Approaches to Teaching and Assessment: Assignment 3 Hannah Carnell

Prof. Dr. Katrien Struyven Words: 5,027

December 17th 2014

Overview of the problem

We are presented with the problem of Anne: a novice teacher of seven and

eight year olds. Anne teaches in Brussels, within the Flemish education

system where the school language is Dutch. However, only five children in her

class have Dutch as their primary language, with the remaining 20 children

speaking a range of other languages. While the level of Dutch proficiency

amongst the non-Dutch speakers is not known, we can assume that they are

not all fluent, given that Anne has raised this as an issue.

Uncertainty about teaching individuals who do not speak the native language

is a common problem amongst teachers (Tomlinson et al., 2003), and one

that is increasingly important to address. Globalisation means that teachers

are experiencing more diverse classrooms which, combined with the focus in

many countries towards mainstreaming as a strategy for cutting educational

costs (Reis & Boeve, 2009), has resulted in many teachers having to address

diversity issues to ensure that all children are performing to the best of their

abilities.

Language issues aside, Annes class will also be composed of a range of

individuals with different learning styles, interests, and levels of readiness

(Tomlinson et al., 2003). As such, Anne needs to consider how she will meet

all of these different needs, or how to differentiate her teaching.

Differentiation is not an easy or straightforward task (Tomlinson et al., 2003;

Willis & Mann, 2000) and, what works for one teacher will not necessarily

work for another. It is likely to involve personal and professional struggle, and

novice teachers in particular will need to overcome fear, lack of teaching

experience and insufficient pedagogical knowledge (Whitsett & Hubbard,

2009). As Anne is at the start of her teaching journey, it is crucial that, early

on, she develops strategies to work with diversity within her classroom, given

that teachers are unlikely to change their conceptual understanding of

teaching and learning as they get more experienced (Richardson, 2005).

Furthermore, understanding and implementing classroom differentiation is

also an issue of professionalism, with teachers that practice it successfully

regarded as highly attentive to students' varied learning needs, and

competent, creative, and professional educators (Tomlinson, 2000).

This is an important case study to consider as, not only is this is an issue

affecting many teachers today, but also the issue of equity of opportunities is

a compelling one. We know that many students face barriers to opportunity

within the classroom, with standard teaching practices not working for them

due to issues of personal learning style, specific learning disabilities (such as

dyslexia), economic reasons, or because of language and cultural barriers

(Lou et al., 1996). As such, exploring ways to address, work with and

embrace this diversity within classrooms is of paramount importance to

ensuring that all children are given a fair start in life.

Problem analysis

This paper will explore how Anne can best meet the needs of her class, and

effectively differentiate her teaching within her classroom. We will discuss

and critique the relevant literature in the following sections:

1. Differentiation to meet the needs of all students: what

differentiation is, and why it is appropriate in this context;

2. Understanding the student: An examination of how Anne can

understand and learn from her students most effectively;

3. Implementing differentiation: How Anne can make it work in practice,

with a specific focus on students from diverse cultures;

4. The role of self: Annes role as an individual in implementing a

successful differentiation strategy; and

5. Wider support mechanisms: what support is, or should be available

for Anne.

1. Differentiation to meet the needs of all students

What is differentiation?

Differentiation, in essence describes the efforts of teachers to respond to

variance among learners in the classroom, taking into account different

learning styles, readiness and interests (Tomlinson, 1999). Teachers can, and

should differentiate their teaching by adapting methods, resources, curricula

and activities to address the diverse needs of their heterogeneous students,

to maximise learning opportunities for all (Bearne, 2002; Tomlinson et al.,

2003).

Tomlinson is widely regarded as one of the main thinkers in the field of

differentiated instruction (Bender, 2012), although issues relating to

differentiation and variety in students abilities have been around for almost 70

years (Guild & Garger, 1998). Tomlinsons research on differentiation has

drawn heavily from the work of Gardner on multiple intelligences (Tomlinson,

1999) and has its roots firmly placed in psychology. More recently the debate

has broadened (Bender, 2012), embracing a number of different

characteristics that define learners (Tomlinson et al., 2003). Now, learning

styles, preferences and multiple intelligences are all referred to in the context

of the debate, and this is what will be examined in this paper.

The case for differentiated instruction

In many countries, including Belgium, the trend towards mainstreaming for

SEN students, gifted students and those learning the native language, means

that the onus is now upon teachers, as opposed to institutional arrangements,

to provide differentiated learning and ensure equity of learning opportunities

(Tomlinson et al., 2003). As such, differentiation is widely ultilised across the

world, as individuals with economic, cultural, gender, and motivational

differences, amongst others will all need content, processes and outcomes

that are suited to their needs (Bender, 2012; Tomlinson et al., 2003). Thus the

debate has moved on from whether teachers should respond to the need to

differentiate, to how they should respond (Tomlinson et al., 2003).

Furthermore, inattention to student variance can have a lasting impact on the

life and future of individuals. Challenging students too much can result in a

decline in feelings of self-worth and levels of achievement in students

(Csikszentmihalyi, 2002). Conversely, when students are asked to do tasks

that are too simple, they disengage with the task (Mayer, 2004; Tomlinson et

al., 2003), and are unlikely to thrive (Wang, Many & Krumenaker, 2008).

Issues of race and culture are a central part of Annes problem, given that

many of her class are from immigrant backgrounds, a fact that further

strengthens the case for differentiated instruction. Research in the USA has

found that teachers are less capable of enabling minority students to build the

skills necessary for success out of school (Delpit, 1995; Tomlinson et al.,

2003). Linked to this, immigrant students in the USA have higher than

average dropout rates, particularly as students get closer to graduation (Wang

et al., 2008). Without adequate qualifications, these students will be penalised

in the future: facing limited further education and employment opportunities.

While no data on this issue was available for Belgium, it is important that

teachers, such as Anne, are aware of the long-term impact of their teaching

and the complexity of these issues, and work to deal with them sensitively

(Ryan, 2006).

Finally, arguably Anne should consider issues of differentiation over and

above theories relating to language learning, given that she is not teaching

Dutch to the students in a language school. We can assume that her primary

concern is to teach the curriculum to her students, with second language

acquisition as a secondary, but important byproduct. Furthermore, Hite and

Evans (2006) argue that the field of language acquisition (i.e. picking up a

language in mainstream education) remains an area where there has been

little research most refers to structured language learning or immersion. As

there is little evidence about what works for mainstream language learners

outside of standard differentiation principles, this will form the basis for this

paper, referencing issues of race and language diversity where possible.

2. Understanding the student

If Anne is to facilitate successful learning opportunities for her class, she must

know her learners: building up a picture of them in terms of their readiness,

interests, and learning profiles, with a particular focus on their cultural values

(Guild & Garger, 1998; Tomlinson et al., 2003). As discussed above, the

students cannot be simply divided into groups of Dutch speakers and non-

Dutch speakers. Within and between both of these groups will be further

differences, and indeed similarities, that will help Anne to understand her

students better, and to get the most from them.

Student readiness

Student readiness is defined by Tomlinson et al. (2003) as the point at which

a student is unable to learn alone, but is able to do so with support: in other

words when a teacher is able to push a student out of their comfort zone, but

not so far out that they are overwhelmed.

To assess the different levels of readiness within her classroom, Anne

should first seek to discover what the students already know, and where

applicable their grasp of the Dutch language. To do this, Whitsett and

Hubbard (2009) argue that teachers should, as early as possible, study school

records, talk with other teachers and members of support staff, and obtain test

scores if applicable, to form an overall picture of the different students

profiles.

Student interest

Secondly, an understanding of student interests within her classroom will also

assist Anne, and enable her to design or modify her teaching activities

accordingly. Designing materials and activities around student interest can

help to enhance engagement, productivity, creativity and autonomy, and

develop a positive attitude to learning (Tomlinson et al., 2003). This may also

be a particularly salient issue for students of different cultural and ethnic

backgrounds who are likely to have diverse interests.

By asking students about what interests and motivates them, and shaping her

materials accordingly, Anne will also be helping her students to flow, in other

words, get completely absorbed in an activity, with a feeling of energy, vigour,

full involvement and crucially enjoyment (Csikszentmihalyi, 2002).

Tomlinson et al. (2003) suggest that students should be encouraged to select

projects related to what interests them, and to have discussions with their

parents and teachers about what learning brings them pleasure.

Learning style/profile

The third component for Anne to examine is that of her students learning

profiles something that can be affected by a number of different factors

including environment, emotions and physical needs (Tomlinson et al., 2003).

Individuals are products of both nature and nurture, with predispositions for

learning that are shaped by external influences, especially within our

immediate family, extended community, and culture (Tomlinson, 2000).

Whitsett and Hubbard (2009) concur, arguing that the most significant

information available for teachers includes an understanding of students

family makeup, immigration history, favourite activities, perceptions of the

value of school knowledge, and experiences with different subject matters.

Thus, knowing each student's culture and background is essential for

providing successful learning opportunities, and will help educators facilitate,

structure, and validate successful learning for every student (Guild & Garger,

1998).

Culture is also likely to have an impact upon learning style, something that will

be particularly significant for Anne. As Guild and Garger (1998) note:

A deep understanding of both culture and learning style is important for

all educators, though the subject must be addressed carefully. The

relationship of the values of the culture in which a child is currently living,

or from which a child has roots, and the learning expectations and

experiences in the classroom is directly related to the child's school

success academically, socially, and emotionally (Marching to Different

Drummers, ch.3, para.6).

Indeed, although some teachers may be fearful of exploring these issues too

deeply, with concerns about stereotyping, these cultural reflections can be

interesting and useful for teachers. For example, research has shown that for

Mexican Americans, family and personal relationships are particularly

important, and as such they tend to seek out a personal relationship with a

teacher; while African American students' report their comfort with oral

experiences, physical activity, and strong personal relationships, meaning that

collaborative, discursive and active projects work well (Guild & Garger, 1998).

As part of this, establishing effective communication with parents is crucial for

Anne, even for those parents that cannot speak Dutch. Hite and Evans (2006)

found in their study of US first grade teachers that had a high proportion of

English language learners in their classes, that all the teachers were vocal

about the need to establish effective communication with parents. They found

that it enabled parents to understand the requirements of the teacher and the

demands placed upon the student, as well as providing the teacher with

insights into the students backgrounds, both personal and cultural. Here, it is

worth noting that Anne is at an advantage compared to teachers of older

pupils, as she will be teaching her students every day, and as such will have

greater access to the parents, compared to teachers in secondary schools for

example.

Anne should also attempt to discover what makes students families

comfortable in terms of school interaction: some may want more involvement

with the school, and may be at a loss about how to adequately support their

children. This perceived lack of interest may simply relate to a lack of

information, resulting in low levels of participation at school-related activities

(Whitsett & Hubbard, 2009), something that could easily be rectified.

3. Implementing differentiation

Alongside building an understanding of her students, Anne also needs to

consider how to practically implement differentiation in her classroom.

Thorough planning is key, as differentiated instruction works best when it is

designed, with a whole system approach, rather than simply reacting and

adapting what exists (Hootstein, 1998; Tomlinson et al., 2003). Stanford and

Reeves (2009) compare successful differentiation to architectural principles,

citing how it is much easier to build an accessible, functional home from

scratch, taking into consideration the specific needs of the individual, than it is

to adapt an existing building that needs substantial modifications. This

concept can be applied to classroom material, strategies and tools, where

teachers tend to take the approach of adapting what is already there, rather

than starting from core principles and reworking the whole system. In this

way, learners are expected to fit into modified existing programme, which is

unlikely to be robust enough to meet their needs (Tomlinson et al., 2003).

Here, we will explore how Anne can design and modify her content,

processes, products and learning environment (Tomlinson, 2000; Tomlinson

et al., 2003), to ensure that her students are given the best opportunities to

learn within her classroom.

Content

It is important to consider in detail the content that will be taught to students

(Stanford and Reeves, 2009). Simply put, content refers to what students

need to learn, and differentiating this content allows students to begin at

different places in the curriculum and proceed at varying rates according to

their readiness, interest and learning style (Tomlinson et al., 2003). In many

countries, including Belgium, the content of teaching is influenced by national

curriculum guidelines, and so to some extent, content is a given, and can

only be varied a limited amount (Bender, 2012). However, despite this there

are a number of ways in which Anne can differentiate the content within her

classroom, and these will be discussed below.

Tomlinson (2000) notes that the most important factor in differentiation is the

provision of high-quality curriculum and instruction. Teachers should have a

sound understanding of their subject area, enabling them to identify key

concepts, skills and ideas that will serve as a framework from which to make

appropriate modifications (Tomlinson et al., 2003). This should allow the

teacher to provide a level of challenge for all students and scaffold

appropriately (Hite & Evans, 2006). Teachers need to ensure that curriculum

is clearly focused, that materials and tasks are interesting and relevant to

students; and that there is joy and satisfaction in learning (Tomlinson, 2000).

Anne therefore needs to look carefully at the curriculum for her class, and

establish the most valuable elements to focus upon, and then develop her

learning materials accordingly.

Alongside this, teachers should also provide a range of learning materials to

meet the preferences, interest and readiness of different students (Bender,

2012; Tomlinson, 2000; Tomlinson et al., 2003). In their research, Hite and

Evans (2006) found the elementary teachers cited a number of common

strategies including visual cues (such as pictures, videos and gestures),

repetition, and simplification of speech. The importance of choral chanting,

movement, and student-developed projects have also been observed

(Bender, 2012). These may well be strategies that Anne already uses, but if

not, could prove useful.

Among the traits of learner-centered classrooms is building on the knowledge

students bring to the task (Tomlinson et al., 2003): something that sits firmly

within the constructivist school of thought (Biggs, 1996). The importance of

using student interest to promote learning was discussed above, and could be

an interesting and positive area for Anne to explore, by embracing the

diversity in her classroom (Hite & Evans, 2006). For example, a project could

take place looking at health and nutrition, with Anne, or the students, bringing

in food from their respective countries.

Process

The next area to be examined when thinking about differentiated learning is

the process. Tomlinson et al. (2003) define process as how students learn or

master the content. Given that students learn in different ways, teachers are

encouraged to offer a variety of options for learning to best meets the needs

of individual students (Bender, 2012).

Anne will play a central role here in how students master the content, and as

such she should also bear in mind the importance of verbal communication

with her students, particularly those Dutch language learners. The links

between talk and improvements in language learning, particularly one to one

conversation, with either a teacher or in a group have been clearly

demonstrated (Lou et al., 1996). Where teachers differentiate and adjust their

language, these improvements have been shown to be even higher, and

likewise the supported use of the students mother tongue (even if the

teachers do not know or understand the language) is also beneficial (Hite &

Evans, 2006).

Small, flexible working groups have also been shown to work well in

classroom differentiation, particularly with language learners. Lou et al. (1996)

undertook a detailed meta-analysis of class group work, which found that

students working in groups of three or four people achieved more than

students working individually, and these students also had more positive

attitudes to learning. Additionally, group work provides opportunities for

informal social conversation, which can help in language acquisition (Hite &

Evans, 2006), and helps to improve understanding when interacting with

technology (Gormley & McDermott, 2014). Furthermore, classroom groups

should not necessarily be fixed: sometimes students benefit from working with

peers who have similar levels of readiness, sometimes with mixed levels, and

further groups can be formed based upon interests or learning styles

(Gamoran, 2002; Tomlinson, 2000).

Separate but related to the concept of group work is peer-to-peer teaching

and learning. While children helping children is a common activity in many

classrooms at primary level, assigning specific peers as aids for learning is

something that studies have found to be effective in improving understanding

amongst students, particularly with those for whom the native language is not

their mother tongue (Hite & Evans, 2006; Tomlinson, 2000; Whitsett &

Hubbard, 2009; Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001). For Anne, where possible

these pairings will include students that speak fluent Dutch and another one of

the languages, something that is likely to work particularly well with the

French speaking students.

Finally, changes in the availability and usage of technology have considerably

helped to change the face of differentiation within the classroom (Bender,

2012). While the benefits and challenges relating to technology in the

classroom should be left for another paper, it is fair to say that technology

itself offers numerous opportunities for a differentiated learning experience,

with numerous web tools and apps available for teachers (Gormley &

McDermott, 2014). Placing individual students in appropriate, engaging, and

considered computer-based programmes could be regarded as the epitome of

differentiated instruction as, if well-designed, these programmes can be

specifically targeted to students needs and interests (Bender, 2012).

Products

The third area for Anne to consider is product, or how students are able to

demonstrate what they have learned: the importance of which cannot be

underestimated. Teachers often utilise a range of materials and activities in

their classroom, but tend to always measure performance in the same way: in

other words, their attitudes and practices are contradictory (Tomlinson et al.,

2003). In addition, through varied demonstrations of learning, the teacher is

able to determine which students have mastered the material and which may

need further guidance (Bender, 2012). Cassidy (2011) also notes that student

self-monitoring and self-evaluation are important factors in the development of

self-regulated learners.

As such, teachers should be encouraged to ask frequent questions of their

students, as students are more likely to be engaged when they must produce

a product of some description whether its written or verbal (Tomlinson,

2000). However, teachers must ensure that asking oral questions have an

appropriate level of waiting, as teachers often call upon the fastest students

(i.e. those that raise their hands first), which means that students who may not

be as quick (such as those with Dutch as a second language for example),

simply remain invisible (Bender, 2012).

Assessment should also be varied, and include choices for the students to

demonstrate their knowledge: perhaps including art projects, role-play

minidramas, library or web-based research, multimedia projects, and written

or oral reports (Bender, 2012).

Informal, ongoing assessments are of particular importance to language

learners, including the use of observation, anecdotal records, performance

sampling, and portfolio assessment (Tomlinson, 2009; Whitsett & Hubbard,

2009). In addition, language learners tend to be given ample opportunities to

receive comprehensible and appropriate input through differentiated content

and processes, but opportunities to express what has been learnt (i.e. output)

are not always available (Hite & Evans, 2006): in other words, the focus is on

the student being taught rather than expressing what they have learnt:

something that Anne can seek to address.

Learning environment

The final element to explore in differentiated learning is the learning

environment, which should be supportive of self-regulated learning

(Zimmerman, 2002). Bender (2012) emphasises the role of ensuring that the

environment is safe and comfortable, to enable students to focus on new

material. He notes that research on learning has demonstrated that the brain

serves as a filter focusing first on sounds, sights, and other stimuli that may

be threatening, next, relating to emotional response information, and finally,

as a last priority, the brain processes information for new nonthreatening

learning tasks.

For language learners therefore, the importance of the environment is

paramount as, with a limited understanding of the school language, these

students have to rely on non-verbal cues, as to whether a place is safe,

supportive and so on. Therefore, for Anne the learning environment is crucial:

as such she could consider making a home corner or an area of the

classroom that is comfortable (Bender, 2012), perhaps with materials that

reflect a variety of cultures and home settings (Tomlinson, 2000). Other things

to consider include soft lighting, provision of water and fruits (Bender, 2012),

desks that are arranged in ways to support group work and collaboration (Hite

& Evans, 2006), and encouraging students to move around to learn if they

prefer (Tomlinson, 2000).

4. The role of self

In addition to understanding her students and their families, developing

appropriately differentiated content, activities and products, and creating an

effective learning environment, Anne would also benefit from spending time

critically appraising her own experiences, her identity, values and prejudices,

and her expectations of her students.

Reflecting upon Annes own experiences as a student is important given that

teachers tend to teach in the way they have been taught to learn (Guild &

Garger, 1998). Annes attitudes towards differentiated instruction will also play

a role in how successful its implementation is likely to be: one study found that

teachers whose preexisting beliefs aligned with the philosophy of addressing

academic diversity had more success with differentiating their teaching than

those teachers with contrasting beliefs (Brighton, 2003). Willis and Mann

(2000) also argue that Anne is likely to want to continue with differentiation,

and become increasingly energised, once she sees the results, with bright

students being fully stimulated and struggling students progressing and

engaged.

Understanding ones own cultural identity, values, and prejudices is also

central to helping understand what motivates (and demotivates) students

(Whitsett & Hubbard, 2009), Grades and competition do not always serve as

motivators for example, and so Anne may need to devise alternative

techniques to influence student interest and participation (Whitsett & Hubbard,

2009). This self-reflexivity will also stand Anne in good stead throughout her

career: as she bases her decisions on experiences and reflections, she will

gain better control of her teaching, and improve the learning of her students

(Tricarico & Yendol-Hoppey, 2012). Finally, if Anne is white, it will be

important for her to try to understand issues of representation and how her

whiteness shapes the way she regards students of colour (Ryan, 2006).

We also know that teachers may regard issues of diversity as deficits on the

part of the student, rather than seeing the responsibility for working with these

differences as lying with the teacher (Tomlinson et al., 2003). Research has

also shown that when two people interact, their minds influence each other,

and they can match one others moods and emotions, through voice volume,

tone, and even body language (Bender, 2012). As such, it is imperative to

ensure that Anne is committed to her classroom activities and approach, as it

is highly likely that her emotions will be reflected back from the students

through their moods, emotions, and actions.

Linked to this is the importance of high expectations and motivational beliefs

from teachers (Pintrich, 1999). The el pobrecito syndrome, refers to the belief

that children from poverty or other disadvantaged backgrounds (such as

immigrants) already have difficulty in their lives, and as such the schools

should not expect too much of them (Garca, Kleifgen, & Falchi, 2008; Hite &

Evans, 2006). Yet research has found that once children have mastered the

native language, that they quickly get up to speed in other areas (Hite &

Evans, 2006). As such, it is vital that teachers do not write off students,

simply because they may have perceived disadvantages.

5. Wider support mechanisms

The strategies above are by no means something that Anne would be able to

implement overnight. Nor are they processes that are straightforward to

implement. They require time, patience, reflexivity and careful consideration.

As Mehlinger notes:

To customize schooling for individual learners, rather than mass

produce students who have essentially been taught the same thing in

the same way in the same amount of time . . . is not a superficial

change; it is a deep cultural change. (As cited in Tomlinson et al, 2003,

p.133-4).

Anne would therefore benefit greatly from a wide range of support (Brighton,

2003), and also could be hindered without it (Hertberg-Davis & Brighton,

2006). At a strategic level, the Flemish Ministry of Education and Training

could provide greater support for differentiated learning through national

policy directives, perhaps in the form of strategies to support the concept of

individualisation (Tomlinson et al., 2003), or by making more time available for

teachers to undertake professional development and plan their classroom

activities.

At a regional and local level, Annes efforts could be supported through

partnerships between school and universities, which have been shown to help

improve the efficacy of teachers in meeting the needs of diverse learners

(Beasley, Gartin, Lincoln, & Penner-Williams, 2013).

The role of Annes school is also crucial in helping to support her efforts. They

could set up opportunities for peer-to-peer support (Willis & Mann, 2000);

make time available for teachers to work on content, process, and activities;

and provide opportunities to share best practice within and between schools.

The role of a senior leader who buys-in to the concept of differentiated

instruction is also vital: someone who is able to align staff development,

curriculum, and materials (Whitsett & Hubbard, 2009).

Professional development for Anne will also be beneficial, particularly with

respect to cultural diversity and language learning. Ryan (2006) argues that in

order to support culturally relevant teaching, professional development must

be directed toward enabling teachers to focus on their understanding of

themselves and others, their cultural knowledge, and their classrooms social

structure. Training from language specialists, particularly in terms of language

learning (Wang et al., 2008), will also benefit Anne.

Conclusions

This paper has presented the case of Anne, and explored various strategies

and approaches for her to meet the needs of her diverse class, particularly

those that do not speak Dutch as a first language.

Differentiating teaching successfully is not a straightforward process. Anne

will need to understand her students well, and acknowledge and appreciate

their individual differences, interests, cultures and learning styles. Anne will

benefit from developing a range of differentiation strategies within the

classroom, through examining the teaching content, processes, products and

the learning environment. Finally, she will also benefit from taking time to

understand her own identity, cultures, attitudes and prejudices, and how this

could impact upon her students. All of this will involve lots of time, patience

and reflexivity on the part of Anne, and would benefit from wider support from

the school and other partners.

However, as discussed in this paper, the rewards for her students, particularly

those that do not speak Dutch as a first language, will be great, and Anne is

likely to have renewed vigour and energy when she starts to see the positive

effects in her classroom. With time, her language learners will be able to

communicate more effectively, and all students (including the Dutch speakers)

are more likely to be engaged, productive, creative and autonomous

individuals (Tomlinson et al., 2003).

Differentiated instruction and its merits is perhaps summarised best in the

following quote from an elementary school Principal, taken from Guild and

Garger (1998):

Differences in our schools will always exist because teachers and

students are people, and a fundamental characteristic of people is

diversity. [However] I have often found it possible to transform

differences among children, teachers, parents, and administrators into

powerful educational assets [Marching to Different Drummers, ch.2,

para. 5].

Indeed, this is perhaps the central aim of differentiation, and arguably the goal

of all educators to embrace diversity, and use it for the purposes of learning

and growth for all.

References Bearne, E. (2002). Differentiation and Diversity in the Primary School. Oxford:

Taylor and Francis.

Beasley, J., Gartin, B., Lincoln, F., & Penner-Williams, J., (2013). Teacher

efficacy and practice in meeting the needs of diverse learners: How do

partnerships support teachers? SRATE Journal 22(2). Retrieved from ERIC

database (EJ1015770).

Bender, W.N. (2012). Differentiating Instruction for Students With Learning

Disabilities: New Best Practices for General and Special Educators (Third

Edition). Retrieved from http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/50371_Bender_Ch1.pdf

Biggs, J. (1996). Enhancing teaching through constructive alignment. Higher

Education 32, 347-364.

Brighton, C.M. (2003). The effects of middle school teachers beliefs on

classroom practices. Journal for the Education of the Gifted 27(2/3). Retrieved

from ERIC database (EJ787919).

Cassidy, S. (2011). Self-regulated learning in higher education: Identifying key

component processes. Studies in Higher Education 36(8), 989-1000.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2002). Flow: The psychology of happiness: The classic

work on how to achieve happiness. London: Rider.

Delpit, L. (1995). Other peoples children: Cultural conflict in the classroom.

New York: The New Press.

Gamoran, A. (2002). Standards, inequality and ability grouping in schools.

Briefing No.25. Edinburgh: CES Briefings.

Garca, O., Kleifgen, J.A., & Falchi, L. (2008). From English language learners

to emergent bilinguals. Equity Matters: Research Review No. 1. Teachers

College, Columbia University: Columbia.

Gormley, K., & McDermott, P. (2014). Differentiating literary instruction

theres an app for that! Language and Literacy Spectrum 24. Retrieved from http://www.nysreading.org/sites/default/files/Differentiating%20Literacy%20Instructio

n%E2%80%94There%E2%80%99s%20an%20App%20for%20That_0.pdf

Guild, P.B., & Garger, S. (1998). Marching to different drummers. Alexandria,

VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/198186.aspx

Hertberg-Davis, H.L., & Brighton, C.M. (2006). Support and sabotage:

Principals influence on middle school teachers responses to differentiation.

The Journal of Secondary Gifted Education 17(2). Retrieved from ERIC

database (EJ746048).

Hite, C.E., & Evans, L.S. (2006). Mainstream first-grade teachers

understanding of strategies for accommodating the needs of English language

learners. Teacher Education Quarterly 33(2), 89-110.

Hootstein, E. (1998). Differentiation of instructional methodologies in subject-

based curricula at the secondary level: Research Brief 38. Metropolitan

Educational Research Consortium: Richmond, VA.

Lou, Y., Abram, P.C., Spence, J.C., Paulsen, C., Chambers, B. & dApollonia,

S. (1996). Within-Class Grouping: A Meta-Analysis. Review of Educational

Research. 66(4), 423-458.

Mayer, R.E. (2004). Should there be a three-strikes rule against pure

discovery learning? American Psychologist 59(1), 14-19.

Pintrich, P.R. (1999). The role of motivation in promoting and sustaining self-

regulated learning. International Journal of Educational Research 31, 459-70.

Reis, S.M., & Boeve, H. (2009). How academically gifted elementary, urban

students respond to challenge in an enriched, differentiated reading program.

Journal for the Education of the Gifted 33(2). Retrieved from ERIC database

(EJ871028).

Richardson, J.T.E. (2005). Students approaches to learning and teachers

approaches to teaching in Higher Education. Educational Psychology 25(6),

673-80.

Ryan, A.M. (2006). The role of social foundations in preparing teachers for

culturally relevant practice. Multicultural Education 13(3), 10-13.

Shujaa, M.J. (1995). Cultural self meets cultural other in the African American

experience: Teachers' responses to a curriculum content reform. Theory into

Practice (34)3, 194-201.

Stanford, B., & Reeves, S. (2009). Making it happen: Using differentiated

instruction, retrofit framework and universal design for learning. Teaching

Exceptional Children Plus 5(6), 2-9.

Tomlinson, C.A. (1999). Mapping a route toward differentiated instruction.

Personalized Learning 57(1), 12-16.

Tomlinson, C.A. (2000). Differentiation of Instruction in the Elementary

Grades. (ERIC Digest). Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED443572)

Tomlinson, C.A., & Allan, S.D. (2000). Leadership for Differentiating Schools

& Classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum

Development.

Tomlinson, C.A., Brighton, C., Hertberg, H., Callahan, C.M., Moon, T.R.,

Brimijoin, K., Reynolds, T. (2003). Differentiating Instruction in Response to

Student Readiness, Interest, and Learning Profile in Academically Diverse

Classrooms: A Review of Literature. Journal for the Education of the Gifted 27

(2/3), 119-145.

Tomlinson, C.A., & Eidson, C.C. (2003). Differentiation in Practice: A

Resource Guide for Differentiating Curriculum. Alexandria, VA: Association for

Supervision and Curriculum Development. Retrieved from

http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/2003a_tomlinson/2003a_tomlinsontoc

.html

Tricarico, K., & Yendol-Hoppey, D. (2012). Teacher learning through self-

regulation: An exploratory study of alternatively prepared teachers ability to

plan differentiated instruction in an urban elementary school. Teacher

Education Quarterly 39(1). Retrieved from ERIC database (EJ977360).

Wang, Y., Many, J., & Krumenaker, L. (2008). Understanding the experiences

and needs of mainstream teachers of ESL students: Reflections from a

secondary social studies teacher. TEAL Canada Journal 25(2). Retrieved

from ERIC database (EJ806792).

Whitsett, G., & Hubbard, J. (2009). Supporting English language learners in

the elementary and secondary classrooms: How to get started. SRATE

Journal 18(2), 41-47.

Willis, S., & Mann, L. (2000). Differentiating instruction: Finding manageable

ways to meet individual needs. Curriculum Update. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/ed_topics/cu2000win_willis.html

Zimmerman, B.J. (2002). Becoming a self-regulated learner: An overview. Theory into Practice 41(2), 64-71.

Zimmerman, B.J., & Schunk, D.H. (Eds.). (2001). Self-regulated learning and

academic achievement: Theoretical perspectives. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence

Erlbaum Associates.