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Phonology in nglish Language Teaching
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P PL IE D L I N G U I S T I C S N D L N G U G E S T U D Y
G eneral Edit o rProfe ssor Christo p her N Cand lin Macqua rie
Universi ty
For Iist o ti t les se e pp. v ii i i x
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Pho n olog y n Eng lishLa ngu a ge T each ingA n Int erna t iona
l Ap p roa ch
M artha C Penn in gton
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First published 1996 by Pearson Education Limited
Published 2013 by Routledge2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon,
Oxon OX14 4RN711 Third Avenue, New York NY 10017, USA
Routledge s an imprint o the Taylor Francis Group an informa
business
Copyright © 1996, Taylor Francis.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or uti
lised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other
means, now known orhereafter invented, including photocopying and
recording, or in any informationstorage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.
NoticesKnowledge and best practice in this field are constantly
changing. As new researchand experience broaden our understanding,
changes in research methods, professianal practices, or medical
treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own
experience andknowledge in evaluating and using any information,
methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such
information or methods they should bemindful of their own safety
and the safety of others, including parlies for whomthey have a
professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law neither the Publisher nor the
authors, contributors,or editors, assume any liability for any
injury and /or darnage to persans or property as a matter of
products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use
oroperation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas
contained in thematerial herein.
ISBN 13: 978-0-582-22571-8 (pbk)
British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataA catalogue
record for this book is available from the British Library
Library o Congress Cataloging in Publication DataPennington,
Martha Carswell.
Phonology in English language teaching : an international
approachI Martha C. Pennington.
p. c m (Applied linguistics and language study)Includes
bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-582-22571-X (pbk.)I. English language-Study and
teaching-Foreign speakers.
2. English language-Phonology Comparative. I. Title.II.
Series.
PEII28.A2P38 1996421 .52---dc20
Set by 8 in 10/12 pt Times
95-31239CIP
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on t en t s
Ser ies L is t vi ii
G e n eral Edi t o r s P r efac e Ac k now ledge m ent s x
iii
A u tho r s Pr e face x ivo the R eade r xvi
Int r oduc t ion t o pho nolo g y in langu a ge t e achi n gPhon
ology in th e con text o lang uage teachi ng
W hat is phon ology ?Types o m eaning conv eyed by ph onolo gy
2
N ative and non-n ative accen t 6La nguag e var ieties and E
nglis h 8
S peec h norm s 8
Stan dards and v arieti es ol d and new 1
A va riatio nist a pproa ch to teachi ng ph onolo gy 17
P ercep tion and p roduc tion o spee ch 18
Lev els o analy sis 18
The spee ch me chani sm 2
The Iaryn x and voic ing 22
Ph oneti cs and pho n olog y 23The effect o Iin guisti c con
text o n pro nunci ation 26
C oartic ulatio n and assim ilati o n 26
The n eed fo r a sp ecial symb ol sys tem f or rep resen tingspe
ech so unds 27
Intr oduct ory a ctiviti es 28
Int roduc tory t eachin g ide as 33
2 Co nson a nts 7
Ch aract eristic s o c onson ants 37T he na ture o cons onan ts
37
Pl ace o artic ulatio n 37
M a nner o art iculat ion 4 2
T he sy stem o En glish conso nants 4 8
Nasa ls 4 8
Sto ps 49
Fric ative s 5
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o n tents vii
Intonat ion 14 8
P itch and in ton ation 148
Regio nal and so cial variatio n in intona tion 15 3Vo ice quali
ty 156
T h e nature and c o m m u nic at ional fun ctions o v oice qua
lity 156Situ ational and psycho log ical cor rela tes o v oice
quali ty 159Region al a nd socia l va riation in v oice qua lity
6
A prosod ic cont inu u m 162 P rosody acti vities 65Teachi ng i
deas for pro sody 17 4
5 P honology and ortho g raphy 18 3 C o n n e c ting written and
spoken la nguage in language lea m i n g 183 Hist oric al and pres
ent-day p a t t ems in E ng lish ort hog raphy 85
So urce s o var iabi lity in E ngl ish phon olo gy and o rth
ography 85 H i storical inft uences o n E nglish spe ing 189T he
lega cy o histo rica l change s in Engl is h o r thograp hy 19 9T h
e natu re o th e p r esent-d ay E nglish orth ographi c sy stem
203
Spe l l ing rules in En glish 20 5Relatin g o r thograp hy to
pronu nci ation in the langua ge l esson 20 6O rt ho g raphy a ctiv
ities 207
T each ing ide as f or ortho gra phy 212
6 Pronu n ciation in the langu a ge curricu lum 218A p l ace for
pho no l ogy in the l anguage c la ssroom 218
Q ue st ions o c urriculu m in secon d la nguage pho nology 218G
o als for p ron unciatio n in a seco nd languag e 220
Benefi ts o attentio n to phonol ogy for othe r c u rricular go
als 2 22Target ting areas f or in structio n r emedia tion or feed
bac k 223
Less on d esign f or p hono log y 224Fr om mechan ical to real p
ro nunciati on practice 224
D esi gning th e a u tonom ous pronun ciat ion less on o r unit
228Inte grating list ening a nd s e l f -mon ito ring act iviti es
in
the pro nun ciation curr iculum 237 A n internat iona l appro
ach to pron unc iation in th e
lang uag e curric u lu m 23 9Curr icu lum activit ies 24 3
App e ndix A H ierarchica l an alysis o student p ronunciat ion
253 Appen d ix B. Ped agogical c lassificatio n o pronu n
ciation
erro r s and pro b lems 256Appe n dix C. S a mpie unit plan for
t ea ching the /r/ /11 258 Re fe rences 26 7
Index 275
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A P P L I E D L I N G U I S T I C S A N D L A N G U A G E S T U
D Y
General E ditorP rofessor Ch ri s topher N C an dlin, Macqu ar
ie Universit y
Error Analysis Perspecti ves o n second la n gu age acquisi tio
nJA C K C RICHA RD S (ED.)
Styli stics a nd the T eachin g of
Literatur eHEN RY W I D D O W S O N
Contr aslive Analysi sC RLJ M ES
Langua ge an d Comm unica tionJ A C K C R IC H A R D S A N D
RICHA R D W S C H M I D T (EDS)
Leam ing to Write: First L anguag e/Seco nd La nguageAV IVA FR E
E D M AN, A N P R I N G L EA N D J A NIC YALDE N (ED S)
Rea ding in a Forei gn Lang uageJ. CH A R L E S A L D E R S O N
A N D A .H. U R Q U H A RT (E DS)
An ln troduc tion to Discou rseA n alysis New Editi onM A L C O
L M C O U LT H A R D
L angu age Awa reness in theClassr oomC A R L J A M E S A N D
PET ER GA RREI T
Bil ingua lism in E ducat ionAspects o heory, resea rc h a n
dpracticeJIM C U M M INS A N DM E RRIL L SWA IN
Secon d Lan guage G ramm ar:Lea rn ing and Tea chingW I L L I A
M E. RUTH E R F O R D
The Class room an d the L anguag eL e a m e rEthn og raphy and s
ec ond-languag e c lassroom re se archLEOVAN LI E R
Voc abula ry and L angua ge Teac hingR O N A L D C A RT E R A N
D M I C H A E L M c C A RT H Y (ED S)
O bserv ation in the L anguage C lassro omDICK A L LW R IGHT
Liste ning to Spake n Englis hSeco n d EditionGILL IAN B R O W
N
Liste ning in Langu age Lea mingM IC H A E L R O ST
An Intr oduction to Se cond La nguag eAcquis ition Research D
IANE L A R S EN-FRE E M A N A N D M ICHAEL H L O N G
Lang uage a nd Disc rimin ationA study o communicat io n inmu lt
i-ethnic wor kp acesC E L lA ROB ERTS , TO M J U P P A N DEVEL YN D
AVIES
Transla tion a nd Trans lating :T he ory and Practi ceR O G E R
T B E L L
Proces s and Experien ce in theLa nguage Classr oomM I C H A E L
L E G U T K E A N D HO WARDT H O M A S
Redisc overi ng Interl angua geLA RRY SE LINK E R
L angua ge as D iscour sePers pectiv es for La nguag e Teach
ingM I C H A E L M cCAR T H Y A N D
R O N A L D C A RT ERAnaly sing G enre L a nguage Use in P
rofessio nal Se ttingsV K BHA TIA
From T esting to Asse ssmen tEn glish as an In ternati
onalLangua geCLIFF O R D H ILL A N D K A TE PA RRY(E D S)
S econd L angua ge Leam ing
Theo r etical Fou nd at ionsM I C H A E L S H A RW O O D S M I T
H
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P ho no lo g y in E n g l ish L a n g u a g e Te a ch ingn In
tern atio na l p pro ach
M RTH C P E NNIN G TON
M e a su r ing S econd L a n g u a g e P e r f o r m a n c eT F
M cN M R
Li teracy in So c i e ty
R U Q A I YA H S N ND GEO F FREY
W I LLI M S
L angu ag c L i te ra tur e and t hc Lear n er
RO N LD C RT ER N D JO H N MC R E
L a n g u a ge an d D e v e lo p m c n t:
T ea ch ers n a chan gi ng w o rld
B R I N K ENNY and W ILLI M
S AVA G E
The o ry an d Prac t ic e of W rit ing n p p l i ed L in g uis
tic
Per sp e erir e
W ILL I M GR B E ND
ROBE RT B. K PL N
Int e r ac t io n n th e Langu age C u rr i cu lu m :
A w a renes s . uto n omy a n d A u th ent ic i ty
LEO V A N LI E R
A ut on om y a nd ln d epcnd e nce in
L an guag c L e a r n i ng
P H IL BENSO N and P E T E R V O L L E R
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G en er a l Ed it o r s P r eface
M a r t h a P e n n i n g t o n s book r e presents a fur ther
cx te n s i o n of w hat s a
new depa rture for th e A p p / i c d L inguist ic s nd L a n g
ua gc Study Serie ~.
to focus on t h e in te r re la t i onsh ip be tween theo ry,
descr ip t i on and p ra c
tice n areas of Ia n guage form . To say th is , o f c o u r s e
, i m m e d i a t e ly ra i ses
not on ly cent ra l i s sues of s u ch an in te r re la t ions h
ip for A p pl ied
L i n guis t ics as a d isc ip l in e , bu t a l so f o reg
round s a n d q u e s t i ons t he wa y sn w h i c h l anguag e fo
rm doe s eng ge w i th contex ts of l angu a ge func
t ion, part i c u lar ly, as h ere n the in te rna t ion a l p e
d a g o g ic con tex t o f the
t each i ng and l e a rn ing of Engl i sh . S e e n n th i s
way, form becomes
i m m e d ia te ly a pro b lema t i c a n d n no w a ys a neut
ra l concep t . All the
impor t a n t a n d c u r r en t ly s t rug g led ov er i ssues
are p laced on t h e table:
w h o s e f o r m s ? w hose func t ions? who s e m o d e l s ?
wha t cu r r i c u l a r s e l ec
t ions a n d pr ior i t ie s? wha t r o o m a n d p lace for t e
a c h e r s p e d a g o g i c
c h o i c e s ? w ha t buy ing power n the I inguis t i c marke
t p lace of th ose
choi c es and se l e c t ions tha t a r e m a d e ? At once , p
h ono logy, p e r h a p s p a r
c.rc e/ lence b e c o m es a c r i ti c al s i te for a ppl ied
l ing uis t ic de ba te .
F rom the outse t , P ro fe s so r P enn ing ton m akes he r p
os i t ion c le a r: vari
a t ion is t an d not pres c ript ivis t , i n te rna t iona l
and acce n t neut raL andsocia l ly relat ive to the users a n d
uses of E ngl i sh as a n in te rna t io nal lan
g uage . M o reover, sh e d r ives h e r a rg u m e nts f rom a
b id i rec t i ona l
a p p r oach to t h e p e d a g o g y of p h o n o l o g y n te
r m s o f p ro d uc t ion and
in te rpre ta t ion , ra th e r than one o n ly focus e d on the
fo rmal descr i p t ion of
p ronunc ia t i o n var ie t ies . ergoal s are s imi la r l y
com mend ably clear : n
t ak ing h er in te rna t iona l Eng l i s h s t ance , s h e s
able t o mo t iva t e the need
to e xp l i ca t e t h e re la t ions h i p b e t w e e n phone
t i c s and phono logy, and to
do so th rough an e x t r e m e l y clear ana ly t i ca l and d
e scr ip t ive a ppa ra tusin f tuenced by i ssues of c l a s s r o
o m a pplicabi l i ty . l ndeed , n the best a n d
m o s t u sab l e s en s e , the boo k takes on the na ture o f
a com pe ndium of
te c hn iques t h r ough the r egu la r t a sk s tha t a re inc
luded th r o u g h o u t t h e
chap te r s . hese t ask s a r e them s e lves ca re f u l ly
des igne d no t on ly to p ro
vide a resource for the se l f - s tudy of the reade r and the i
n s t ruc t iona l
p r o g r a m b u t a l so ind i rec t ly as a n ac t ion - r e
s ea rch Cur r iculum fo r the
c l a s s ro o m t eache r . l s sues o f l earner a s s e s s m
e n t and Feed back are
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xii G enera l Edi tor s P refac e
more broadly ho w convers a tion is pro sodically m a rked for m
eaning. Ina related w ay profess ional phon e ticians bo th
articulat o ry and in s tru-
men tal need to acknow ledge the influence of second language
acquisition research o n the leam a bility of ph o nology an d to
includ e the
co n texts of th e personal and the so cial as fun d amental t o
their wor k .
Just su ch an exam ple is pro v ided in th e field of p
sychothera p y by theneed to in c lude socia l psycholo g ical data
a s a basis f o r the inter p reta-
tio n of the ph o nology of affect. Fur ther audien c es with a
s imilar nee d
for a m ultidiscipli n ary appro ach are not d ifficult to find
the cr eation inA ustralia fo r example o a spok e n languag e
database by speech s c ien-
tist s engaged i n speech g e neration a n d recognit ion system
s necessaril y requ ired in the c ontext of t h t multili n gual
and m ulticultura l communit y an orientat ion to a pl u ricentric
m odel of En glish phon o logy in m any
way s similar t o the posit io n adopted by Profes sor Pennin g
ton in th i s book .
In sum this latest contributi o n to the App lied L ingu istics
and Lan guag e Stud y Se ries ful ly matches the aspirat ions of
the series as a
whol e: to offer a broadly ba sed study o f a key ap p lied
lingui s tic subject
m atter dem o nstrating h ow the lin g uistic the social the
cognitive andth e pedagog ic reno t ad ventitious ly yoked to g
ether but e ach necess a ry
to the other and c ontributiv e to the theo retical und e
rstanding a nd practi-ca l applicati o n of the fie ld .
Professo r Christoph e r N Candli n Gener a l Editor
Macqu arie Unive rsitySydne y
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c k no w le d ge m e n ts
T h e P ubl i sh ers a re i nd eb t ed to th e f o l low in g fo
r p er m issio n to re p ro -
d u ce c o p yr ig h t m at eria l:
am b ridge U ni vers it y P re ss fo r our Fi gu res 2 .6 . 2 .7
a n d 2 .8 fro m
S o c i a l D i ff eren ti at io n in O t tawa E n g l i sh b y
H B W o ods in Eng lish
A ro u n d t he Wo rld e dite d by J C h e sh i re ( 1 991 ) and
o ur F ig ure 4 4 f ro m
Varia tion in Au stral i an E nglish Th e soc iolect s of Swlne
y b y M
H orv at h ( 1 98 5 ; a nd E d w ar d A rn o ld fo r o ur T able
s 3.1 0 . 3 .1 1 , 3 .1 2 an d
3 . 13 fro m B e lfas t : han ge an d v a riati on in an u rb an
v e rn a c u lar b y
Jim a n d L e sley Mil r o y fro m Soc ioling uistic pa r t e m
s in Brit ish En glish e d ited b y P e t er T ru dgil l ( 197 8
).
We h av e bee n una b le to trac e the c o py r i gh t h olde rs
of th e p oe m by
T .S.W . in th e Sun day T imes 3 Ja n u ary 1 965 , and o ur ta
b les 3 . 2 , 3 .3 and
3 .4 . an d w o u l d ap p rec i a t e an y info rm ati on w h
ic h w o uld en ab l e us to d o
so .
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A u t h o r s Pre fa c e
Thi s t ext is th e r esult of a fascinatio n on my p ar t,
beginn in g in high
school, w ith the s tud y o f la n gu age. t is n o doubt si
gnificant fo r my
in t erest in acc ents tha t w hen I w as thirteen , my fami ly
moved f ro m
Jack so nville, F lor ida, whic h is locate d i n a south em
dialect ar ea o f the
United S ta tes, to N as hua, New H ampshi re, located in a very
d if f erent
d ia l ect area n ear Bosto n, in the ex treme No rt heast. A
fte r more t ha n
thirty y ears, I c an still viv id ly recall b eing cha sti sed
by m y seventh
grade hi sto ry teach er when, s ta n ding in fro nt of th e d
ss to gi ve a
re po rt on Ma ge llan, I rh ym ed route w ith o u t ra th er
than w ith ro o t
My interest in p honolog y was mor e formally a roused in g
raduateschoo l a nd soon be came a foc us of m y study. Th e
foundatio n for thist ex tw s la i d in the 19 70s at th e Universi
ty of Penn sy lvania, w he re I
re cei ved instr uc tion and gu idance in research on phonetic s
and phon o-
logy du ring ma ste r s and d octoral stu dies in th e Depa rtm
ent of
Lin gu istics. I n particula r, I am ind eb ted to P ro fessors
J oh n Fough t,
William Labov, Z ell ig Harris , H enry Ho en igswald an d Leigh
Lis ker. In
additio n, while a stu dent at P en n I atten ded the Sum m er
Instit ute of the
L inguistic So ciety of A merica and becam e a cquainte d with
Mi ch aelHallid ay , whose wo rk I have e agerly fo llo wed from
then until no w. The
impact of each of th e se lingui sts on my k no wledge, my
linguist ic skills,
my th inking a nd my teac hin g is inca lc u lable.
A t t he Univers ity of Haw aii , I was pri vileged t o come int
o contact
w ith sever al phonolo gis ts of sta tu r e, includ in g David
St ampe, Pa tr i cia
Do ne gan and Ti mothy V anc e, as we il as with S u zanne Ro m
aine whe n
she taugh t s ummer cou rses the re . From e ach o f thes e s
cholars I h ave
learn ed many an d varied th ing s. I hav e b een grea tly
influenc ed , too, by the work in phonetic s and pho no logy by D
wight Bo linger, P et er
Lad efo ged, Jo hn Laver, Alan C rut tenden, Jo hn Esl in g ,
Björn
H ammarber g, David B raz il, Gillia n Brown, D Robert L ad d
and S te v e
Wein be rger.In all its p rac tical asp ec t, the bo ok derives
m ost imme di ately fro m
my int era ctions d uri ng the la st two deca de s with te ac
hers and gr aduate
st ud ents in E SL in man y l ocations ar ound the w orld. I w
ish to expr ess
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Author s Preface x
my gratitude to the hundreds o teachers and graduale students
whoinspired my work in phonology classes and workshops first at
theUniversity o Califomia at Santa Barbara and later at the
University o
Hawaii at Manoa. Thanks are also due to the students and
teachers atNagoya Gakuin University n Japan the MATESL students at
TempleUniversity Japan and the BATESL and MATESL students at the
CityUniversity o Hong Kong who inspired me to go through
additionalrevisions o my material n an attempt to increase its
relevance forteachers who are themselves non-native speakers and
who work n acountry where the majority language s not English.
I have benefited much since 1990 from a close association at
mypresent institution with Graham Lock who always seems to have a
different and enlightening perspective on everything linguistic and
whosepoint o view has substantially inftuenced my thinking about
secondlanguage phonology and many other matters. Graham has also
beenmost generaus n his willingness to read drafts o the material
and hehas given me many useful suggestions for improvements. I also
gratefully acknowledge the supportive response and feedback from
Dick
Schmidt and Suzanne Romaine on sections o an earlier draft o
thismaterial.
Finally I must give credit to two individuals without whose
supportthis book would never have been published. I am grateful
first o all toChris Candlin for his unftagging interest n and
assistance with the project - n particular for his valuable
conceptual and editorial inputwhich stimulated and helped me to go
far beyond the original conceptfor the book. I would also like to
acknowledge a generat debt o grati
tude to Jack Richards whose encouragement helped me to bring
thisproject to a successful completion and whose guidance and
inspirationhave made a big difference n my professional life over
the many yearsthat I have been associated with him.
Martha C PenningtonHong Kong
1996
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o th e e a d e r
Th is book is intended as a comp re hensive in troductio n to
Engli sh
phono lo g y set in the social a nd internat io n al conte
xto
Iangu age Iearning and Ia nguage te a ching ar ou nd the w or
ld. The bo ok is pri nc ipallygeared to teacher s o Englis h as a
sec on d or fore ig n Iangua ge (ESL/
EFL), t ho ugh the m at erial will al so be o va lue for te ac
hers o o the r lan
g uages, as w eil as for Ia nguage r es earchers in various f
iel ds. The c ou rseex amines ph onology fr om a va ria tionist, ac
cent-neut ra l and in te r na
tio nal point o view, ex pl icitly co m p aring the m ajor vari
eti es o Eng li s h
aro un d the w orl d and us ing a syste m o descr ip t ion and
tr a nscriptio n
wh ich is relati ve ly generi c. The book is therefo re usable
in no n-Englis hsp ea king as w eil as Eng lish speakin g countries
.
Th e t ext blend s t heory an d practice in phonetic s, p
honolog y, Englishlinguisti cs, sociolin gu istics an d language te
aching. Th e subjec t m attero the c ou rse cente rs on the d eta
ils o E ng lish phon ol ogy in th e categ ories o co nsonants , v
owels an d prosody, w ith addit io n al mate ria l on
the relations hi p o phon ol ogy to o rth ography an d to the ar
ger Iangu ag e
c urr iculum. It s practic al compon en t include s pedagog ic a
l activit ie s ,
id eas for car ryi ng out c la s sroom a cti on resea rch , and
a fin al chap ter add res sing cla ssr oom issu es , needs an
alysis an d Iesson d es ign. Wit h
sligh t m odificati on s, most o the teach in g ideas an d
action re sea rch pro
jects co uld be a da pted to th e phono lo gy o Ia ng uages o
the r than
Englis h.
oa ls a nd obj ecti ves
The ma jo r goals o th is mater ial are to pr ov ide:
( 1 an under sta nding o ge neral pri nc iples o p ho netics an
d phonolog y; (2) k no wledge o the nature o English ph onology
;
(3) appli cat ions o p ho nology in the langua ge classroo m
;(4) s kills for pr onunciati on diagnos is and need s a
nalysis.
As a s ec ondary g oa l, the ma te r ial aims to provide:
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o th e e a d e r xv ii
(5 ) a su m m ar y o th e re lation ship o th e E ngl is h sp e
lling syste m to its
sound syste m .
The c over a ge o the book offer s la n g uage teach ers a n d o
t h er in ter
es ted re aders the b a ckgr o und and e x perie n ce n ecess a
ry fo r:
(a) a s sess ing s tu den ts ' pr o nunc iation and relate d asp
ects o li s te ning
pro ficien cy;
(b) givin g use ful fe edbac k on s tude n ts' p ro nun c iatio
n ;
(c) d e sign ing o rigina l clas sr oom mate r ials fo r tea c
hing pron u ncia ti on;
(d ) rea d ing p ublis h ed I it eratu re on the t ea chin g o p
hono logy.
It als o supp lies t h e ne c essar y bac k grou n d an d skil
ls for :
(e) con d uctin g in v estig a tions that expl o re E n glish
pho n olog y in its
socia l con text o r in the t e achin g an d lea m ing o pr o
nun ci ation ,
in c ludin g act io n re searc h in th e ir ow n cla sses.
rgan izatio n The desig n o the b o ok p resen ts th e som e
time s da u nting cont e n t o
p h ono logy in a w ay tha t will be in terest in g, u seful and
a c cessi b le to lan
gu a ge te acher s . Th e refo re , the disc u ssion thro u gho
u t the book retu m s
with r egul a rity to the c onc e m s o prac tition e rs. T h e
m at erial is als o pre
sente d in a stru c tured and o rder ly fas h ion appro p riate
for s e lf-te aching
o r c lass ro om use in tea c her p repa ra tion cour ses. T
hus, e ach c hap te r
ends w ith a ctivi ti es to help r einf o rce t h e ch a pter c
onte n t. Th e acti v ities ,
w hich may b e c ar ried out i n divi d ually o r c o m pa ra
tive ly in a cla ss o rsm a ll g ro up, inclu d e su g gest ions
for c la ssro o m a c tion resea rch a n d
com m unit y -bas e d o r cla s sroom -bas e d s o cioli n guist
ic m ini-re search
p rojec ts .A t the sam e time as it aims for h ig h in terest
and user- f riend lines s ,
the m ateri a l is a lso m e ant to pro v ide a thor o ugh,
integ ra ted c over a ge o
E n glis h pho n olog y an d the teach ing o pro n unci a tion.
t is there fore
org a nize d as six c om p re hen si ve c h apte rs, e a ch b e
ginn ing w ith an
o v ervi e w o the c o re m a teria l, wh ic h la y s a f o unda
tion f o r the theo re tica l a nd p ractic a l po in ts th a t fol
lo w.
Cha p ter 1 pro v ides a ph ilosop h ical fram e work and subj
ec t m a tter
back g rou n d for the w hole b ook . The n ext three c hapt e
rs (C hapte r 2 --4 )
o verv ie w th e ph o nolo g y o Engl ish c o nson a nts, v ow e
ls an d pros o dy.
Eac h o th ese c hapte rs is o rgan ized in tw o parts . The
first p art p resen ts
th e co re m at erial on E n glis h pho n olog y . Th e seco n d
pa rt is o rient e d to
app licati o ns o the c h apte r con te nt in the w ay o intro
spect iv e ex e rcise s ,
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xvm o the e a d e r
action rese arch an d sociolin gui stic min i-re search pro ject
ide as, and
te aching m a terials.C hap ter 5 ad dre sses the to pic o o rth
ography in relation to English
phonolo gy from bo th a histor ical and a pre sent-day pe
rspectiv e. Like
the p receding ch apters, it e nds wit h i ntrospec tive review
ac tivities as
weil a s pr actical idea s for tea ch ing and res earch ac tivi
ties rela te d to the
ch apter co nte nt. The fin al chapt er discusse s th e natur e
o secon d la n
gua ge leaming an d the p lac e o pho nol ogy in the languag e c
lassroom ,
offerin g p rinciples fo r needs ana lysis an d l esson de sig
n, samp le m ater
ial to criti que , and p ract ical adv ic e on dia gno sing an d
r espondi ng to
stud en ts pronu nc iation di ffic ulties.
niquenes s
T he present bo ok is un ique in the foll owing r espe cts:
• the tr e atment o phonolo gy in a co nte xt o in te m ational
is m , lan
guage v ari ation an d so cial fac tors affectin g s peech;
• inclusio n o basic pho netics in a treatme nt o phon olo gy
geare d f or
la n guage te ach ers;• the pro vision o a wide ra nge o m at
eria l relate d to classro om con
cems;• the inclusio n o a sepa rate chapte r on lesson de sign
and pr onuncia -
tion dia gnosis.
Its co ntent an d o rganizat io n make th e b ook sui ta b le
for a wid e range o
needs o phonolo gy , includ in g (a) gra dua te stud ents in T E
SL {fEFLse eking a gen eral ov erv iew o E ng lish pho nol ogy gea
red to their co n
cem s, (b) lang uag e teach ers looking for practic al a
ctivities fo r teachin g
and for gi ving fee dba ck on p ron unciatio n, a nd (c) l ang
uage re sea rchers
lo okin g for gu ida nce in cond ucting r esea rch on t he
phonolog y o speak ers
whose fir st or se con d langu age is Eng lish . t may al so
prove to be o
va lue to speec h p atholog ists and oth ers who sp ec ialize in
co mmunic a
tion pr obl ems o n ati ve or no n-n ative sp eak ers.
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In tro duc tion to pho nol ogy n lang na g et each ing
ho nolog y n t he co ntext o la ngnag e tea ching
W ha t is p ho nol og y?
T hi s is a cou rse in Eng li s h, t he la n g uag e whi ch de
ve lop ed in E ngla n d
and h as b e en s pr ead in g in the la s t thr ee ce nt urie s
as a m edi um fo r com
m uni ca tion arou n d th e glo b e. t is a ls o a cour se in
phon o logy , as
vi ew ed fr om at lea st th r ee dif fe rent p ersp ectiv es . n
this b o ok, th e te rm
phon oiogy is u sed in the s enses o f:
a) the s ound patt e rns of la n gu age ;
b) the p ro nun c iatio n pat te rns of spe akers ;
c) t he stu dy of a) an d /or b ).
n on e sen se , w e spea k o f the ph o nolo g y of a lan g uag
e o r l an gua ge
varie ty e .g . a di alec t) as th e sy s te m o f so u nds , o
r sou nd pa tter n s, of
th at la n guag e o r l angua g e va ri ety. n oth e r wo rds, E
n glis h pho n olog y is
a d e scri pt ion o f the s oun d s of E ngl is h an d the ir
rela ti onsh ips a nd co n
trast s with e ach o ther . M or e con c retel y , w e can v iew
th e ph o nolo g y of
E n gli sh - o r o f an y la n gu age o r la ng uag e var ie ty
- as the p ron u ncia ti onpat te rns o f tho se w ho spea k it. A
ddi ti onal ly , p h onol o gy ca n b e
desc ri bed a s th e stud y o f the so un d p at tern s o f la n
gua ge s o r o f th e pro
n u ncia tio n p at tern s o f sp eake rs .T h e s ub jec t of p
h onol o gy, w hen v ie w e d fr om th ese d if fere n t pe r
spect iv es, ad dre ss es q u estio n s su ch as th e fo ll owi
ng :
I) How do t he sou n d p at tern s o f la n guag es ch a nge o
ver t im e?
2) W hat are t he sim ilarit ie s an d dif fe renc es in the s o
und p atte rn s of
la ng uag es ?3) H ow do in di vidu a l spe a kers d iffe r in
th e ir pr o nun ci ation patt er ns?
4) How do p e ople learn the p ronun c iatio n pat te rns o f a
l an gua ge ?
This is a c our se in E ngl is h p ho nol og y f or cu rr ent o
r pr o spec ti ve
lan g uage teac he rs. T he c o urse d oes n ot r eq uire a ny
ba ckg ro und in li n
g u istic s o r te achi ng me thodo logy, a ltho u gh t ho se w
ho h ave s uc h b ac k
gr ou nds may hav e a s ligh t adv a ntag e. O n the oth er ha
nd , the
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2 Phonology n English Language Teaching
perspective of the book and much of the content, particularly in
itspractical aspect, will probably be new even for those who have
alreadyhad coursework in English phonology or related areas. The
teachingideas which are included in the book are generally not
available inother texts and so are likely to e new for most or all
readers.
Types of meaning conveyed by phonology
Although the course is designed for language teachers, some
readersmay have reservations at the outset about the need for
instructionin phonology or for attention to this aspect of language
in their ownpresent or future classes. Yet phonology is one of the
most allencompassing, pervasive phenomena of language. Phonology
provides the basis for all other aspects of language, in that all
higherunits e.g. words, phrases, sentences) are ultimately
analyzable assounds. Moreover, phonology is associated with a wide
variety ofsymbolic functions in human interaction such as different
types of
linguistic meaning, personal and group identity, and affect mood
oremotion).
As Stevick 1978) observes: Pronunciation is the primary
mediumthrough which we bring our use o language to the attention o
otherpeople [italics in original] p. 145). It is also a primary
medium forcommunication of information about ourselves as
individuals and asrepresentatives of different groups. Since it
opens the way to a betterunderstanding of how language works and
how the different aspects of
linguistic and social meaning are interrelated, an understanding
of thephonology of a language is a necessary basis for fully
effective teaching of a spoken language.
Since sounds are the basis of all higher linguistic units,
phonologicaldifferences can signal differences at severallevels of
language, e.g. differences in
• lexical meaning;• grammatical meaning;• utterance meaning.
The difference between pin and pen and that between pen and
panare lexical differences signaled by the difference in
pronunciation ofthe central sound of the words, i.e. the vowel
sounds. Analogously, thecontrast in meaning of the lexical items
tin and sin and of sin and shinis in each case signaled by the
difference in one sound - in these cases,the initial conson nt
sounds.
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8 Pho nolog y in nglis h Lan guage Teac hing
m or e sophis ti c ated Ieve l - i.e. at a Ievel tha t is more r
em oved fro m dir ec t experie nce .
By thi s l ine of re aso ning, the a cquisitio n of phono lo g y
- at le as t inth e w ay that a c hild goe s a bout t is essentia
lly a matte r o f acquiri ng an und if ferentiate d type of e
xperienc e through h olistic, su rface
or iented at te n tion. Ad ul ts, while at an adva nt age for
acq uiring o th er
kind s of experi en ce, are a t a disadva nta ge as co m p ared
to chi ldren for
acquirin g anything in a naiv e, unthinki ng , non-an aly tical
wa y: suchleam in g very Ii ter ally g oes a g ainst the gr ain of
th e adult s na ture and
experien ce . This is a reality w hic h we m ust contend w ith
when te aching a se con d Iangu age to olde r le amers. t d oes not
by any mea ns follow, ho wever, th a t adults ca nnot lea m the pho
no logy of a secondlanguage - only tha t we have t o c onsider the
ir nature as Ieamers w hendevising ap propriate in struction al
approach es .
angu age v ar ie t i e s and E n g l i sh
Speech no rms
This bo ok treats E ng lish from an intern ati onal per sp
ective, in all itsfor ms, rathe r than nar row ing the fo cus to o
ne dialect, o r variety , o f
the Ian guage as s poken b y a particu lar group of speakers o r
in onecountry. Th e orient ati on of th e book is thu s variation
is t rath er thanp re sc r ip t iv is t .
T he descript io n of indiv id ual lang uag es and l an guage
sta nd ards can
be related to the notio n of sp e e c h c om munity A speec h
commun ity isdes cri bable in ge ographic te rms as a re gion or a
n eighborh oo d; or it isdescrib ab le in term s of ethnic o r
other t yp es o f affi lia tions wh ich bindpe op le togeth er
under co m mon valu es , even th ou gh they are separate d
geogra ph ically. T hu s, a spee ch commu nit y does n ot
necessa rily have
d efinable ph ysical b ord ers and m ay in fact be geo gra
phically d iscont in u ous. n suc h cases, we may pe rh aps speak m
ore accu ra tely of a co mmunity o f speak ers who sh ar e certain
values b ut who do n ot
actu al ly live in th e same a rea .A speec h commun ity or comm
u nity of spea kers can th en be de fin edas a gr ou p o f spea ke
rs who sh ar e a comm o n set of v alues, or no rm s, forth e
produc tio n and ev al uation of speech (H ym es 1974 ). These sh
ar ednorms m ake up the ru le s of speaking that apply w ithin a pa
rticularc om munity of speakers. n other w ord s, a spee ch commu
nit y is defin ed as a gro up of speak er s who te nd to agree o n
what c ou nts as an ap pro
p riate or in app ropriate st yle of sp ea king in a g iven circ
um stance. Fo r
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