gatchalian, Maria Luisa B. (September, 2010). An in-
depth analysis of the entrepreneurship education
in the Philippines: an initiative toward the
24
development of a framework for a professional
teaching competency program for
entrepreneurship educators. Philippines: The
International Journal of Research and Review,
Vol. 5.
Hannon, P.D. (2005). The journey from student to
entrepreneur: a review of the existing reward
into graduate entrepreneurship. UK: National
Council for Graduate Entrepreneurship.
Keat, Cloi Yeng, Selvarajah, Christopher and Meyer,
Deany (2009). Inclination towards
entrepreneurshop among university students: an
empirical study of Malaysian University
students. Malaysia: International Journal of
Business and Social Science.
Lim, Yet Mee, Lee Lock Huan and Cheng, Boon-Liat
(October, 2012). Entrepreneurial inclination
among business students: a Malaysian study.
Management Research Center, Indonesia: South
East Asian Journal of Management, Vol. 6 No.2.
PohKam Wang (2011), Academic entrepreneurship in
asia: The role and impact of universities in
national innovation system. Edward Elgar
Publishing Ltd.
Robinson, P. and Haynes, M. (1991). Entrepreneurship
education in America’s major universities.
Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, Spring.
Venkatachalam, V.B. and Wagif, A.A. (2005). Outlook
on integrating entrepreneurship in management
education in India. Decision 32.
www.admu.edu.ph.
www.columbia.edu
www.manchester.ac.uk.
25
FACULTY RANKING WITH ONLINE PORTAL
SYSTEM (FROPS) FOR SBCA-CAS
DEPARTMENT: A PROPOSED ENHANCEMENT
TO THE CURRENT FACULTY RANKING
SOFTWARE
Mark Cherwin L. Alejandria, MIT
INTRODUCTION
Information Technology age presents an
enormous impact in the current society. Technologies,
mechanism, network, online services and internet are the
primary issues in the information era. Basically,
information age generates development and offers good
communication that gives people a well-
situated lifestyle.
This study is a proposed enhancement to the
current faculty ranking software used by San Beda
College Alabang’s College of Arts and Sciences
Department Ranking Committee. It uses the technology
that can speed up the manual ranking process using the
web portal and manage the information efficiently and
effectively using the proposed system modules.
Specifically, this study seeks to answer the
following questions:
How to speed up the ranking process of the
committee.
It takes three (3) months to finish the
ranking period because the committee
has to encode all the required
information in the folder submitted by
the faculty members. Encoding would
be done by the commitee during their
spare time.
26
How to enchance the current Faculty Ranking
Software.
Currently, the system is created using
Microsoft Access and data come from
Microsoft Excel submitted by the
ranking committee. From the Microsoft
Excel datasheet, they are manually
imported to Microsoft Access to store
the information. Some of extracted
information are lost if the outline
column from the excel did not match
with the MS Access columns as well as
the other required fields. Searching
Facility can also be improved and the
counting of totals for a year in a specific
category is done manually as well as the
remarks for classification.
These questions are used to come up with the
solution which is to develop a Faculty Ranking with
Online Portal System (FROPS).
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Currently, the Faculty Ranking Committee is
responsible for managing the ranking points of faculty
members. They are composed of four appointed
members, the Vice-Dean for academic affairs, chairs and
selected faculty member in different programs. Every
academic year, faculty members are required to submit
the photocopies of their credentials correlated to the
classifications stated in the faculty manual for the given
period. This faculty manual serves as the basis for
assigning points in every documents.
Once the documents are collected, they will
assign these documents part by part to every member of
27
the ranking committee. The committe will now encode
the details in Microsoft Excel using a certain format.
After encoding, they will send the file through email and
export the data to the application software created using
MS Access.
Using the software, the committee will search
for a name then will start to evaluate. Evaluation is
performed line by line using the document provided. The
selection of appropriate classification and encoding of
ranking points will be done manually by referring to
the faculty manual. Tracking of the maximum number
exceeded is also evaluated manually which results to a
slow moving process. The listed data from the software
is not the sequence order from the document submitted
which also results to difficulty in the evaluation process.
After the evaluation of all documents, the
printed report will be submitted to the Human Resources
Department for approval.
Objectives of the Study
The study aims to enhance the current Faculty
Ranking Software of San Beda College Alabang in the
College of Arts and Sciences Deparment.
Specifically this study aims to:
Provide a facility for faculty members to
update their information.
Provide a module for Ranking
Committee to evaluate and update
information of faculty members.
Provide a module for Human Resource
for their final approval.
Provide an administrator facility for
managing and maintaining the system.
28
Significance of the Study
The proposed system for SBCA-CAS will
benefit the following:
Faculty Members
Each of the faculty member
would have an account to store
and update their information for
ranking through Online Faculty
Portal.
Ranking Committee
The system will help the
ranking committee to speed up
the ranking process. There will
be no volume of data to be
encoded with the use of Online
Faculty Portal.
Human Resources Department
The information of faculty
ranking needed by the Human
Resource will be managed
directly through the Human
Resources Module.
Future Researchers
The system can be used by
future researchers and inspire
them to develop or enhance the
system with the same field of
study.
29
Scope and Limitation of the Study
Scope of the study
Online Faculty Portal
The faculty members will use the
username and password in order to enter
the online portal. They can manage their
accounts by entering appropriate data
from the submitted documents. They
can know their current ranking points
once the Faculty Ranking Committee
completes the review and approval of
the submitted documents but the Human
Resources Department will still be the
final approving authority.
Administrator Module
This portal is used to maintain the
databases in the system. Managing
faculty information, classification,
ranking points and users of the system
will also be covered. On this module,
the ranking period and the deadline of
submission will be set by the
administrator before faculty members
use the online system.
Faculty Ranking Committee Module.
The Faculty Ranking Module will be
used by the ranking committee to
evaluate and approve all the documents
submitted by the faculty member
through faculty portal. Approved
documents will be marked as credited
and not credited otherwise with
corresponding remarks. While
30
evaluating the data, they can select the
approriate classification to display the
total ranking points. They cannot
proceed if there is an invalid data such
as exceeded points per classification eg.
max of 10 points per year in seminar
attended, dates for next ranking period
and initial remarks for classification will
be prompted after saving. The ranking
points from the Ranking Committee and
from the Human Resources Department
will also be reflected as credited and not
credited documents on the Online
Faculty Portal. The generation of reports
needed by the faculty and the Human
Resources Department is also provided
by the Module.
Human Resources Department Module
The Human Resources Department
Module will be used to approve all the
submitted information from the Faculty
Ranking Commitee Module. Approved
information will be listed in the Faculty
Ranking Committee Module and the
Faculty Portal.
Limitation of the study
The Design of the software is based on the
faculty manual procedures. Any changes in
faculty manual will affect the design of the
system.
The prototype will be developed using the visual
basic.net.
31
SYSTEM DESIGN SPECIFICATION
The System Design Specification (SDS) is a
complete document that contains all of the information
needed to develop the system.
The researcher gathered all data to come up with
the approriate database design of the prototype that is
reliable, accurate and normalized database design to
ensure data integrity. It composed of five (5) tables
which are faculty, committee, human resource,
transaction, audit trail.
From the data given in the statement of the
problem, the researcher focused on the goal to come up
with solutions and provide faster and accurate data
storage to ensure that retrieval and updating of records
can be more systematic. With this, the developer
observed the current flow of the ranking process to
create the prototype that will satisfy the ranking
committee.
The following hardware and software components
will be used to develop the prototype:
Windows 8.1 – used as the operating system.
Microsoft Visual Basic.NET – a programming
language used to developed all the modules in
the system such as Ranking Committee Module,
Human Resources Module and Administrator
Module.
HTML/ASP/PHP – Languages used to develop
the Online Faculty Portal.
MS Access 2013 – an application software that
is used to design the tables and database of the
system.
Google Chrome/Mozilla Firefox- an Internet
browser used for Online Faculty Portal.
32
Two (2) sets of Personal Computer – One unit
for Module and One unit for Online Portal, must
have minimum requirements of Pentium 4 or
higher with at least 256 MB of RAM, Local
Area Network (LAN) card and universal serial
bus (USB) slots.
Figure 1.0 Prototype Infrastructure Diagram.
The diagram shows the protoype of the system
as a whole. The faculty member may use the online
system to send their information to be stored in the
server setup by the administrator. Information from the
server will also be used by the committee to evaluate and
33
update the faculty ranking status. Updated records will
be used by the Human Resources Department for final
approval. These can be be viewed by the ranking
committe as well as the faculty members.
Sample Screen Design of Faculty Portal
Figure 2.0 Faculty Log-in Screen
34
Figure 3.0 Faculty Information
35
Figure 4.0 Information Maintenance
36
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE DIRECTION
The Faculty Ranking with Online Portal System
will be a great help for the San Beda College Alabang
Community especially the ranking committee once it is
implemented. There will be a strong database handling
since the system uses the SQL server technology. The
Ranking Committee can easily evaluate and update the
ranking status of faculty members with the use of the
system modules that provide a user friendly interface
design to avoid the slow moving process. Faculty
members can easily be updated on the ranking points
assigned by the committee with the use of Online
Faculty Portal.
REFERENCES
Anderson, Erin. “ Interact with Web Standards: A
holistic approach to web design,” New Riders, 2010.
Allsopp , John. “Developing with Web Standards”, New
Riders, 2010.
Awson, Alexander. “FUTURE-PROOF WEB DESIGN:
A SURVIVAL GUIDE”, Chichester, United Kingdom :
Wiley, 2012
Budd, Andy,.” Web Standards Creativity: Innovations in
Web Design with XHTML, CSS, and DOM
Scripting”, Friends of ED, 2007.
Dennis, Alan. “SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN.
4th ed.”, New Jersey : John Wiley & Sons, 2010
Hoffer, Jeffrey A. “MODERN SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
AND DESIGN”, Boston : Prentice-Hall, 2010
37
Johnson, Bruce. “PROFESSIONAL VISUAL STUDIO
2013”, Indianapolis, IN: John Wiley and Sons, 2014
Kendall, Kenneth E. “SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND
DESIGN. 8th ed.” , Boston : Prentice-Hall, 2011
Osborn, Jeremy, “WEB DESIGN WITH HTML AND
CSS : DIGITAL CLASSROOM”, Indianapolis : Wiley,
2011
Matthews, Marty. “DYNAMIC WEB
PROGRAMMING : A BEGINNER'S GUIDE”, New
York : McGraw-Hill, 2010
Miletsky, Jason. “PRINCIPLES OF INTERNET
MARKETING : NEW TOOLS AND METHODS FOR
WEB DEVELOPERS”, Australia : Course Technology
Cengage Learning, 2010
Morris, Terry Ann Felke. “WEB DEVELOPMENT
AND DESIGN FOUNDATIONS WITH HTML5. 6th
ed.” , Boston : Pearson, 2013
Noriko Kurachi. “THE MAGIC OF COMPUTER
GRAPHICS : LANDMARKS IN RENDERING”, Bora
Raton, Florida : CRC Press, 2012
Palloff, Rena M. “THE EXCELLENT ONLINE
INSTRUCTOR : STRATEGIES FOR PROFESSIONAL
DEVELOPMENT”, San Francisco, CA : Jossey-Bass,
2011
Shelly, Gary B. “MICROSOFT EXPRESSION WEB 2 :
COMPREHENSIVE CONCEPTS AND
TECHNIQUES”, Australia : Course Technology
Cengage Learning, 2010
38
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
IMPLEMENTATION: LESSONS FROM
EDUCATION CHAMPIONS
Shirley A. Padua, MA
INTRODUCTION
Knowledge of knowledge throughout the
centuries has always been man’s capacity to understand
life and its complexities. From antiquity, philosophers
have assigned knowledge a higher role: knowledge is the
ultimate purpose and meaning of human life.
For many years, knowledge allows us to
advance to a better life. The ability to collect, organize,
and pass down knowledge led us to advancements,
creativities, and innovations.
In the twenty first century, knowledge assumes a
more significant role as we now live in knowledge-based
economy (KBE) where survival of nations and
organizations are increasingly based on knowledge and
information. Knowledge is now recognized as the driver
of productivity and economic growth. As a result, there
is a new focus on the role of information, technology,
and learning in economic performance. The growing
codification of knowledge and its transmission through
communications and computer networks has led to the
emerging "information society". The need for workers
to acquire a range of skills and to continuously adapt
these skills underlies the "learning economy". The
importance of knowledge and technology diffusion
requires better understanding of knowledge networks
and innovation system. Identifying "best practices" for
the knowledge-based economy is now a focal point in
39
the field of Science, Technology, and in the Global
Market.
Identifying "best practices" for the knowledge-
based economy is not only applicable in business
organizations but is also central in the field of education.
Identifying “best practices” or Benchmarking (a quality
improvement tool) is now used in the academe. As such,
institutional organization compares its practices and
performance against those of others. A school now
seeks to identify standards or “best practices” to apply
and improve performance. A school tries to find out
what the other school is doing, how that school does it,
how other schools do it, how well they are doing it in
reference to measures, and what and how to improve the
school practices.
Hence, information practices and learning
strategies known as Knowledge Management (KM) are
gaining acceptance in education. At its basic level, KM
may be described as a set of practices and helps to
improve the sharing of data and information in decision-
making. With an increased internal and external
demands for accountability and innovations, the
information needs of students, teachers, staff, and
administrators are greater. There is now a need to
effectively collect, disseminate, and share information to
transform knowledge into action.
With the advent of 21st century learning, there is
an increasing restructuring in the educational needs in
terms of structure, function, curriculum, and approach at
all levels. These educational requirements for the
workforce of the future are extremely important. The
systems developed for information and knowledge
should encourage learners to engage in life-long learning
especially in this age of global learning.
40
Knowledge management becomes more and
more important in global settings (Desouza & Evaristo,
2003, Holden, 2002). The influence of aspects like
geographical dispersion, communication across time
zones as well as cultural influence factors has become a
focus issue for the past decade.
METHOD
This is a qualitative study which made use of
phenomenological design. Its purpose is to understand
and interpret the meaning of knowledge management in
a basic education setting which the subjects as academic
administrators employ in their respective schools. As
stated by Eagleton (1983); Kruger (1988); Moustakas
(1994) cited in Groenewald (2004), “It is captured by the
slogan, ‘Back to the things themselves’”. It is following
the logic as it is described by Lincoln and Guba (1985)
which says, a “generative inquiry (which) attempts to
discover constructs using data themselves as a point of
departure”. Semi-structured in-depth interviews were
used to four subjects from selected basic education
schools in Metro Manila, specifically heads of schools
who have the experience in the phenomenon, being
researched (Kruger, 1988; Creswell, 1998). One of the
criteria for selecting the subjects is having served
administrative position for more than five years.
Basically the subjects who possess understanding on the
dynamics of the concept were primarily sought; hence
both academic and experiential knowledge were
considered as important requirements on the selection of
the subjects (Babbie 1995; Crabtree, & Miller, 1992).
The researcher’s key point of entry into the subjects’
community was through key actor or key insider (Bailey,
1996; Holloway, 1997; Greig and Taylor, 1999).
41
To facilitate the interview process, written
communications were made to the subjects prior to the
interviews. (Arkley, & Knight, 1999; Bailey, 1996).
Besides, primary visitations to the schools were made in
order to set the appointment with targeted subjects.
Interviews served as process of primary of data
collection (Bogdan, & Biklen, 1982) for which questions
were directed to the subjects’ experience, feelings,
beliefs, and convictions (Welman, & Kruger, 1999)
about their knowledge management practices.
Interviews were conducted personally at the most
convenient process of the subjects in their respective
schools. Note-taking was also observed between formal
and casual conversation to enrich data interpretation.
Audio recording of the interview was again sought for
transcribing purposes. Digital and analog recorders were
used to ascertain the accuracy in the transcription of
verbal texts. Interviews were conducted in English since
all administrators speak English fluently. However,
Filipino expressions were inevitable. Such expressions
were carefully translated in English so as not to deviate
from original ideas of the questions.
Data reduction was carefully made following
steps proposed by Colaiizi in 1978 (Heppner, 2004).
Data were then read and reread to get the full meaning of
the ideas of the interviewees. From the key responses
extracted from the subject, the researchers then
identified ‘small units’ known as the ‘meaning units’.
Key responses were highlighted; and ‘meaning units’
were written in the Microsoft Excel spreadsheet. The
researcher then transformed the ‘meaning units’ from the
language of the interviewees, to the language of the
researcher. These ‘meaning units’ were again
transformed, this time to a situated structure; as a guide
for the researcher to carefully identify emerging themes.
42
FINDINGS
In this phenomenological study, the collective
ideas, experiences of the six school administrators
revealed interesting ideas on knowledge management
system implementation. The school administrators were
asked to define the concept of knowledge, education,
and learning. These conceptual clusters below were
derived from the definition given by the subjects.
Table 1. Differences of Knowledge, Education, and
Learning
KNOWLEDGE EDUCATION LEARNING
May be
accumulated using
ICTs outside
formal education
Should not be
limited to a
chosen few
Should have
access to as many
people possible
Plays important
role in national
development
Formal process
of instruction
occurring to one
or more students
Becoming less
relevant to the
requirements of
emergent
societies
Be aligned to
local, national,
and global
priorities
Can occur, with
or without
formal
institutional
education
May take place
through
collaborations
May span the
global arena
and at other
times involve
tightly knit
local
communities
with similar
interests, will
become more
commonplace
43
The evolved concepts on the Differences of
Knowledge, Education, and Learning describe the
significant contrasts between knowledge, education, and
learning. Education is generally seen as a formal process
of instruction, based on a theory of teaching, to impart
formal knowledge (to one or more students). However,
the process of learning can occur, with or without formal
institutional education. Knowledge accumulation and the
accumulation of skills for using ICTs will occur
increasingly outside the traditional institutions of formal
education. Learning in the workplace, and through
collaborations that sometimes span the global and at
other times involve tightly knit local communities with
similar interests, will become more commonplace.
Knowledge should not be limited to a chosen few.
As the warehouse of knowledge expands throughout the
world, all of the world’s people should have as much
access as possible. However, the "formal institutions of
education that exist today, and even many of these in the
planning stages in developing countries, are becoming
less relevant to the requirements of emergent
‘knowledge societies’." Mansell and Wehn argue that
these countries must actively reshape their educational
systems in ways that are "consistent with their national
priorities." These national priorities must now take into
account the fundamental changes happening in the
structures of the global economy and new strategies to
achieve competitive national advantage.
Knowledge plays an important role in national
development. It is opening new vistas to a whole range
of emerging industries and developments in
biotechnology, new materials science, informatics,
computer science, and many other fields.
Within the new framework for knowledge,
education, and learning described by our subjects, nine
(9) factors were identified to provide a means to put
44
together and act on the knowledge accumulated in order
to enhance basic education today. Such knowledge
include design methods, best practices, competitor
intelligence, with elaboration and commentary account.
Each of these factors will be explained.
1) Focus on unknown concepts
The challenges for knowledge, education, and
learning in this age will be the ability for today’s
learners to be more comfortable and knowledgeable with
unknown/uncertain concepts/situations. Much of the
schools today present students with ready-made
problems prepared by the teachers. The teachers ask
them to solve these ready-made problems. However, the
reality of the world, based on information and
knowledge is that problems are rarely clearly defined. It
requires those seeking valuable employment to seek out
problems, gather the necessary information, and make
decisions and choices based on complex uncertain
realities.
Factor number one are clearly expressed in the
following statements:
“We have to present various concepts to our students at
different depth levels. For example, when we ask our
students to solve an algebra problem but do not learn
how to apply it properly in different situations, we end
up with nothing. We do not have the insight on why we
study those Xs and Ys. They may be good in solving
Algera but they may be poor in applications. Let us not
make Algebra a boring subject to memorize. Teachers
have to find ways to make Algebra a venue in exploring
the world around us. After all, all of the math leading
up to Algebra that we learned growing up such as
addition, multiplication, decimals, fractions, have
distinct meanings. These concepts all deal with numbers
45
in some way or another and because of this we can make
our students learn around the concepts.” (RR)
“Learning is facilitated when students can connect new
information with something they already know. One
time, I observed a Social Studies teacher. The teacher
discussed the effects of graft and corruption ... In
groups of three, the teacher asked the group to come up
with as many situations as they can that involve the
subject – three people were talking, one was writing
down the ideas. As students come up with examples, like
inadequate housing, inadequate delivery of services and
so on, the teacher added them to the examples given by
the other groups with which to stimulate class discussion
and instruction. The types of examples keep students
interested, motivated, and engaged in the teaching
moment because these examples may be connected and
relevant to their life experiences since graft and
corruption is a big problem in our country. This is what
we call teaching inductively — moving from specific
examples to generalities—can be applied in many
learning forms, for example, discovery learning and
problem-based learning.” (TR)
“Unfortunately much of what we learned in school as
children was unconnected to everyday life and
experience. And, since it is natural to teach as one was
taught, our own students are probably doing precisely
what we previously did: “learning” . In other words, to
perform for grades and approval, not to gain knowledge,
skill, and insight, not to transform their behavior in the
“real” world.” (AP)
2) Use a holistic approach
Much of the education and schools today are
divided into very rigid academic disciplines. They focus
on discrete units/skills/lessons. However, the emerging
46
Information Society and global economy requires a
holistic understanding of systems thinking, including the
world system and business eco-systems. As such inter-
disciplinary research approaches are seen as critical in
accomplishing a more comprehensive understanding of
the complex reality currently facing the world system.
Factor number two are gleaned in the following
statements:
“There must be that interconnectedness of experience so
that learning becomes dynamic. Traditional education
is fragmented. We must focus on the relationship
between the whole and the part in education. The
learner must be connected to his or her surrounding
context and environment. That is 21st century learning.”
(DN)
“We must make the student see that he or she is part of
the society, the community he/she lives in. A part of the
humanity. We must provide students with a sense of
meaning. Twenty- first century learning is going
towards developing human beings with a global
conscience. Global conscience means social
responsibility. We must promote Social responsibility in
educating our students. That is the ability to
understand connection to broader communities -- local,
national, global. We must incorporate in all our lessons
that we should not be simply be interested in our own
interests. We always include that in our Understanding
by Design Plan.” (TR)
“Even in the Performance Tasks of the students, we see
to it that integration is done through inclusion of
different subjects in one big project. In that way, our
students could see the interconnectedness of one subject
to another. They will see that each subject is important,
and they have relevance in our daily life. We cut across
the curriculum. Our teachers in various disciplines meet
47
and plan as to how the integration could be done.
Rubrics are tailor-fitted for each subject.” (TR)
3) Develop the learner’s ability to explain
symbols
Symbols are highly abstracted evidences of some
concrete form of reality. Highly productive employment
in today’s economy will require the learner to constantly
explain symbols, such as political, legal, and business
terms and concepts (such as intellectual property rights),
and digital money (in financial systems and accounting
concepts). These "symbolic analysts," as Robert Reich,
a political economist, professor, and author, calls them,
are in high demand.
Factor number three are explained in the following
statements.
“Knowledge is mostly about symbols. Therefore we
have to prepare our learners to manipulate symbols. We
must give them hands-on learning. More simulations.
Success in learning depends on how learners use and
interpret symbols. Once a concept has been taught and
demonstrated, the learners must also demonstrate the
concept. However, the opportunity to demonstrate
knowledge is most of the time in the forms of quizzes,
worksheets, and paper and pencil tests. These things are
not real gauges if the learners are able to explain
concepts, especially difficult ones. Hands-on learning
allows students to experiment, to test the water. If they
fail, then they have to learn from their failures. They
have to learn much from their failures as their
successes.” (AL)
48
“Man always uses symbols. The cave men used
symbols. The modern man used symbols. When we tie a
string around our finger, that is a symbol reminding us
that we have to be reminded of a task. Symbols help us
in memories. Therefore, in teaching, we have to make
use of tactile aids. These are cues to improve knowledge
retention. These cues will help our students to retain
important information. Simulations is a practice in our
classroom set-up. Use of equipment that can be
manipulated by the students increases knowledge
learned in the classroom. You can just see the joy and
excitement that our students experience when they tinker
on the computer and manipulate the robots in their
Robotics class. The students are so engaged that they
did not know that it is time for the next class.” (DN)
“Hands-on learning engages students in learning
because they use multiple senses, that includes sight,
hearing, and touch. This is what we call multi-sensory
learning, that means they can decipher codes because
their senses are active. This makes the students
understand the information better. For example, there is
one teacher here who is very good on this. One pupil in
her Grade One class had difficulty solving problems on
worksheets. What she did is she made the pupil
manipulate math blocks. The pupil was able to get the
answer without undue stress on him. I think that pupil
was able to utilize acquired knowledge better.” (TB)
4) Promote the learner’s ability to acquire and
utilize knowledge
Teachers are often perceived as wise "sages on the
stage" delivering data, information, knowledge, and
wisdom to the eagerly awaiting students, whose minds
were empty vessels waiting to be filled. If that is true,
the world’s store of knowledge is increasing at such a
fast rate, that no person can thoroughly explain as
49
comprehensively an understanding of a single subject, or
as could be absorbed by most students.
Factor number four are evidenced in the following
statements.
“Twenty-first century learning now requires a different
approach. The aim of education now is no longer simply
to explain a body of knowledge, but to teach how to
learn, solve a problem and synthesize the old with the
new. We teachers must teach the students now to access,
assess, and apply knowledge. At this age, the students
must think independently to exercise correct judgment
and to collaborate with others. They should give
meaning to new situations. Here in our school, we allow
our students to think for themselves. For example, we
have this activity called ‘Socratic thinking’. Students
are split into two, circular seated groups: some sit in a
circle at the center, the others sit as a circle
surrounding. The inner circle has 10 minutes to discuss
the topic while the outer circle observes. When the 10
minutes are up, the outer circle reports their
observations. Then, the two circles switch and the
process is repeated.” (AP)
“The teacher now is not the sole vessel of learning.
There is now a paradigm shift. From being the over-all
director, the teacher is now at the background
facilitating learning. The students are now in the
limelight, taking center stage and being responsible for
their own learning. I think the students enjoy the new
role they are in now. I could see that happening here in
our school, especially if we have activities here in
school. I enjoy also watching our students managing
our activities.” (AL)
50
“Knowledge and understanding of what we know and
how we think is always a puzzle to many educators.
Actually, this has been with us for many years. It is just
that there are still teachers who would still insist that
they know better than their students or it’s just that the
teaching strategy they have accustomed to is already a
comfort zone for them. But times change. Our students
now are becoming smarter and smarter. They
sometimes are even ahead of their teachers.” (RR)
5) Provide the need for scientifically and
technically trained teachers
The emerging economy is based on knowledge as a
key factor of production, perhaps a factor more
important than any other traditional factors of
production. The kinds of industries emerging in the age
of globalization—such as biotechnology, new materials
science, human genetics, advanced computing, artificial
intelligence, and human/computer interfaces—demand
that employees remain highly trained in science and
technology. Research and development is a critical
component that many countries are trying to partner with
academic institutions and other research organizations.
In schools, research is also given premium since
education in order to keep up with new trends and
techniques must be research and evidence-based.
Factor number five are posited in the following
statements.
“Trainings and research are very important in
education. Just like any industry, education must be
strong in research. We have all been to school before.
But those were years back. The problem is that we were
taught the way our teachers were taught. And our
teachers were taught in which technology has not taken
51
place yet. So imagine that! That is so outdated! So
many things had happened. And if teachers teach in an
outdated way, what would happen to our students?”
(RR)
“If we are to compete globally, then we must train our
teachers especially the teachers teaching Science and
Technology. It’s a fast race now in science and
technology. We have to keep up with the race. We
now send our Science and Technology teachers to
different trainings. These are two areas in which our
schools lag behind. Other countries are serious on
this.” (TB)
“It is not enough to base teaching and learning
around convenience of the teacher. Some teachers are
so convenient in the way they teach that they think that
further training or continuing studies are not
important anymore. The theme now is globalization.
In global learning, research, technology should be
used extensively. It is said that technology will never
replace teachers. But teachers who know how to use
technology effectively will help their students connect
and collaborate on line than those who do not. That is
why there is a faculty development program for our
teachers to this effect.
We also ask our seasoned teachers to act as trainors
in our in-service trainings. In this way, we make use
of their expertise in their field of discipline.” (DN)
“Teacher training is a must in schools. The world is
getting to be technology savvy. Education should keep
up. Science and Math are two subjects that our
country do not perform well. I always send our
teachers to seminars and trainings. Lately, we are
training our teachers to make use of new platforms in
52
teaching. Our students who are digital natives are so
comfortable with technology. The teachers who are
considered digital migrants should not be left out. Or
else... We now have Robotics in our High School. So
our Science and Computer teachers underwent
training. As I said, our teachers have to keep up with
the changing time.” (AR)
“Research can help teachers to understand what
works and why it works. Likewise, research can help
them understand why some don’t work. Studies of
student performance can help to identify trends and
enable educational outcomes to be related to social
and economic needs. Teachers can also make use of
research to answer needs of their own students. ”
(AL)
“We have what we call small learning areas in which
each subject area designs ways to improve their
teaching strategies, methodologies, curriculum, and
activities. This is one way of engineering and re-
engineering their specific area to be answer to the
needs of the students. They even plan their own
faculty development program.” (RR)
6) Promote innovation and creativity
Factor number six are confirmed in the following
statements.
“I encourage our teachers and our students to do
something creative. I want them to design, re-design,
invent, re-invent, and imagine new ideas. Our school
provides teachers and students with enough
opportunities to be creative since creativity is important
for success. Sometimes schools kill creativity.
53
You can see that our rooms are open. We opted for an
open classroom since it is student-
centered classroom design format. Parents argue that
we have to close the classrooms but we are steadfast in
our belief that the open classroom system is a better
approach to teaching and learning. The open classroom
system promotes active learning rather than passive
learning. It is a student-initiated learning than teacher-
directed learning.
Each classroom in our school mimics a region in our
country. This room is the Bicol Room. You can see the
picture of Mayon Volcano since the room is a showcase
of what you can see in Bicol. The products from Bicol
are also displayed in this room. Over there is the
Palawan Room, the Visayas Room and so on. The room
itself teaches the students not only the scenic spots and
the local produce of the province or the region but it
promotes nationalism as well. We just don’t teach them
that we have to love the Philippines but in a way the
many wonderful things that they see in their room tell
them that they have to be proud of what they have and
who they are.
Across the school is our building where students are the
ones manning the cooking and selling of food. That is
our TLE (Technology and Livelihood Education) room.
That used to be the office of the owner but we converted
it to a business center. The students plan the menu and
prepare the food here. They decorate the snack house.
They are also our servers. People around the area eat
here. The money that they earn from the snack house is
the same money that they use to buy all the food and
other things that they need. The students become
entrepreneurs. So they simulate real life business here.
The students enjoy what they are doing. The teachers
become their advisers, something like an On-the-Job
Training.
54
Our school is dubbed the School of the Future. Our
school won the first Excellence in Educational
Transformation Award and is considered the most
transformative school in the country.
Especially with K-12 and ASEAN 2015, we really have
to be divergent in thinking. Creativity should flourish.
We should compete in the global market. We have to
think locally and act globally.
That is why our school is dubbed as the School of the
Future. Because we teach differently, out of the box.
That is why our school won the first Excellence in
Educational Transformation Award and is considered
the most transformative school in the country.” (TR)
“Creativity is not only seen in the Communication Art in
English or in Filipino. It is also very important in other
subjects like Mathematics, Science, Technology,
Business – in all areas of learning. And even in life.
Creativity depends on knowledge, the resources, and
most of all the unique ideas. Creativity can be
developed through proper education.” (RR)
“We must promote creativity in learning. We must teach
our kids to innovate. Many inventions and discoveries
were borne out of creativity and innovation. Creativity is
about uncovering new forms of knowledge or using
existing knowledge in new contexts. All of these require
children to have challenging activities, and time to think
and experiment.” (AL)
“The jobs that our young students will do in the future
haven’t even been invented yet. Look we don’t have
BPOs (Business Process Outsourcing) before, in our
time. But there’s a proliferation of BPOs now. So we
need to promote creativity to our next generation of
workers for them to shape not only their future but future
55
society as well. And this should all begin in our
schools.” (TB)
7) Encourage students to work in teams
Working in teams requires students to develop skills
in group dynamics, compromise, debate, persuasion,
organization, leadership, and management skills. Most
academic institutions and curricular offerings are set up
to do the opposite, to force students to think only of
themselves and their own personal development, perhaps
with some very limited group work. Even in globalized
enterprises there is now a need for employees to be able
to work closely in teams.
Factor number seven are proven in the following
statements.
“In our global world, there is now a need for enhanced
virtual and networked activity. This could be
ascertained in the use of social media. We have the
Facebook, the Internet, E-groups, Web Chats and so on.
Not only should students learn to work in teams; but they
should also learn to work in global networked virtual
teams. These global virtual teams are being used
increasingly in industry and international organisations
for R&D (Research and Development) activities. Well,
or teachers make use of the social media in their
instruction since they say that students learn from this.”
(AP)
“Group work in a classroom teaches students the
fundamental skills associated with working as a
collective unit toward a common goal. This type of
teamwork introduces a variety of skills that will be
needed for students later in the workforce. These skills
include communication, compromise and collective
56
effort. In any type of group work, students must agree on
who will be assigned to various tasks of a project or
work in dyad using one another’s strengths to
accomplish assigned tasks. Teamwork teaches time
management, resource allocation, and communication
skills.” (DN)
“Students who value the role of workplace teams may be
more willing to learn teamwork skills. We encourage our
teachers to use many approaches to assist students
appreciate teamwork.” (TB)
“In some developed countries, not only students learn to
work in teams; but they also learn to work in global
networked virtual teams. These global virtual teams are
being used increasingly in industry and international
organizations for R&D activities. There is now a need
for enhanced virtual and networked activity. A
Professor at Harvard’s, points out that computer-
supported collaborative learning enhances team
performance. They communicate each person’s ideas,
structuring group dialogue, and decision making, and
facilitating collective activities." (RR)
“Before some of our teachers were wary that using
group performance task might promote student
ineptness since some students just want to pass, while
others will work for a good grade. This was solved by
providing rubrics to the students even before the start of
the group task. Now, the teachers themselves design
their own rubrics since they saw the advantage of a
collaborative work. We train them on rubric-making.”
(AL)
57
8) Is an agile and flexible system
As command and control systems disintegrate
around the world, academic institutions must become
less rigid and more flexible in their attempt to meet the
varied needs of learners. This includes variety in time,
place, approach, and curriculum offerings. As new issues
and industries emerge, academic course offerings should
be adapted to reflect these new knowledge, education,
and learning requirements.
Factor number eight are expressed in the following
statements.
“Every summer we review our curriculum. This is a
changing time. Educational system should answer the
needs of the changing time. Flexibility in the design and
delivery of academic programs is beneficial to
both learners and teachers who have diverse needs and
learning goals. A competency-based curriculum is more
flexible than one defined around specific content and
activities. I always emphasize that to our Subject Area
Coordinators and the teachers.”(TB)
“Our school has implemented the “Pearl Program” for
selected batches. Pearl Program is actually an acronym
for “personal learning device”. Our student use Apple
as the new textbooks for lessons and homework in
school. It is mobile learning environment that we want
to develop in school where students can use the internet
more using mobile devices, to enhance the curriculum
with even more technology.
Books will be there but it won’t be physically. It would
be in the form of an eBook. It can help the students by
not being able to carry bulky schoolbags due to the
heavy textbooks. The iPad can lighten the bag because
of its weight. Also, it can help the environment by the
58
paper less environment, not printing thousands of books,
reply slips and announcements.
The students are enjoying the program. This program
also trained teachers to prepare the program with the
Understanding by Design curriculum. Not only students
get to benefit in the program, but also teachers. There is
training that teachers in the selected batches have to go
through to be able to know how to teach smoothly using
the iPads.
The industrial business partners are Apple Company, the
text book publishers who helped for the EBooks, and
banks that helped in financing the purchases of the
devices.” (AP)
“What we teach in our schools is one of the most
important decisions we make as administrators. The
knowledge passed on to the next generation, the skills
and abilities that we think children will need when they
become adults, the attitudes and values we wish to instil
in them are all at the core of the curriculum and can
shape our society, let alone our economy, for years.”
(DN)
“We employ the Mentoring Scheme. We partner a
Junior Teacher to that of a Senior Teacher. The Senior
Teachers are the seasoned ones while the junior
teachers are the new ones or the probationary teachers.
In this case, the new teachers learn from the wisdom of
our older teachers, from their elders. They then, take a
look of how strategies could become better to make
learning adaptable to the students.” (TR)
59
9) Promote the culture of research
“Research should not only be used in business but in
education as well. Administrators and teachers should
discover new ways to resolve significant problems in the
classroom. Research must help in the practice for more
action. Our guidance office provide us information
based on their action research.” (TR)
“In 21st century learning, teaching must be tried and
tested. Gone are the days when learning is just sitting
and reading and reciting. So how do we know then that
the teaching and learning strategies are effective? It is
through research. We have to promote research in our
school. Teachers and students alike may do research
and find ways to improve learning. By doing so,
achievement is enhanced. We are now starting this in
our school.” (TB)
“We have to empower our teachers by doing action
research. Research is not only confined to the guidance
counsellors. I am now encouraging the teachers to do
research since our world now is more complex, and
changes more rapidly. Change is inevitable. And
promoting research in schools can make this change
happen. By performing research, we can identify trends,
examine them, consider recommendations, and offer
solutions.” (AP)
DISCUSSION
Interestingly, this phenomenological study
significantly brings forth some enlightening findings on
the essence of knowledge management as applied in the
education setting, in this case the basic education, from a
select group of academic managers. The apodictic
nature of their knowledge management practices
60
highlights the significance of their roles which is driven
by their mission to support and develop effective
management in the teaching-learning process.
Snowden (2000) has provided a method for
knowledge mapping that is based on story-telling
techniques. This is a means for looking at knowledge
assets that would not be found in conventional
techniques such as surveys and structured interviews.
As such, because of the relaxed atmosphere in the
“story-telling” of our education champions, nine (9)
factors were identified in order to enhance basic
education today. The nine factors include: 1) a focus
on unknown concepts 2) the use of holistic approach 3)
the development of the learner’s ability to explain
symbols 4) the promotion of the learner’s ability to
acquire and utilize knowledge 5) the provision of the
need for scientifically trained teachers 6) the promotion
of innovation and creativity 7) the encouragement of
students to work in teams 8) the need for an agile and
flexible system and 9) the promotion of the culture of
research
In this study, knowledge management system of
the subjects captures the best practices in their respective
school. (Duhon, 1998) posits that "Knowledge
management is a discipline that promotes an integrated
approach to identifying, capturing, evaluating,
retrieving, and sharing all of an enterprise's information
assets. These assets may include databases, documents,
policies, procedures, and previously un-captured
expertise and experience in individual workers." From
the expertise and experience of the subjects, there is
opportunity to repeat success in another school and to
prevent mistakes from occurring. Perhaps the most
central thrust in KM is to capture and make available, so
it can be used by others in the organization or in any
other organization, the information and knowledge that
61
is in people's heads as it were, and that has never been
explicitly set down.
According to the education champions,
education is not merely about the transfer of knowledge.
It is about the many processes and outcomes as well to
find out what is knowledge and its many uses and the
relevance of knowledge in the global society.
Apparently, the education leaders employ
patterns of knowledge initiatives in leading their
respective school. With their narrations, they undertake
initiatives every day: mentoring schemes are established,
knowledge-sharing initiatives are devised, and search-
and-find solutions are implemented. An examination of
these initiatives reveals a set of patterns. These are: 1)
Trainings 2) Mentoring 3) Internship-style job
structures 4) In-house experts 5) Communities of
practice in the school 6) Collaboration, and 7)
Innovation Management.
The sharing of knowledge provided by our
subjects provided a management system to assemble and
act on the knowledge accumulated in his/her respective
school. The knowledge shared included design methods
in instruction, best practices, competitor intelligence,
with elaboration and commentary included. Hence, the
subjects now define and communicate what a 21st
century school must be.
Knowledge management systems provide a
means to assemble and act on the knowledge
accumulated throughout an organization. Such
knowledge may include text and images contained in
patents, design methods, best practices, competitor
intelligence, and similar sources, with the elaboration
and commentary included. Placing the organization’s
(in this case, in an education set-up) documents and
communications in an indexed and cross-referenced
62
form facilitates rich search capacities. Organizational
knowledge is mostly tacit, rather than explicit, so these
systems must also be made available to the direct users
to members of the organization with special expertise.
Davenport (1994) offered the still widely quoted
definition of KM: “Knowledge Management is the
process of capturing, distributing, and effectively using
knowledge.” The definition is organizational and
corporate in orientation. KM, historically is mainly
about managing the knowledge of and in organizations.
But perhaps the most central thrust in KM is to capture
and make available the information and knowledge
which are essential assets in any organization including
academic institutions. These information and
knowledge that are in people’s heads as it were, and that
has never been explicitly set down can be used by others
in the organization and in other organizations.
The academic “story-tellers” narrated their tacit
knowledge to enhance basic education today. These
tacit knowledge from their heads should be explicitly
captured and set down. Once having these tacit
knowledge in place, schools may take advantage of the
knowledge and manage it effectively. The information
and knowledge may even be shared by connecting across
other school organizations. The information and
knowledge may become essential assets of the school/s.
If IBM had developed a graphic KM for the use
of their KM consultants, based on the distinction
between collecting stuff (content) and connecting people
(the marvellous C, E, and H mnemonics are entirely
IBM’s), then a school organization may also formulate a
graphic KM for education.
The potential of KM in education is propitious,
as the enthusiasm for the intellectual capital in the
1980’s had primed for the recognition of information
63
and knowledge as essential assets for any organization.
Hence, a school that may explicitly set down their tacit
knowledge may connect across other schools and other
organizations to share and manage information and
knowledge. The school that will start this sharing of
information and knowledge becomes a trailblazer, and
may even become a consultant to other disciplines.
Again, perhaps the most central thrust in KM is to
capture and make available, so it can be used by others
in the organization, the information and knowledge that
is in people’s heads as it were, and that has never been
explicitly set down.
CONCLUSION
The idea that Knowledge Management (KM)
may only be used in a business orientation is an
understatement. The role of KM in advancing the very
act of creative reconstruction has a big potential in
enhancing the Basic Education program. A new career
pathway program using KM for Basic Ed may also be
exploited.
As gleaned from our education managers the
information and knowledge they have shared may bring
forth some enlightening findings on the essence of
knowledge management as applied in the education
setting. The importance of their roles in knowledge
management practices may prove beneficial in the
teaching-learning process.
Through the “story-telling” of our education
champions, nine (9) factors were yielded to enhance
basic education today. The nine factors include: 1) a
focus on unknown concepts 2) the use of holistic
approach 3) the development of the learner’s ability to
explain symbols 4) the promotion of the learner’s ability
64
to acquire and utilize knowledge 5) the provision of the
need for scientifically trained teachers 6) the promotion
of innovation and creativity 7) the encouragement of
students to work in teams and 8) the need for an agile
and flexible system and 9) the promotion of the culture
of research.
Since the education managers have identified,
captured, evaluated, and shared information such as
policies and procedures and success stories from their
respective school, there is a possibility that their gains
may be repeated in another school and may prevent
mistakes from occurring. Thus, KM’s thrust to capture
and make available the information and knowledge may
be another system to be used in the education landscape.
As such, the information and knowledge that the
education champions have narrated should be explicitly
set down.
The education leaders utilized patterns of
knowledge initiatives in leading their respective school.
An examination of these initiatives reveals a set of
patterns. These are: 1) Trainings 2) Mentoring 3)
Internship-style job structures 4) In-house experts 5)
Communities of practice in the school 6) Collaboration,
and 7) Innovation Management.
The interviewees narrated their tacit knowledge
to enhance basic education today. These tacit
knowledge from their heads should be explicitly
captured and set down. If these tacit knowledge are set
down, schools may take advantage of the knowledge and
manage it effectively. The information and knowledge
may then be utilized by other school organizations.
These information and knowledge may become
indispensable assets of the school and other schools as
well.
65
The definition of Knowledge Management as
the process of capturing, distributing, and effectively
using knowledge is used in an organizational and
corporate setting. But the process of capturing,
distributing, and effectively using knowledge is integral
to every organization including the school system. KM
then may be employed in school to continue developing
the practices involved in the management of complex
initiatives and the building of collective intelligence.
There are important reasons why a school
system may opt for a Knowledge Management System.
When an employee/s of the school leaves/leave, their
knowledge of the school process and expertise leave
too. The experiences of the personnel who stay with the
school, primarily only share their ideas with those they
work on a daily basis. This limits the number of people
who can actually benefit from their experience. When
information about the school process, best practices and
lessons learned are not captured and shared, vast
resources may be wasted since trainings should be
provided to the new employee/s.
Knowledge Management examines the missed
opportunity to repeat success. Missing an opportunity to
repeat success by not capturing the firm’s past
knowledge and not using the lesson learned from the
past to prevent the same mistakes from occurring is a
pitfall of any organization.
The definition of Knowledge Management as
the process of capturing, distributing, and effectively
using knowledge is used in an organizational and
corporate setting. But the process of capturing,
distributing, and effectively using knowledge is integral
to every organization including the school system. The
dynamics of Knowledge Management may then be
employed in school to continue developing the practices
involved in the management of complex initiatives and
66
the building of collective intelligence. Academic leaders
who can adjust to and leverage Knowledge
Management within their respective school can
formulate programs and curricular offerings more pro-
active and more responsive to 21st century learning.
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Innovation, Committee on Science and Technology, U.S. House of Representatives (October 4).
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M. Kenney with R. Florida (Eds.). 2004. Locating
Global Advantage: Industry Dynamics in the
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M. Kenney (Ed.). Hardback and paperback
2000. Understanding Silicon Valley: Anatomy of an
Entrepreneurial Region (Stanford: Stanford University Press).
M. Kenney and R. Florida. 1993. Beyond Mass
Production: The Japanese System and Its Transfer to the U.S. (Oxford University Press 1993).
R. Florida and M. Kenney. 1990, paperback 1991. The
Breakthrough Illusion: Corporate America's Failure to
Link Production and Innovation. (New York: Basic Books)
M. Kenney. 1986, paperback 1988. Biotechnology: The
University-Industrial Complex. (New Haven: Yale University Press).
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M. Kenney. 2007. Testimony at Hearing Entitled “The
Globalization of R & D and Innovation, Pt. III: How do
Companies Choose Where to Build R & D Facilities?”
held by the Subcommittee on Technology and
Innovation, Committee on Science and Technology, U.S.
House of Representatives (October 4).
D-W. Sohn and M. Kenney. 2007. “Universities,
Clusters, and Innovation Systems: The Case of Seoul,
Korea.” World Development (35) 6: 991-1004
68
K. Chen and M. Kenney. 2007. “Universities/Research
Institutes and Regional Innovation Systems: The Cases
of Beijing and Shenzhen.” World Development (35) 6: 1056-1074
R. Dossani and M. Kenney. 2007. “The Next Wave of
Globalization: Relocating Service Provision to India.” World Development 35, (5): 772–791.
M. Kenney, K. Han, and S. Tanaka. 2007. “Venture
Capital in Asia.” In H. Rowen, M. G. Hancock, and W.
F. Miller (Eds.) Making IT: The Rise of Asia in High Tech (Stanford: Stanford University Press): 290-322.
M. Kenney and D. Patton. 2006. “The Coevolution of
Technologies and Institutions: Silicon Valley as the
Iconic High-Technology Cluster.” In P. Braunerhjelm
and M. Feldman (Eds.) Cluster Genesis: Tehcnology-
Based Industrial Development (Oxford: Oxford University Press): 38-60.
M. Kenney and R. Dossani. 2006. “Digitizing Services:
What Stays Where and Why.” In S. Bagchi-Sen and
H.L. Smith (eds.) Economic Geography: Past, Present and Future (Oxon, UK: Routledge): 136-144.
G. Balatchandirane, M. Blasgen, A. Bode, C. H. House,
M. Kenney, V. Mansingh, G. Marklund, B. Shah, T.
Umezawa. 2006. “Chapter 3: The Country
Perspective.” In W. Aspray, F. Mayadas, and M.Y.
Vardi (Eds.) Globalization and Offshoring of Software:
A Report of the ACM Job Migration Task Force (New
York: ACM).
A. Aggarwal, O. Berry, M. Kenney, S. A. Lenway, and
V. Taylor. 2006. “Chapter 4: Corporate Strategies for
Software Globalization.” In W. Aspray, F. Mayadas, and
M.Y. Vardi (Eds.) Globalization and Offshoring of
Software: A Report of the ACM Job Migration Task Force (New York: ACM).
69
R. Dossani and M. Kenney. 2006. “The Relocation of
Service Providers to Developing Nations: The Case of
India.” In J. Zysman and A. Newman (Eds.)How
Revolutionary Was the Digital Revolution (Stanford:
Stanford University Press): 193-216.
G. Avnimelech, M. Kenney, and M. Teubal. 2005. “A
Life-Cycle Model for th Creation of National Venture
Capital Industries.” In E. Guilani, R. Rabellotti, and M.
Dijk (Eds.) Clusters Facing Competition: The
Importance of External Linkages(London: Ashgate):
195-214.
Reprinted from an earlier working paper: G.
Avnimelech, M. Kenney, and M. Teubal. 2004.
“Building Venture Capital Industries: Understanding the
U.S. and Israeli Experience.” In The Global Venture
Capital Handbook 2004. (New York: Aspatore Inc.):
157-206.
D. Hsu and M. Kenney. 2005. “Organizing Venture
Capital: The Rise and Demise of American Research &
Development Corporation, 1946-1973.”Industrial and
Corporate Change 14: 579-616.
D. Patton and M. Kenney. 2005. “The Spatial
Configuration of the Entrepreneurial Support Network
for the Semiconductor Industry.” R&D Management 35
(1): 1-18.
M. Kenney and D. Patton. 2005. “Entrepreneurial
Geographies: Support Networks in Three High-Tech
Industries.” Economic Geography 81 (2): 201-228.
D. Patton and M. Kenney. 2005. “The Spatial
Distribution of Entrepreneurial Support Networks:
Evidence From Semiconductor Initial Public Offerings
From 1996 Through 2000.” In Dirk Fornahl (Ed.) The
70
Role of Labor Market Mobility and Informal Networks
for Knowledge Transfer. (London: Kluwer).
A. Smith, C. P. Morrison, W. R. Goe, and M.
Kenney. 2004. “Computer and Internet Use by Great
Plains Farmers.” Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics 29 (3): 481-500.
R. Dossani and M. Kenney. 2004. “Moving Tata
Consultancy Services into the ‘Global Top 10’.” Journal
of Strategic Management Education 1 (2): 383-402.
D. Mayer and M. Kenney. 2004. “Ecosystems and
Acquisition Management: Understanding Cisco’s Strategy.” Industry and Innovation 11, (4): 299-326.
M. Kenney, K. Han, and S. Tanaka. 2004. “Venture
Capital Industries in East Asia.” In S. Yusuf, M. Altaf,
and K. Nabeshima (Eds.) Global Change and East Asian
Policy Initiatives (Oxford: Oxford University Press): 391-427.
K. Chen and M. Kenney. 2007. “Universities/Research
Institutes and Regional Innovation Systems: The Cases
of Beijing and Shenzhen.” World Development (35) 6:
1056-1074
R. Dossani and M. Kenney. 2007. “The Next Wave of
Globalization: Relocating Service Provision to
India.” World Development 35, (5): 772–791.
M. Kenney, K. Han, and S. Tanaka. 2007. “Venture
Capital in Asia.” In H. Rowen, M. G. Hancock, and W.
F. Miller (Eds.) Making IT: The Rise of Asia in High
Tech (Stanford: Stanford University Press): 290-322.
M. Kenney and D. Patton. 2006. “The Coevolution of
Technologies and Institutions: Silicon Valley as the
Iconic High-Technology Cluster.” In P. Braunerhjelm
and M. Feldman (Eds.) Cluster Genesis: Tehcnology-
71
Based Industrial Development (Oxford: Oxford
University Press): 38-60.
M. Kenney and R. Dossani. 2006. “Digitizing Services:
What Stays Where and Why.” In S. Bagchi-Sen and
H.L. Smith (eds.) Economic Geography: Past, Present
and Future (Oxon, UK: Routledge): 136-144.
G. Balatchandirane, M. Blasgen, A. Bode, C. H. House,
M. Kenney, V. Mansingh, G. Marklund, B. Shah, T.
Umezawa. 2006. “Chapter 3: The Country
Perspective.” In W. Aspray, F. Mayadas, and M.Y.
Vardi (Eds.) Globalization and Offshoring of Software:
A Report of the ACM Job Migration Task Force (New
York: ACM).
A. Aggarwal, O. Berry, M. Kenney, S. A. Lenway, and
V. Taylor. 2006. “Chapter 4: Corporate Strategies for
Software Globalization.” In W. Aspray, F. Mayadas, and
M.Y. Vardi (Eds.) Globalization and Offshoring of
Software: A Report of the ACM Job Migration Task
Force (New York: ACM).
R. Dossani and M. Kenney. 2006. “The Relocation of
Service Providers to Developing Nations: The Case of
India.” In J. Zysman and A. Newman (Eds.)How
Revolutionary Was the Digital Revolution (Stanford: Stanford University Press): 193-216.
G. Avnimelech, M. Kenney, and M. Teubal. 2005. “A
Life-Cycle Model for th Creation of National Venture
Capital Industries.” In E. Guilani, R. Rabellotti, and M.
Dijk (Eds.) Clusters Facing Competition: The
Importance of External Linkages(London: Ashgate): 195-214.
Reprinted from an earlier working paper: G.
Avnimelech, M. Kenney, and M. Teubal. 2004.
“Building Venture Capital Industries: Understanding the
U.S. and Israeli Experience.” In The Global Venture
Capital Handbook 2004. (New York: Aspatore Inc.):
157-206.
72
D. Hsu and M. Kenney. 2005. “Organizing Venture
Capital: The Rise and Demise of American Research &
Development Corporation, 1946-1973.”Industrial and Corporate Change 14: 579-616.
D. Patton and M. Kenney. 2005. “The Spatial
Configuration of the Entrepreneurial Support Network
for the Semiconductor Industry.” R&D Management 35
(1): 1-18.
M. Kenney and D. Patton. 2005. “Entrepreneurial
Geographies: Support Networks in Three High-Tech Industries.” Economic Geography 81 (2): 201-228.
D. Patton and M. Kenney. 2005. “The Spatial
Distribution of Entrepreneurial Support Networks:
Evidence From Semiconductor Initial Public Offerings
From 1996 Through 2000.” In Dirk Fornahl (Ed.) The
Role of Labor Market Mobility and Informal Networks
for Knowledge Transfer. (London: Kluwer).
A. Smith, C. P. Morrison, W. R. Goe, and M.
Kenney. 2004. “Computer and Internet Use by Great
Plains Farmers.” Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics 29 (3): 481-500.
R. Dossani and M. Kenney. 2004. “Moving Tata
Consultancy Services into the ‘Global Top 10’.” Journal
of Strategic Management Education 1 (2): 383-402.
D. Mayer and M. Kenney. 2004. “Ecosystems and
Acquisition Management: Understanding Cisco’s
Strategy.” Industry and Innovation 11, (4): 299-326.
110. M. Kenney, K. Han, and S. Tanaka. 2004.
“Venture Capital Industries in East Asia.” In S. Yusuf,
M. Altaf, and K. Nabeshima (Eds.) Global Change and
East Asian Policy Initiatives (Oxford: Oxford University Press): 391-427.
73
THE EXTRAORDINARINESS OF ORDINARY
LANGUAGE: A CRITICAL EVALUATION
OF GEORGE EDWARD MOORE’S CONCEPT OF
ORDINARY LANGUAGE
Gilbert Ilustre Yap
“Moore’s great historical role consists in the fact that
he has been perhaps to first philosopher to sense that
any philosophical statement which violates ordinary
language is false, and consistently to defend ordinary
language against its philosophical violators.”
Norman Malcolm
Moore and Ordinary Language
“Apart from the prior interest in analysis, the reason
that Moore was not interested in discovering the
meaning of any common sense, since his intention was to
use the word in the sense in which I think it is ordinarily
used.”
Alan White
G.E. Moore: A Critical Evaluation
The purpose of the research paper is clear and
polished: to invariably discuss how George Edward
Moore defends ordinary language against manifold
philosophical statements.1 To that end, the paper will
1“George Edward Moore is “a British philosopher, a
leading figure in modern analytic philosophy. Born in
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show how particular philosophical statements appear to
be false on account of the prevalently barefaced
violations to ordinary language; accordingly, Moore will
provide a consummate analysis how those philosophical
statements conversely loom as paradoxes.
This paper will present selected seemingly
equivocal philosophical statements that are deemed to be
paradoxes for Moore in virtue of the fact that they are
not paralleled to ordinary language (Malcolm, 1952).
The common denominator of all philosophical paradoxes
that will be presented is that they employ words that
contradict common sense, the sole mechanism to heed
the senses presupposed in ordinary expressions
(Malcolm, 1952). The in-depth discussion of common
sense will be rendered in the succeeding paragraphs.
A specific paradox can be cleaved as either: (1)
empirical paradox or (2) philosophical paradox. An
empirical paradox is committed when there is
incompatibility between one empirical fact and another
empirical fact. In other words, an empirical statement is
paradoxical if an empirical statement is conflicting with
another empirical statement. In this analysis, an
empirical statement can be paradoxical and, at the same
time, true. On the other hand, a philosophical paradox is
quite different for it is engendered when a particular
statement decidedly defies ordinary language. With that,
a philosophical statement that is considered as
London, the son of a doctor, Moore was educated at
Dulwich College and Trinity College, Cambridge, where
he served as a fellow from 1898 to 1904. As a man of
independent means he worked privately at philosophy
before returning to Cambridge as a lecturer (1911–25)
and later as professor (1925–39) of philosophy (Oxford
University Press, 2014).
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paradoxical must necessarily be false. In this paper, we
will solely focus on philosophical paradoxes, and the
author will show how philosophical paradoxes emerge
as false statements because of its sheer violation to
ordinary language.
We question: what would be the technique
championed by Moore to show the falsity of selected
philosophical paradoxes? Essentially, Moore embraces
the concept of ordinary language to illustrate the falsity
of philosophical paradoxes. He will show that
philosophical paradoxes are false as they fall short of the
use of ordinary language.
What is an ordinary language? Moore defines
ordinary language as “the language of ordinary men, you
talk as if the fact that a certain phrase used in ordinary
language implies that, when people use that phrase, what
they say is true” (Malcolm, 1952). He purports that
ordinary language is tantamount to the language used by
the ordinary people in their everyday lives. Ordinary
Language is composed of ordinary expressions,
statements which have ordinary use. An expression
which has ordinary use is tantamount to the idea that it is
ordinarily utilized to describe state of affairs. Thus,
ordinary language is divorced from medical terms,
figurative speech, legal terms, etc. Rather, ordinary
language will be confined merely in the language which
has everyday use. Essentially, Moore vindicates that
ordinary language pertains to ordinary expressions like
see, real, time, know etc. which do not need to be
explicated further (White, 1958).
Moore’s stress on the principal importance of
ordinary language is a concretized mechanism to defend
common sense view as far as analysis is concerned in
which his common sense view is a direct rebuttal to the
proponents of Metaphysics who believe that truth can
only be deciphered through the out-and-out explanation
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and understanding of the supersensible reality
(Lazerowitz, 1970). For Moore, common sense view is
the most integral perspective in the domain of
Philosophy. The universe can only be understood
through the complete description provided by common
sense. Common sense “refers to what people in common
would agree on: that which they intuit (“sense”) as their
common natural understanding (“Philosophy of
Common Sense,” 2008). Moore does not provide an
exact definition of common sense nor does he give
standards used whether or not a particular knowledge is
derived through common sense. Moore believes that
“common sense beliefs are true and form a foundation
for philosophical inquiry” (“Philosophy of Common
Sense,” 2008). As we perceive the material objects
constituting the universe, we have to express clearly
through common sense which can be expressed through
an ordinary language. In this sense, common sense is
contingent to the notion of ordinary language. For him,
the view of common sense will always be true as far as
providing various descriptions of the universe is
concerned. Thereupon, this will, somehow, discharge the
crucial role of philosophy, namely, to render plausible
and indistinct descriptions whereby we may understand
the nature of the world:
“Moore conceived philosophy as having a
positive task, namely, to give a general
description of the whole of the Universe,
mentioning all the most important kinds of
things which we know to be in it...and he thought
that what he called the Common Sense view on
these matters to be true and hence views in
contradiction to it false” (Ambrose, 1970).
Moore’s sentiments toward the steadfast
importance of common sense principle in Philosophy are
well-couched in the article entitled “A Defence of
Common Sense”, published in the book, Contemporary
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British Philosophy (Broad, 1970). Substantially,
common sense justifies ordinary language. A language is
considered to be ordinary if it is deemed to be common.
With that, ordinariness is hinged on the acceptability of
the sense of a particular expression. (White, 1958).
Though, Moore does not decidedly define common
sense; however, he mentions examples of common-sense
beliefs such as the beliefs of my own experiences,
experiences of other people, my own body and other
human bodies which are all true in virtue of the fact that
it is commonly understood (“Moore: Analysis of
Common Sense,” n.d.).
Bertrand Russell avers that when we perceive
something, what we really perceive is not an object but a
part of a brain (Malcolm, 1952). This purports that
objects of perception are not material objects. Rather,
what we perceive is a part of our brain. Simply put, the
objects of perception are abstract objects that are indeed
part of our brain. For instance, when we perceive a
fiction book in a refurbished wooden lectern, Russell
would say that we do not perceive a book or a material
object. Instead, in that circumstance, we really perceive a
part of a brain. Or, if you perceive a whorl veneered with
patina, an incisive scythe laid in the garden, a superb
vignette of your companion, what you perceive, Russell
would say, is a mere part of your brain. We may
question: what would be Moore’s straightforward
response with regard to Russell’s analysis? Moore
gainsays the polemic of Russell. If we were to ask
Moore about his philosophical stance, he would say that
Russell is presenting an overture that is quite
problematic and false. It is equivocal to aver that
whenever we perceive something, what we perceive is a
part of our brain. He would squarely say: “This desk,
which both of us see is not a part of my brain.”
(Malcolm, 1952, p. 350). Moore is saying that the idea
that material objects like books, chairs, and tables are
parts of the brain or parts of the person’s mind is
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erroneous , if not, effusively odd. Philosophers who lean
on this perspective fail to understand the delineation
between material objects and consciousness. Moore
affirms that material objects lie on the independent
reality. Material objects exist even with the absence of a
perceiver. Undoubtedly, this is the spirit of Realism:
“The basic idea of realism is that kinds of thing
which exist, and what they are like, are
independent of us and the way in which we find
out about them (“Realism and Antirealism,”
2000).”
In the other paradigm, Moore is saying that we,
human beings, have consciousness that allows us to
recognize the existence of material objects present in the
independent reality. By this, Moore contends that
material objects which are considered to be the objects
of our perception, are not part of our brains but rather
they exist independently of our brains, and we can know
their existence through our consciousness.
Let us consider the importance of ordinary
language to rebut Russell’s polemic. Moore says that the
conviction that when we perceive something, what we
perceive is a part of our brain is wrong because it
violates ordinary language, and it is no less than a
philosophical paradox. If, for instance, a person who
perceives an old-fashioned pulpit in the church, is asked
what he perceives, his answer is that he sees a part of a
brain. This reply would be strange enough to any listener,
to ordinary people. This statement, hardly intelligible,
goes against ordinary language. Perception of material
objects is a vital situation of human life that must be
expressed in ordinary language for it to be
understandable and acceptable. However, we may
question: what would be the standards of ordinariness?
Ordinariness of ordinary language may vary, and
common sense may give us various senses of a word that
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are considered to be common that is why Moore is
proposing that we have to scrutinize various possible
senses of a common word. We have to analyze the
different senses of an ordinary expression (White, 1958).
In his articles namely: “Philosophical Studies”, “Some
Main Problems in Philosophy”, “Philosophical Papers”
and “Commonplace Book”, Moore vindicates his
common sense principle as far as solving strikingly
recondite philosophical problems is concerned. Common
sense can handle those philosophical problems through
further analysis of the various meanings of a particular
ordinary expression (Roth, 2000).
A. J. Ayer contends that we cannot have
certainty with reference to the truth of any statement
about material things (Malcolm, 1952). Empirical
statements that talk about material things must undergo
to an infinite series of test for verification to unmask
certainty. However, the problem is that men cannot live
in unending span of time, and it is not utterly unrevealed
that man does not have perennial existence. Thus, a man
cannot provide incessant tests of certainty of empirical
statements. As a repercussion, men cannot be certain as
far as empirical statements are concerned; albeit, Moore
denies the aforementioned premise:
“Both of us know for certain that there are
several chairs in this room, and how absurd it
would be to suggest that we do not know it , but
only believe it, and that perhaps it is not the case
- how absurd it would be to say that it is highly
probable, and not certain?” (Malcolm, 1952,
p.354).
He simply means that it is overly odd to profess
that there is no chair when you actually perceive a chair.
There is an absolute certainty that it is a chair. Moreover,
it is queer to believe that there is no chair and do know
that there really is. In other words, as we appeal to our
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sense of ordinary language, we say that we are certain
that there is, in fact, a chair which is categorized as a
material object (Addis and Douglass, 1965).
Consequently, it would be a clear-cut violation to
ordinary language if we disavow the existence of
material objects’ existence:
“In this as in all other cases Moore is right.
What his reply does is to give us paradigm of
absolute certainty; just as in the case previously
discussed his reply gave us a paradigm of seeing
something not a part of one’s brain. What his
reply does is to appeal to our language-sense; to
make us feel how queer and wrong it would be
to say, when we sat in a room seeing and
touching chairs, that we believed there were
chairs but did not know it for certain, or that it
was only highly probable that there were
chairs.”(Malcolm, 1952, p. 354)
To further assay the idea of certainty in
empirical statements, we say that the phrase “I know for
certain” is not merely exclusive to a priori statements.2
Certainty is not only encaged in a priori statements.
Rather, the phrase “I know for certain” can also be used
in expressing perception of material things (Malcolm,
1952). Indeed, certainty is plausible in empirical
statements. For instance, a person can express that when
he smells the whiff of turnip that is being cooked, he
may say that he is certain that it is a turnip, provided he
is rather sure that it is a turnip because he knows that he
is the one who purchased that. In this example, a person
2An a priori statement is a statement that “can be known
independent of any experience” (Baehr, n.d.). For
example, “All bachelors are unmarried men.” is an a
priori statement for you may know that bachelors are
men who are unmarried even without experiencing an
unmarried status of all bachelors.
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can truly express certainty in perception of material
objects. He is justified to utter that he is certain that it is
a turnip. Therefore, the phrase “I know for certain” can
be employed in empirical statements.
Moore accedes that ordinary language will
always satisfy truth conditions for the simple reason that
meanings conveyed in ordinary language will always be
true because it is considered as ordinary. By ordinary we
pertain to the usage of language of the speaker in
everyday communication. Furthermore, the ordinary
language is anchored from the dictate of our common
sense beliefs. An expression is considered to be ordinary
if it is commonly known. Commonsense beliefs utterly
guarantee certainty that we will give true statements
(Weitz, 1961).
Nevertheless, we may say that it is not always
the case in which ordinary language is true. There are
two examples that appear to be possible objections to the
truth of ordinary language: (a) ghost (b) spatial and
temporal relations (Malcolm, 1952). In the first example,
we say that ghost is an ordinary expression. It is an
everyday language. However, the concept ghost is not
true because nobody has ever seen yet a ghost. In the
second example, we ordinarily use the words like left,
right, up and down which are all spatial relations. Also,
we ordinarily use the words like later, earlier which are
all temporal relations. However, these words appear to
be problematic as far as outright intelligibility is
concerned. The meanings of these relations are difficult
to discern. For instance, the extent of the word “earlier”
is baffling because earlier may pertain to an hour ago,
yesterday or a couple of weeks ago. Also, the phrase “to
the right of” is inevitably causingconfusion with regard
to its point of reference.The statement, “The coconut is
in the right of the aged house.” is apparently confusing
because the right of the house could be the green grass,
soil, or a toy which happened to be at the right of that
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house, too; nonetheless, in the first example, Moore
would argue that there is no problem in the term ghost.
The ordinary expression “ghost” is true even though it
does not exist in the material world. It is, still, true for
the chief reason that the term “ghost” can be understood
by conferring to its definition. For the researcher, in that
case, ordinary language cannot be used in an absolute
manner for it has to have the aid of the linguistic truth,
but the understanding of ghost is not solely dependent on
linguistic truth but also with the common truth for
Moore says that we need to confer to the definitions
given by the common people.In the second example,
there is no confusion, too. Moore would say that spatial
relations and temporal relations are not ambiguous
because they can be understood by showing their
instances.If the meaning of ghost has to be explained for
it to be understood, the instances of these relations have
to be shown en toto for it to be understood:
“In the case of all expressions the meanings of
which must be shown and cannot be explained,
as can the meaning of “ghost”, it follows, from
the fact that they are ordinary expressions in
language, that there have been many situations
of the kind which they describe; otherwise so
many people could not have learned the correct
use of those expressions.” (Malcolm, 1952)
In that case, ordinary language cannot absolutely
give the truth. Instead, it needs the help of evidential or
demonstrative truth. Ordinary language acts as one of
the tools or methods in philosophy to know the truth and
to have understanding. At the end of the day, we say that
ordinary expressions like ghost, temporal relations, and
spatial relations are likely to yield truth. Common sense
propositions are always true even though we do not
know how we know them. Common Sense propositions
can be known through ordinary meaning, yet this belief
is opposed by Idealism contending that there is no truth
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in isolated object. Isolated Object is not possible to exist
because an object exists in relation with the whole, with
the universe. For Idealists, an object is merely
considered as a part of the whole universe (Preston, n.d.).
Moore admits in “A Defence of Common
Sense” that he cannot categorically claim that all
common sense beliefs are true:
“And many of them also have the further
peculiar property that, if they are features in the
Common Sense view of the world (whether “we”
know this or not), it follows that they are true,
since to say that there is a ‘Common Sense view
of the world,’ is to say that they are true. The
phrases ‘Common Sense view of the world’ or
‘Common Sense beliefs’ (as used by
philosophers) are, of course, extraordinarily
vague; and, for all I know, there may be many
propositions which may be properly called
features in ‘the Common Sense view of the
world’ or ‘Common Sense beliefs,’ which are
not true, and which deserve to be mentioned
with the contempt with which some philosophers
speak of ‘Common Sense beliefs.’ But to speak
with contempt of those ‘Common Sense beliefs’:
which I have mentioned is quite certainly the
height of absurdity (A Defence of Common
Sense, n.d.)”
This appears to be defensive as it anticipates the
possible clamor of philosophers to enumerate all the
common sense beliefs. But it seems that it is not
necessary since, Moore would say, that it is too common
to do so. Moore does not really give evidence why
common sense beliefs are true. He simply says that
common sense beliefs are shared and those beliefs must
be true:
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“If he says: ‘These beliefs are beliefs of
Common Sense, but they are not matters
of knowledge,’ he is saying: ‘There have been
many other human beings, beside myself, who
have shared these beliefs, but neither I nor any
of the rest has ever known them to be true.’ In
other words, he asserts with confidence that
these beliefs are beliefs of Common Sense, and
seems often to fail to notice that, if they are, they
must be true…” (A Defence of Common Sense,
n.d.)
For Moore, ordinary language will always be
correct because it is the language of ordinary men. A
certain statement that is used in ordinary language
presupposes truth. For instance, if a person asserts an
empirical statement, it will always be true because he
uses an ordinary language. White says that Moore
believes that an incorrect language is a language with
technical nature often used by the philosophers (1958).
However, we may draw a serious objection which says
that not all empirical statements are certain. Let us try to
analyze the two possible mistakes stated by Malcolm
that could arise as far as certainty in empirical statements
is concerned: (1) factual mistake (2) linguistic mistake.
The statement, “The Earth is flat” is the famed factual
mistake in the antiquity. Therefore, some people object
that ordinary language is not credible in expressing
certainty of perception. However, this mistake is not
yielded by the incorrectness of ordinary language but
rather this is an obvious factual mistake. On the other
hand, we also have the linguistic mistake. This mistake
can best be illustrated by an example of two persons who
have agreements in a characteristic of a fox. However,
the other person calls it a wolf even though it is called by
the public as fox. In this case, that person falls in the
cunning pit of the language mistake. Let us further
analyze the issue of correctness of the ordinary language
by dealing on another example. We may have a
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philosophical paradox that whenever a person perceives
something, what he perceives is a sense-data (Malcolm,
1952). “Sense data are the alleged mind-dependent
objects that we are directly aware of in perception, and
that have exactly the properties they appear to have
(Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2011).” This
means that sense-data are mental images in which when
we see an apple what we see is an image of red and heart
shape. In “Philosophical Studies,” Moore says that
“’sense-data’ is sometimes limited in yet another way,
viz, to the sensibles which are experienced in sensations
proper…” (Moore, 1951).3 This would mean that when a
person sees a cat, he would say that he sees a sense-data
of a cat, but Moore would say that this is ridiculous. For
him, what is correct is to use the ordinary expression,
“He sees a cat.” Perceiving a cat or any material thing is
a part of state of affairs which must be substantially
typified through ordinary language to derive truth and
correctness:
“Ordinary language is the language of ordinary
men. You talk as if the fact that a certain phrase
used in ordinary language implies that, when
people use that phrase, what they say is
true.”(Malcolm, 1952, pp. 355-356)
For Moore, physical facts do not need to be
defined since in giving examples we will be able to
understand because physical facts are commonly used in
an ordinary conversation:
“In the case of the term "physical fact," I can
only explain how I am using it by giving
examples. I mean by "physical facts,"
3
Moore defines sensible as something that has an
unanalyzable property: “If this be so, the ultimate
definition of ‘sensibles’ would be merely all entities
which have this unanalyzable property (Moore, 1951).”
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facts like the following: "That mantelpiece is at
present nearer to this body than that bookcase
is," "The earth has existed for many years past,"
"The moon has at every moment for many years
past been nearer to the earth than to the sun,"
"That mantelpiece is of a light colour." But,
when I say "facts like these," I mean, of course,
facts like them in a certain respect; and what
this respect is I cannot define. The term
"physical fact" is, however, in common use… (A
Defence of Common Sense, n.d.)”
The definitions are implicit in the examples
given in a particular discourse since any person will be
able to know that implicit definition because the
examples for the physical facts are so common in use
that is does not need to be defined. We question: is this
not prone to misunderstanding or misinterpretation? The
question will be irrelevant since the persons engaging in
an ordinary conversation will be able to detect the root
of misunderstanding and provide understanding
immediately for the physical facts being discussed are so
common that they can relate immediately.
There are customary statements that attack the
logical consistency of ordinary language. These
statements use ordinary Language but accused as absurd
as well as contradictory. For instance, we could have an
ordinary statement: “I know for certain that the tank is
half-full.” (Malcolm, 1952). This statement is expressed
in ordinary language. It is used in everyday
communication by ordinary people. However, one would
say that this is self-contradictory. It is confusing because
there may also say that the tank is half-empty. Also, we
may have the example, “I see fly on the ceiling”. This is
ambiguous because fly will always be visible on the
ceiling rather than on the floor. The last example would
be the statement,” The house burned down, when no one
was around (Malcolm, 1952).” This is apparently
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contradictory because how can a person say that the
house was burned, if nobody witnessed the circumstance.
Moore would say that even though that they look like
contradictory statements, they are still correct and not
contradictory for the main reason that those statements
have ordinary use; thus, they are expressions that
describe situations in daily living:
“By an ordinary expression I mean an
expression which has an ordinary use, i.e.,
which is ordinarily used to describe a certain
sort of situation…To be an ordinary expression
it must have a commonly accepted use, it need
not to be the case that it is ever used. All of the
above statements, which various philosophers
have thought were self-contradictory, are
ordinary expressions in this sense” (Malcolm,
1952, pp. 358-359).
True enough, self-contradictory statements are
statements which do not have descriptive function.
Nonetheless, in the above examples, they are statements
that describe everyday situations in our lives through the
use of ordinary language. Thereupon, they are not self-
contradictory. Let us consider another example which
appears to be controversial. We may object that the
statement, “It is and it is not”, is considered to be self-
contradictory (Malcolm, 1952). Nonetheless, Moore
would give us a derogatory answer because though this
statement seems to be self-contradictory, it is not. The
statement, “It is and it is not”, is not self-contradictory
because it describes situation; therefore, it is considered
as an ordinary expression that will always be correct.
This particular statement has a descriptive use because
when it is possible that this kind of scenario to happen.
When a person perceives a mist and he is asked if it is
raining he may answer that it is and it is not. It is,
because mist is also a form of a rain. And, it is not,
because mist occurs intermittently. In other words, the
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statements like “It is and it is not”, are not self-
contradictory so long as they describe everyday
occurrences, so long as they are deemed as ordinary
expressions:
“An ordinary expression is an expression which
would be used to describe a certain sort of
situation; and since it would be used to describe
a certain sort of expression, it does describe the
sort of expression. A self-contradictory
expression, on the contrary, describes nothing.
We do not call an expression which has a
descriptive use a self-contradictory expression
even if an expression has the appearance of
being self-contradictory.” (Malcolm, 1952,
p.359)
Moore is unbeaten in defending ordinary
language against its violators, the philosophical
paradoxes. However, there are two criticisms in Moore’s
analysis: (1) lack of persuasive effort in showing that
paradoxes are wrong and (2) failure to attack the source
of the paradoxes (Malcolm, 1952). In the first level of
analysis, we say that Moore defends ordinary language
by punctuating the idea that any statement that violates
ordinary language would be false. However, what Moore
does is that he presents the philosophical paradoxes and
immediately generates his replies which are conversely
about self-evident statements or commonsensical
statements. For instance, in the philosophical paradox, I
see apart of a brain, his reply is about the statement
which talks about the existence of the chair. His reply to
Ayer’s polemic, which affirms that there is no certainty
in the existence of empirical statements, appears to be
undeveloped. Moore simply replies that how can we be
uncertain with the chairs that are located in this room.
What he does is that he does not really persuade the
philosophers who made the paradoxes that they are
wrong:
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“It often fails to convince the author of the
paradox that he is wrong, Moore fails to bring
out the linguistic, non-empirical nature of the
paradox. It sounds as if he were opposing one
empirical proposition with another,
contradictory, empirical proposition” (Malcolm,
1952, p. 367).
Second, Moore’s refutation to certain
philosophical paradoxes fails to attack the roots of the
philosophical confusion. He does not show the cause of
the mistake of these philosophical paradoxes that begets
dissatisfaction to the philosophers.
What is important is that Moore successfully
shows that these philosophical paradoxes violate
ordinary language. It seems that these philosophical
statements that are loomed as paradoxes, still, have their
own respective senses which are different from the
senses of ordinary language. For instance, the conviction
that empirical statements have no certainty has a
different sense as compared to the empirical statement,
“I know for certain that this chair exists”. Despite of
these criticisms, Moore gives an immense contribution
in Philosophy, that is, he pioneered the defense of
ordinary language. He emphasizes that some
philosophical statements violate ordinary language and
this makes them paradoxical. Indeed, if we assay these
philosophical statements through the use of ordinary
language, we may conclude that those are false, in turn,
paradoxical. As Malcolm says:
“Moore’s great historical role consists in the
fact that he has been perhaps to first
philosopher to sense that any philosophical
statement which violates ordinary language is
false, and consistently to defend ordinary
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language against its philosophical violators”
(Malcolm, 1952, p. 367).
Moore gives the heritage of being the first
philosopher to philosophize using ordinary language
through the analysis of concepts (Lazerowitz, 1970). He
has no perspicuous proclivity to fabricate a systematic
philosophy and philosophizes because he is challenged
by the objections drawn by other philosophers to his
common sense view. Moore’s way of philosophizing can
be characterized in two things: (1) He isolates
philosophical problems and, then, philosophize. (2) He
unwittingly contrives a novel philosophical system. His
analysis ofphilosophical statements - in whichhe found
the meanings of the words involved - became the
impetus for the gracious nativity of the formal school of
Analytic Philosophy. Analytic tradition is sprouted from
Moore’s mode of using analysis as a method. Scott
Soames comments that the Analytic movement has two
distinct features that are effusively remarkable namely:
“It has implicit commitment to the ideals of
clarity, rigor and argumentation; it has
widespread presumption that it is often possible
to make philosophical progress by intensively
investigating a small, circumscribed range of
philosophical issues while holding broader,
systematic issues in abeyance”
(“G.E.Moore.”n.d.).
Moore penetrated the engrossing threshold of
international prominence because of his ingenious
defense of ordinary language. He refutes some
philosophical statements considered to be paradoxes
through the profound analysis of concepts substantiated.
These concepts must not contradict ordinary language
for it to be considered as not paradoxical in nature.
Philosophers who lean on the use of ordinary language
in the analysis of concepts belong to the Ordinary
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Language Philosophy which espouses the idea of
analysis of words in finding resolutions to dubious
philosophical cacophony:
“Ordinary Language Philosophy belongs to the
general category of analytic philosophy, which
has its principal goal the analysis of concepts
rather than the construction of metaphysical
system or the articulation of insights about
human condition. The method is to use the
features of certain words in ordinary or non-
philosophical contexts as an aid in philosophy”
(“George Edward Moore” from Concise
Routledge Encyclopedia of philosophy, 2000,
p.647).
More often than not, ordinary language may be
used in the following plights: (1) ordinary discourse and
(2) non-ordinary discourse. In the former, in an ordinary
discourse, in which we aim for interaction, we aim for
knowledge, and we aim for truth, we may use ordinary
language instead of jargons lest confusion arises
squarely.4Jargons like Left wing (political jargon), FAQ
(internet jargon), AWOL (military jargon), assumed
room temperature(police jargon), sweat equity (business
jargon), and agonal (medical jargon) merely confuse
individuals assuming that they belong to different fields
or the other person has no sufficient knowledge at all
with reference to the jargon couched. It is worth it to
examine the contemporary time versus ordinary
language. Is it advisable to use ordinary language in the
present time? When we take a look at the present time,
we may say that aside from metaphysical and epistemic
problems which have been the problems since the time
of Moore, we are facing social, political, and economic
4 Jargon is “the technical terminology or characteristic
idiom of a special activity or group” (Merriam-Webster,
2014).
92
problems. Naturally, when there are problems, what we
immediately want are solutions, and to discuss solutions
in the soonest possible time, we should use ordinary
language as opposed to jargons in an ordinary discourse;
however, we may say that we can use jargons if we are
willing to define those jargons during the discourse, but
this will entail two negative consequences: (1) the
conversation will take longer and (2) the propositions
laid down may seek more clarifications. On the first
level, the conversation will take longer because the
speaker who is using the jargons will be defining those
jargons and explain subsequently using the ordinary
language.Moore does not inhibit us to use technical
language; nonetheless, he avers that if we use technical
language, it is our responsibility to explain and render a
productive analysis through the use of ordinary
language:
“Since Moore certainly used some technical
terms, it is a mistake to suppose he ever wished
to attack or forbid them. What he did wish was
to insist that any such technicality is one which
itself needs explanation that is not identical with
any use of the expression that is established in
common speech.” (White, 1958, p. 26)
Too much consumption of time is impractical
after all our primary aim is to have knowledge as well
truth while to have interaction may be a secondary one.
On the second level, the explanation may seek
painstaking clarifications, and this will take more effort
and much longer time which yields difficulty in the
present time. If a person is willing to shoulder those
consequences, then there will be no issue at all. In the
latter, ordinary language may be used in a non-ordinary
discourse - a discourse that does use any jargons - but in
this scenario the ordinary language will act as a tool to
have understanding. In the non-ordinary discourse, it is
still possible that there will bea misunderstanding even
93
how impressively seasoned they are in a particular
professional specialization. If that transpires, the only
recourse to understand each other is to use ordinary
language. For example, when the interlocutors have a
misunderstanding whether or not the chair in front of
them is real, it is necessary to use the common language
because of the following: (1) it is sure that the root of
their misunderstanding will be traced since the language
used is common and (2) to completely remove
misunderstanding, it is necessary to have human
reconciliation. In the former, it is unlikely, if not, the
probability is low to have misunderstanding using the
common language as opposed to jargons because it is
common to the interlocutors. In the latter, to have an
emotion is an ordinary tendency of any person which
can be naturally communicated through the ordinary
expressions. In fact, we may also argue that words even
how ordinarycannot “exactly” express our extreme
emotions. For example, there are two IT experts
discussing about computers who have misunderstanding.
We cannot deny that there are no IT jargons that can
express the feelings for reconciliation. Clearly, ordinary
language is not only exclusive to ordinary discourse but
also to non-ordinary discourse by acting as a tool in
removing misunderstanding caused by the jargons used
in the non-ordinary discourse. The only thing that can
happen in an ordinary discourse and/or non-ordinary
discourse that uses a common language as the medium is
polarity of viewpoints, not misunderstanding.
The bilateral function of ordinary language,
namely, ordinary language as a philosophy used in
ordinary discourse and as a tool for finding truth in non-
ordinary discourse give ordinary language the touch of
extraordinariness for all we know other philosophies can
rarely do the same.
Ordinary language as a philosophy utterly faces
a big question, that is, can we use ordinary language in
94
philosophy in an absolute manner? The answer is no.
Language in itself is limited, whether ordinary or not, for
it cannot express all the ideas inside the mind; however,
the limitation of language paves the way for the end of
philosophy, namely, to question. In fact, Russell affirms
that “Philosophy, if it cannot answer so many questions
as we could wish, has at least the power of asking
questions which increase the interest of the world, and
show the strangeness and wonder lying just below the
surface even in the commonest things of daily life”
(Russell, 2013). Socrates also emphasizes that
philosophy aims to “show the interlocutors what
questions really matter to them” (Rossem, n.d.). Whether
or not questions have corresponding answers found,
what is important is that we are able to formulate
questions, hardly countable, which is the first step in
deriving truth. If we find answer to some questions, then
it is no less than good. If not, it simply means that, after
all, we are humans - in the common sense of the word -
who are ordinary.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Addis, Laird and Lewis Douglass. Moore and Ryle: Two
Ontologies. Iowa: University of Iowa. 1965.
Ambrose, Alice. “Three Aspects of Moore’s
Philosophy”. In G.E. Moore Essays in Retrospect. Eds.
Alice Ambrose and Morris Lazerowitz. London: George
Allen and Unwin Ltd. 1970.
Baehr, Jason S.(n.d.) A Priori and A Posteriori. In
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. From
http://www.iep.utm.edu/apriori/.
Bauhmann, Peter. Was Moore a Moorean? On Moore
and Scepticism.n.d. Retrieved from
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Moore Essays in Retrospect. Eds. Alice Ambrose and
Morris
Lazerowitz. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd. 1970.
Lazerowitz, Morris. “Moore and Linguistic Philosophy”.
In G.E. Moore Essays in Retrospect. Eds. Alice
Ambrose and Morris
Lazerowitz. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd. 1970.
Lazerowitz, Morris. “Moore’s Commonplace Book”. In
G.E. Moore Essays in Retrospect. Eds. Alice Ambrose
and Morris
Lazerowitz. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd. 1970.
Malcolm, Norman. “Moore and Ordinary Language.” In
The Philosophy of G.E. Moore. Ed. Paul Arthur Schlipp.
New York: Tudor Publishing Company. 1952.
Moore, G.E. A Defence of Common Sense. Published in
Contemporary British Philosophy (2nd
series). J.H.
Muirhead. 1925. Retrieved from
http://www.ditext.com/moore/common-sense.html
Moore, George Edward. Philosophical Studies. New
York: Humanities Press. 1951.
Oxford Univeristy Press. Oxford Reference. Retrieved
fromhttp://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/a
uthority.20110803100207966. 2014.
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Preston, Aaron. “G.E.Moore”.TheInternet Encyclopedia
of Philosophy. <http://www.iep.utm.edu/m/moore.htm>.
n.d.
Rossem, Kristof Van. Socratic Dialogue. From
http://www.socraticdialogue.be/socrates.html. n.d.
Roth, John K., ed. World Philosophers and Their Works.
California: Salem Press Inc. 2000.
Russell, Bertrand. The Problems of Philosophy. Release
Date: May 2, 2009 [EBook #5827]; Last Updated:
February 7, 2013. Retrieved from
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/5827/5827-h/5827-
h.htm.n.d.
Sense-data. (Published: 2004, Revision: 2011). In
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/sense-data/.
Stebbing, Susan. “Moore’s Influence.” In The
Philosophy of G.E. Moore. Ed. Paul Arthur Schlipp.
New York: Tudor Publishing Company. 1952.
Weitz, Morris Ed. Twentieth-Century Philosophy: The
Analytic Tradition. New York: The Free Press. 1961.
White, Alan R. G.E. Moore: A Critical Exposition.
Oxford: Basil Blackwell. 1958.
“George Edward Moore.”ConciseRoutledge
Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London and New York:
Routledge. 2000.
“Jargon.” Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster, Inc.
Retrieved from http://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/jargon. 2014.
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“Moore: Analysis of Common Sense”.] bvBritannica:
Internet Guide
Selection<http://www.philosophypages.com/hy/6k.htm>.
Garth Kemerling.20 January 2007.
“Philosophy of Common Sense.” New World
Encyclopedia. Retrieved from
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Philosophy
_of_Common_Sense. Modified: 2008.
“Realism and Antirealism.” Concise Routledge
Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London and New York:
Routledge. 2000.
98
PROFILE AND TEACHING STYLES OF DANCE
EDUCATORS IN THE PHILIPPINES
John Paul R. Domingo, MPES
ABSTRACT
This study determined the profile and teaching
styles of dance educators in the Philippines. Grasha-
Reichmann’s Teaching Inventory Survey Questionnaire
was administered to a simple random sample of 121
dance educator-respondents who participated during the
27th Annual Dance Educators Convention Seminar of the
Dance Education Association of the Philippines (DEAP).
The findings revealed that there were diminutive
differences with regard to sex, age, highest educational
attainment, level taught, total number of teaching year’s
experience, number of years teaching dance, and dance
expertise while there were large differences in terms of
employment status, type of school, and highest level of
dance training. Dance educator-respondents
predominantly used the ‘expert’ teaching style while
‘delegator’ teaching style as the least employed. Results
also showed that the ‘formal authority’ (F= 7.807,
p= .001), ‘personal model’ (F= 4.702, p= .011), and
‘delegator’ (F= 5.779, p= .004) teaching styles differed
significantly when grouped according to level taught.
Keywords: Dance educator-respondents, profile,
teaching styles
99
INTRODUCTION
Profile and Teaching Styles of Dance Educators in the
Philippines
Dance educators are indeed very important part
of an educational system, each of which is unique in
many ways. In a recent study of teaching the dance
class, Mainwaring and Krasnow (2010) noted that
“dance educators have varied strengths, abilities, values,
personalities, and constraints that influence how they
teach”. The dance educators differ from one another in
such characteristic as the tendency to use certain
teaching style in their instruction. In concordance, the
authors also claimed that the effective teaching of dance
skills is informed by a variety of individual teaching
style.
Teaching style has been diversely described as
teachers’ classroom behavior and their distinct
approach to teaching; teaching methods, the
characteristics and roles teacher’s play; one’s
personality traits; archetypal forms or metaphors on
teaching; the implementation of the teacher’s
philosophy about teaching; and the way that various
teaching approaches are combined (Grasha, 1996; Hoyt
& Lee, 2002; Conti, 2004; Evans, Harkins, & Young,
2008).
In the year 2012, the Department of Education
(DepEd) of the Republic of the Philippines
implemented the “K to 12 Basic Education Program”.
The physical education curriculum, which includes
‘Rhythms and Dance’ is based on the principle “Move
to Learn, Learn to Move” with the main objective of
achieving lifelong fitness (Department of Education,
2012).
100
The new educational dance program curriculum
becomes actually an issue and problem on who, what
and how to deliver in a classroom instructional process.
As one directly involves in the instructional process in
the classroom, the teacher occupies a strategic position
in the school systems. For one, in his/her shoulders lay
the responsibility of translating the curriculum into
concrete learning experiences.
Curacho (2009) emphasized that the demands
for improving teacher quality and for holding teachers
accountable for student achievement have increased
over the recent years. However, some educators and
policy makers claim that there is a need to identify
indicators of effectiveness and to evaluate school and
teachers. One of the indicators importantly pertains to
teaching styles.
Over the years, a number of researchers
suggested and recommended to make studies in
teaching styles. Macfadyen and Campbell (2005)
emphasized that “teachers using a variety of teaching
styles should be explored further”. Razak, Ahmad, and
Shah (2007) concluded that the teaching style is one of
the many factors that need to be considered toward
student’s learning. Diaz Larenas, Moran, and Rivera
(2011) and Evans, Harkins, and Young (2008) reported
that there have been very few researches that focuses on
teaching styles. Meyer-Looze (2011) stated that
“teaching styles and its relation to the expanding
learning environment is an endless research area”.
Dance Education in the Philippines
Author et al. (2010) wrote that “dance education
is a part of the physical education curriculum of the
Philippines, from the elementary to tertiary levels in all
states, public and private schools of the country” (p.19).
101
Dance as one of the physical education (PE) programs
is considered a significant component in the educative
process as it contributes to the physical, social, moral,
and intellectual development of the students.
Moreover, while the Philippines is currently
utilizing the new “K to 12 Basic Education Program”,
the dance education curriculum guide of the physical
education program for ‘Grades 11 and 12’ is still under
construction (Department of Education, 2012). Dance
educators need effective, innovative, and quality means
of instructional process through the use of teaching
styles to produce the best results or output in terms of
knowledge gained, skills acquired, and attitudes
changed on the part of the learner. Hence, this study is
significant for one to be in a better position to initiate
remedial measures or to find a better way to improve
the problem/s situation.
Information results of this study may
purposively help various segments of the education and
the community in terms of academic, professional,
leisure, and recreational development planning and
implementation not to mention the physical education
dance classes – a key for the Philippines to be scholarly
prominent in the world of dance education .
Teaching Styles
Grasha (1996) began a program of research to
develop a conceptual model of teaching style. The main
goals were to describe the stylistic qualities that
teachers possessed and to offer suggestions for when
and how to employ them. The author assumed that a
teaching style represented a pattern of needs, beliefs,
and behaviors that faculty displayed in their classroom.
Styles were multi-dimensional and affected how people
presented information, interacted with students,
102
managed classroom tasks, super-socialized students to
the field, and mentored students.
Table 1
Anthony F. Grasha’s Teaching Styles
103
METHODS
Participants
This study included the simple random sample
of 121 selected dance educators in the Philippines
during the Dance Education Association of the
Philippines (DEAP) Incorporated - 27th Annual Dance
Educators Convention-Workshop held last May 12-15,
2012 at the University of Baguio, Baguio City, Benguet.
Table 2
Distribution of Respondents per Region
Region F %
National Capital Region
(NCR) 41 33.9
Cordillera Administrative
Region (CAR) 2 1.7
Ilocos Region (Region 1) 13 10.7
Cagayan Valley (Region 2) 3 2.5
Central Luzon (Region 3) 6 5.0
Region 4-A
(CALABARZON) 25 20.60
Region 4-B (MIMAROPA) 1 .8
Bicol Region (Region 5) 11 9.1
Western Visayas (Region 6) 2 1.7
Eastern Visayas (Region 8) 3 2.5
Northern Mindanao (Region
10) 1 .8
Davao Region (Region 11) 8 6.6
SOCCSKSARGEN (Region
12) 5 4.1
Total 121 100.0
There were no respondents from the Central
Visayas (Region 7), Zambaoanga Peninsula (Region 9),
CARAGA (Region 13), and Autonomous Region of
104
Muslim Mindanao (ARMM). The Board Secretary of
the Dance Education Association of the Philippines
(DEAP), (personal communication, May 15, 2012),
confirmed that there were no attendees from the said
regions.
Instrument
The questionnaire used in this study consisted
of demographic variables (i.e., sex, age, highest
educational attainment, employment status, level taught,
type of school, number of teaching years experience,
number of years teaching dance, highest level of dance
training, related experiences, dance expertise and
number of dance expertise), 40-item Grasha-
Reichmann’s Teaching Inventory Survey Questionnaire
with 5-point Likert-type scale options: Strongly
disagree (1), Disagree (2), Undecided (3), Agree (4),
and Strongly agree (5), and an open-ended question of
“How can we make the teaching of dance more
effective and innovative?”.
The teaching style inventory has a main
purpose of determining the teaching style type of the
respondents: expert, formal authority, personal model,
facilitator, and delegator. It consists of a series of 40-
item indicators that participants need to answer using a
rating scale. The said instrument was validated by
Grasha (1996) and was widely tested for its validity and
reliability in other research applications (Coalition of
Essential Schools, 2007).
Procedure
Demographic questions were structured based
on the research purpose of the study. Permission was
granted from one of the authors, Dr. Sheryl Riechmann
105
Hruska, to utilize the Teaching Inventory Survey
Questionnaire. An approval note in the letter addressed
to the DEAP officers indicating the research purpose
and assurance of confidentiality was attached to each
survey questionnaire before dissemination. The
researcher prioritized the results obtained through
survey questionnaire.
Data Analysis
This study utilized the descriptive method of
research. Data were encoded in a Statistical Package for
the Social Sciences, Version 16 (SPSS Inc., 2008). The
statistical tools used in this research were descriptive
statistics, frequency and percentage, weighted means, t-
test, one way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and
Tukey’s Honest of Significant Difference (HSD) Post-
hoc Test.
RESULTS
Demographics Data
Research Question #1: What is the profile of the
dance educator-respondents in terms of sex, age, highest
educational attainment, employment status, level taught,
type of school, number of teaching years experience,
number of years teaching dance, highest level of dance
training, related experiences, dance expertise, and
number of dance expertise?
Table 3 illustrates the various demographic
results from this study. In terms of sex, out of 121
respondents, there were 61 females or 51.4% and 60
males or 49.6%.
106
Table 3
Demographics of the Dance Educator-Respondents in
the Philippines
107
108
The findings revealed that there were small
differences with regard to sex, age, highest educational
attainment, level taught, total number of teaching year’s
experience, and number of years teaching dance while
there were sizeable differences in terms of employment
status, type of school, highest level of dance training,
and dance expertise. Expressly, in terms of employment
status, 98 respondents or 81% were permanent, while, 14
respondents or 11.6% were probationary and only 9
respondents or 7.4% were contractual. In terms of type
of school, 86 respondents or 71.1% were mostly
teaching in public schools, whereas, 34 respondents or
28.1% were teaching in private schools and 1 respondent
or 0.8% was teaching in a non-academic institution.
In terms of highest level of dance training, 95 or
78.5% trained nationally, while, only 25 respondents or
21.5% trained internationally. In terms of dance
expertise, folk dance ranked first as stated by 92
respondents or 76%, while, social/ballroom dance
ranked second as mentioned by 57 respondents or 47.1%,
followed by creative dance, recreation dance, and
creative rhythms, consecutively.
Questionnaire Data
Research Question #2: What are the dance
educators’ teaching styles in terms of expert, formal
authority, personal model, facilitator, and delegator?
As shown in Table 4, ‘Expert’ teaching style
ranked 1st with an over-all mean of 4.19 interpreted as
‘agree’. ‘Facilitator’ teaching style ranked 2nd
with an
over-all mean of 4.10 interpreted as ‘agree’. ‘Delegator’
teaching style, however, appeared at the last rank with
an over-all mean of 3.99 of which also interpreted as
‘agree’. The statistics reveals that all the dance
109
educator-respondents agreed on all the statement-
indicators of the five teaching style variables.
Table 4
Summary of Results Based on the Over-all Mean
of Teaching Style Indicators
Teaching
Style
Variables
Over-
all
Mean
Verbal
Interpretation
Rank
Expert 4.19 Agree 1
Formal
Authority
4.02 Agree 4
Personal
Model
4.09 Agree 3
Facilitator 4.10 Agree 2
Delegator 3.99 Agree 5
Research Question #3: Is there a significant
difference between the dance educator-respondents’
teaching styles when grouped according to: sex, age,
highest educational attainment, employment status, level
taught, type of school, number of teaching years
experience, number of years teaching dance, highest
level of dance training, related experiences, dance
expertise, and number of dance expertise?
Results of the study revealed that there were no
significant differences between dance educator-
respondents’ teaching styles when grouped by sex, age,
highest educational attainment, employment status, type
of school, number of teaching years experience, number
of years teaching dance, highest level of dance training,
related experiences, and dance expertise and number of
dance expertise.
110
However, there were significant differences in
the dance educator-respondents’ teaching styles when
grouped according to level taught, specifically, in
‘formal authority’ (F=7.807, p = .001), ‘personal model’
(F=4.702, p = .011), and ‘delegator’ (F=5.779, p = .004)
teaching styles, thus, rejected the null hypothesis of this
study that there is no significant difference between the
dance educators’ teaching styles when grouped
according to level taught.
Table 5
Significance of Difference in the Teaching Styles of
the Dance Educator-Respondents When Grouped by
Level Taught
A deeper analysis of this study is shown in Table
6 using Tukey’s Honest Significant Difference (HSD)
Post Hoc Analysis on significant difference.
Table 6 shows the significance of difference in
the ‘formal authority’, ‘personal model’, and
‘delegator’ teaching styles when grouped by level
taught. In terms of ‘formal authority’ teaching style,
111
there is no significant difference between secondary
and tertiary levels (Mean difference= 0.189, p = .441),
and so, the null hypothesis is not rejected.
However, the statistics revealed that between
elementary and high school levels (Mean difference=
0-.606, p = .001), as well as, elementary and tertiary
levels (Mean difference= -0.419, p = .037) found to be
significantly different, hence, rejecting the null
hypothesis.
Table 6
Tukey’s HSD Post Hoc Analysis on the Significance
of Difference
in the Teaching Styles When Grouped by
Level Taught
112
It was also found to be significantly different
between elementary and secondary levels (Mean
difference= -0.602, p = .008) in terms of ‘personal
model’ teaching style and significantly different
between elementary and secondary levels (Mean
difference= -0.593, p = .003) in terms of ‘delegator’
teaching style, hence, both rejecting the null hypothesis.
Research Question #4: What suggestions were
given by the dance educator-respondents to enhance the
effectiveness and innovativeness of teaching dance?
Table 7
Suggestions Given by the Respondents on How to
Enhance the Effectiveness and Innovativeness When
Teaching Dance N = 121
113
DISCUSSION
This study ascertained the profile and teaching
styles of dance educators in the Philippines. Statistical
data results of this study are consistent with Grasha
(1996) who conducted a lot of researches about teaching
styles that ‘expert’ and ‘facilitator’ teaching styles are
mostly utilized by the faculty in the areas of arts, of
which it includes dance education.
One interesting revelation of this study is the
consideration that not all teachers employ one teaching
style and one is predominant over the other. Based on
the result, it is a query under what level/s taught did
‘formal authority’, ‘personal model’ and ‘delegator’
teaching styles became significantly different. For the
past years, a number of researchers reported certain
findings regarding teaching styles in the diverse
academic levels. Davis-Langston (2012) study’s
revealed that there was no significant relationship
between educators and their teaching styles in the
elementary levels. Meyer-Looze (2011) research
exposed that there was a low relationship between high
school teachers and the ‘delegator’ teaching style (r = -
0.020) in the high school levels. Diaz Larenas et al.
(2011) reported that public high school teachers use
more of a ‘facilitator’ teaching style, while, private high
school teachers demonstrate more of a ‘formal authority’
teaching style. Aguda et al. (2009) exposed that the
‘facilitator’ is the most common teaching style used in
the tertiary level content based subjects. Razak et al.
(2007) divulged that ‘expert’, ‘personal model’, and
‘delegator’ teaching styles were the predominant
teaching styles of the high school levels teachers.
Results also demonstrate that secondary and
tertiary teachers espouse formal authority more than
elementary teachers and of why secondary teachers are
more personal model and delegator oriented than
114
elementary and tertiary teachers? According to Diaz
Larenas et al. (2011), most of the high school teachers
who employ these styles expected to occur in larger
classes. It appears that personal model and delegator
teaching styles usage depends on the learning
environment. Support discussion was given by Razak et
al. (2007) that ‘personal model’ and ‘delegator’ teaching
styles are more teacher-initiated in nature. In line with
the research- based statements, Grasha (1996) mentioned
that “hands-on” of personal model teaching style and
delegating task like small-group activity, discussions,
and the like will help facilitate learning in a large
number of students.
Land (n.d.), wrote that teaching preschool and
elementary requires the teacher to take on the role of
facilitator because it is more of a “student-centered”
style. This is also coherent to the findings of Grasha
(1996) that ‘facilitator’ teaching style’ is more a student-
centered style that fosters autonomous learning,
initiative, and encourages students to make decisions
based on their criteria and thinking. Since elementary
level emphasizes exploration, the ‘facilitator’ teaching
style is more likely to be utilized.
Furthermore, in line with the suggestions of the
dance educator-respondents on how the teaching of
dance will become more effective and innovative when
teaching dance, Florido (2006) mentioned that “there are
a lot of practices in the Philippine schools that have
worked through the years”. The author enumerated some
of the best teachers’ programs, practices, projects, and
training in the country, namely: (1) Training of Teachers
on the Use of Multimedia Materials, (2) Materials
Development, (3) Teaching Training, (4) Forum in Best
Practices on the Use of Information Communication
Technology in Teaching and Learning, (5) Strong
Republic Schools Distance Learning Program, (6)
Curriculum Enhancement, (7) Bridge Program such as
115
the development of learning competencies, distribution
of materials, and pilot implementation, (8) Population
Education such as training teachers and school heads, (9)
Special Programs such as video materials development,
citizenship advancement, finalization of modules, testing
teaching training, and (10) Professional Development.
CONCLUSION
Dance educators in the Philippines regardless of
status encompass diverse individuals. Elaborately, dance
education is nowadays equally taught by both male and
female without age limitations. Dance educators are
products of academic institutions of which most of them
pursue graduate studies and engage to professional
trainings nationally but have limited internationally. In
addition, most of the dance educators are performing
artists with permanent employment status having single
dance expertise, principally folk dance, predominantly
distributed in the different grade levels of public schools.
The findings of this study emphasize that dance
educators do not only utilize one (1) teaching style,
rather a range of teaching styles. Each teaching style
reflects to be dominant to one another and the variations
may lead to an effective learning environment. Results
show that ‘expert’ teaching style is the predominant
teaching style of the dance educator-respondents.
However, it appears that ‘facilitator’ teaching style is
mostly suggested by the different authors cited in this
study of which is dedicated to positive learning
environment and creating difference on students’ lives.
Dance educators in the Philippines only differ in
teaching styles when grouped by level taught. The dance
teachers in elementary grade levels predominantly use
the ‘facilitator’ teaching style which is a learner-centered,
directed on student-teacher interaction, however,
116
secondary grade levels dance educators mostly utilize
‘formal authority’, ‘personal model’, and ‘delegator’
teaching styles that are characterized by teacher-centered
or teacher-initiated in nature. Moreover, the dance
educators in tertiary grade levels exhibit more of a
‘formal authority’ among other teaching styles.
Dance educators engage themselves in various
professional activities such as participation in
professional growth and development like trainings and
the like, research, utilization of technology, pedagogical
enrichment, dance programs and performances.
Strengthening values and attitudes, and becoming more
student-centered should also be given importance to
meet the demands of the students.
RECOMMENDATIONS
This study reveals the teaching style/s of the
dance educators in the Philippines. Dance educators
should engage in international dance trainings for
additional dance expertise as well as to finish graduate
studies for professional growth and development through
the assistance of educational authorities of the Philippine
government. Continual professional engagements and
participation in dance performances and programs will
merit effective and innovative dance educators. In
addition, it is also imperative to address the Department
of Education and Commission on Higher Education to
make the teachers’ profile the focal point for dance
education programs, since it serves as the foundation for
changes in the learning outcomes of students.
Dance educators should develop their own
teaching style according to level taught. It is important to
consider that teaching style should be linked according
to student characteristics. Providing a wide range of
117
teaching styles would generate appropriate learning and
teaching experiences.
Academic institutions that offer dance programs
should give emphasis to student-centered instruction
approach while it is also important to acknowledge the
key role that teachers contribute in the diversity process
and complexity of dance education. Teaching styles
must be linked with the students’ learning styles to
achieve better effective instruction and curriculum.
Understanding the different learners of today in the age
of technology is another area to be studied to produce
optimal or maximum outcome.
Administrators and department heads should
spearhead to conduct researches, utilization of modern
technology, professional engagement and development
in relation to dance education. Higher academic
authorities should also assign teachers to their respective
areas of specialization where they are academically
prepared for to make the teaching of dance more
effective and innovative.
Attitude and values should also be given weight
and consideration in teaching the diverse dance students.
Physical education and dance faculty should be
reflective about their behavior as well as their students’
teaching style preferences and pedagogical objectives to
adjust to the challenges of the curricula design and
instruction.
Future researchers must conduct studies in the
teaching styles of dance educators to meet the demand of
the dance education students as well as in preparation for
effective curriculum planning and implementation.
Measuring and assessing the educators’ teaching
performance including needs, patterns, and beliefs must
be one of the primary objectives. The evidence produced
may be used as springboard for conversations and major
118
decisions about our future in the academe. Lastly, there
should be a wider dissemination of the results of this
study to validate the findings and be a basis of further
research to vast changing needs, significance, and
contribution of dance education in the academe.
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ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS
Prof. Caryl Charlene E. Jimenez
completed her Master of Business
Administration at the University of Santo
Tomas. She served as the Chairperson of
the Business Administration and
Entrepreneurship Department of the College
of Arts and Sciences of San Beda College
Alabang. Her work experience is not
limited to the academe as she also assumed
jobs in industries related to manufacturing,
export trading, retail and administration.
Currently, she is pursuing a doctorate degree
in Business Administration at the
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila.
Dr. Cynthia A. Zarate is an Associate
Professor of the Business Administration
and Entrepreneurship Department of the
College of Arts and Sciences of San Beda
College Alabang. She finished her Doctor
in Business Administration at the Jose Rizal
University and Master’s degree in Business
Administration at the Ateneo De Manila
University Graduate School of Business
where she was granted a James A. Gump
scholarhip. She took up Bachelor of Arts in
Psychology and Bachelor of Science in
Commerce major in Marketing Management,
Cum Laude at the St. Scholastica’s College.
She spent more than ten years in the industry
practicing human resource management
before taking a full time career in the
academe since 2001.
123
Prof. Mark Cherwin L. Alejandria
finished his Master of Information
Technology at the Systems Technology
Institute (STI) in 2007. He was a full scholar
through its student assistantship program
during his college years in the same school.
He is also a Programming NC IV holder
issued by the Technical Education Skill
Development and Authority (TESDA) and
with Computer Programming Eligibility
under the National Computer Center (NCC)
and the Civil Service Commission (CSC).
He is presently completing his doctoral
degree in Information Technology at AMA
Computer University. He is currently the
Chaiperson of the Information Technology
Department of the College of Arts and
Sciences of San Beda College Alabang.
Prof. Shirley A. Padua is the Principal of
the Integrated Basic Education Department
of San Beda College Alabang. Prior to her
appointment as the IBED Principal, she
served as the College of Arts and Sciences’
Program Coordinator for Communication
and Media Studies. She took her Bachelor of
Arts degree in Mass Communication at the
Far Eastern University and her Master of
Arts degree in Teaching the English
Language at the De La Salle University
Graduate School of Education. Presently,
she is pursuing a degree in Doctor in
Education major in Educational
Management at the Philippine Women’s
University.
124
Prof. Gilbert I. Yap completed his master’s
degree at the University of the Philippines
Diliman and topped the graduating class of
2009 and, as recognition, was awarded
membership from the International Honor
Society of Phi Kappa Phi, U.S.A. and the
International Honor Society of Pi Gamma
Mu, U.S.A. He graduated cum laude from
the same university with a degree of
Bachelor of Arts in Philosophy in three and
a half years. He was the recipient of the
following scholarships: Beta Sigma of
Southern California Scholarship,
Presidential Scholarship, Graduate School
Honorific Scholarship, Valedictorian -
Salutatorian Academic Scholarship, UP
University and College Scholarship,
Muntinlupa Scholarship Foundation, and De
La Salle University Scholarship. On top of
his professorship experience in De La Salle
– College of St. Benilde, University of the
East, San Beda College Alabang, and
MAPUA Institute of Technology, he
immediately handled supervisory and
managerial posts after college graduation.
Prof. John Paul R. Domingo obtained his
Bachelor in Physical Education (cum laude)
and Master in Physical Education and Sports
from the Polytechnic University of
Philippines, Sta. Mesa, Manila. He is
currently pursuing his Doctoral in
Educational Management in the same
university. He had worked as a faculty
member in the University of Perpetual Help
– Biñan, Laguna and Polytechnic University
of the Philippines San Pedro Campus where
he was appointed as acting registrar and
125
head of admissions, scholarship, and cultural
affairs office. He is a co-author of five
college physical education textbooks and
has been active in the field of dance
education as an educator, choreographer,
performing artist (international exposures in
New Zealand, England, North Wales,
Germany, China, Taiwan, and Thailand),
and resource speaker. Currently, he is the
Physical Education Program Coordinator of
the College of Arts and Sciences of San
Beda College Alabang and a principal dance
artist of the Philippine Baranggay Folk
Dance Troupe performing locally and
internationally as an Ambassador of
Goodwill.
126
NOTES TO CONTRIBUTORS
1. An electronic copy of the original article should
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article, only the title of the paper.
5. Authors are encouraged to follow the American
Psychological Association (APA) Style for in-
text citations and references for consistency.
6. Although scholarly essays are acceptable,
priority will be given to articles based on basic
or applied research.
