Same Model Different Uses: Similarities and Differences of

Thesis title goes hereSame Model Different Uses: Similarities and Differences of Abraham’s Model Used
in Galatians 3 and Romans 4
by
Yan Ma
A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Wycliffe College and the Graduate Centre for Theological Studies of the Toronto School of Theology. In partial fulfilment of
the requirements for the degree of Master of Theology awarded by Wycliffe College and the University of Toronto.
© Copyright by Yan Ma 2019
ii
Galatians 3 and Romans 4
Yan Ma
2019
Abstract
Paul uses the same model of Abraham differently in supporting his arguments of
Galatians 3 and Romans 4 because he presents the truth of the same gospel from different
angles due to the similarities and the differences of the historical contexts, namely the
addressees and the purposes, of Galatians and Romans. In order to persuade Galatian
believers to persist in the truth of the gospel, Paul adopts Abraham’s model in Galatians
to stress that Gentile Christians receive the righteous status by faith in Christ without the
requirement of Jewish identity. In order to mend the potential or real division between
Jewish believers and Gentile believers in Roman churches, Paul adopts Abraham’s
model to underline that both Jewish Christians and Gentile Christians receive the
righteous status by the same faith.
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Contents
Galatians 2:15-17......................................................................................................... 3
Romans 3:27-30......................................................................................................... 15
Romans 4:4-8............................................................................................................. 19
Romans 4:9-21........................................................................................................... 21
Romans 4:22-25......................................................................................................... 23
Chapter 3: Comparison of Abraham’s Model in Galatians and Romans ............................. 26
Chapter 4: The Historical Contexts of Galatians and Romans .............................................. 29
The Historical Context of Galatians .......................................................................... 29
The Historical Context of Romans ............................................................................ 33
Comparison of the Historical Contexts of Galatians and Romans ............................ 36
Chapter 5: Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 40
1
Introduction
Abraham, the first proselyte who converted from idolatry to God worship, was highly
regarded by Jews and Jewish Christians as well as Gentile Christians at Paul’s time. The
significance of Abraham’s model in Galatians 3:6 and Romans 4:3 to support Paul’s
argument is generally acknowledged by biblical scholars. Understanding the uses of
Abraham’s model in Galatians 3 and Romans 4, especially the similarities and the
differences, is important for better understanding the two letters. Most scholars are aware
that Paul uses the same model of Abraham differently in Galatians 3 and Romans 4,
whereas its uses in the two letters have not been appropriately compared to indicate the
reason why Paul uses it similarly and differently. This paper proposes that Paul adopts
the same model of Abraham differently in supporting his arguments of Galatians 3 and
Romans 4 because he presents the truth of the same gospel from different angles due to
the similarities and the differences of the historical contexts, namely the addressees and
the purposes, of Galatians and Romans.
To verify this proposition, the paper adopts the comparative approach, which means to
discover and discriminate between the similarities and the differences. 1 Generally, the
comparative study includes three processes. They are selection, description, and
comparison. The selection is to choose the sources to be compared and the reason for
comparison. The description is to describe each comparative source with its significance.
The comparison, being the most essential and important step for the comparative study,
is to compare the similarities and the differences of the comparative sources. The
conclusion of the comparative study is generated based on the result of the comparative
process. 2
1 Robert S. Kawashima, “Comparative Literature and Biblical Studies: The Case of Allusion,” Prooftexts
27, no. 2 (Apr 2007): 330.
2 According to Freiberger, the comparative process may include the selection, description, comparison, re-
description, and rectification. The first three operations are inherent for all comparative studies, whereas
the latter two only apply to particular studies. Based on the research conducted in this paper, first three
operations will be used.
2
This paper chooses Galatians and Romans as two sources to be compared because of the
same model of Abraham cited by Paul in both letters. The texts of Galatians and Romans,
Greek as well as English, are examined respectively on their own terms to describe
Paul’s uses of Abraham’s model in supporting his arguments. Based on this description,
this study compares the similarities and the differences of Abraham’s model used in the
comparative sources. The paper then compares the historical contexts of the two letters
and verifies that Paul adopts the same model of Abraham differently in supporting his
arguments of Galatians 3 and Romans 4 because he presents the truth of the same gospel
from different angles due to the similarities and the differences of the addressees and the
purposes of Galatians and Romans. This comparative work will contribute to Pauline
study in terms of a better interpretation of both letters.
See Oliver Freiberger, “Elements of a Comparative Methodology in the Study of Religion,” Religions 9, no.
2 (Jan 2018): 8-10.
Chapter 1 Abraham’s Model in Galatians
This chapter conducts an exegetical analysis of Galatians 3. The text of Galatians on its
own terms, Greek as well as English, is examined in order to analyze Paul’s use of
Abraham’s model in supporting his argument.
1.1 Galatians 2:15-17
In Galatians 2:15-17, Paul explains his position in the Antioch incident. This section
prepares for the main argument made with Abraham’s model. 3 As Paul clearly states in
Galatians 2:11-14, his accusation against Peter in the Antioch incident is Peter’s
withdrawal from the table fellowship with the Gentile believers, which leads to the other
Jewish believers in the church of Antioch, including Barnabas, join Peter in his
hypocrisy. This action of the Jewish Christians may force the Gentile Christians to
follow Jewish customs if they want to maintain the table fellowship with these Jewish
Christians. Paul expresses his strong opposition to demanding a Jewish way of life on
Gentile Christians in addition to their faith in Christ. However, this analogous situation
of the Antioch incident reoccurred in the Galatian churches, thus Paul writes the letter to
the Galatians and objects to adding the Jewish identity as a necessary component of the
gospel. 4
It could be inferred from the narrative of Galatians 2:11-14 that the disputation between
Paul and his fellow Jewish believers is the condition on which Gentile Christians receive
the righteous status and thus can be counted acceptable to God. 5 In principle, Jewish
3 James D. G. Dunn, The Epistle to the Galatians, Black’s New Testament Commentaries (Peabody:
Hendrickson Publishers, 1993), 132.
4 See Dunn, The Epistle to the Galatians, 129-30; James D. G. Dunn, The New Perspective on Paul, Rev.
ed. (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2008), 50; E. P. Sanders, Paul, the Law, and the
Jewish People (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1983), 18.
5 The disputation in Galatians between Paul and his fellow Jewish believers is the condition on which
Gentile Christians can be accepted by God rather than justification by faith or by the works of the law.
4
people expect Gentiles to join the people of God in the messianic period but have no
specific regulations for the condition of their admission. The normal practice according
to the Jewish tradition is that the Gentiles should be incorporated into the Jewish nation
in order to join the people of God. Following this traditional practice, some Jewish
Christians insist on the same condition to be maintained for Gentile Christians. This is
most likely the case of the Judaizers in Galatian Churches, who try to convince the
Gentile believers to be circumcised and to observe the Jewish law, as the condition for
them to enter the people of God. 6
Contrary to the view of his fellow Jewish believers, Paul claims that Gentile Christians
receive the righteous status and thus are accepted as the people of God on the condition
of faith in Christ alone with no requirement of adding Jewish identity. In Galatians 2:15-
16, Paul explicitly indicates that justification by faith in Christ rather than by the works
of the law is the common knowledge and common experience among Jewish Christians. 7
In the traditional Jewish view, “the works of the law” denotes the obligations that the law
requires for Jewish people to maintain the covenant righteousness and to retain their
The debate on Judaism and Paul exists between the Lutheran perspective scholars and the new perspective
scholars. The Lutheran perspective scholars claim that the first-century Judaism is a religion of legalistic
works-righteousness and the center of Pauline theology is “justification by faith”. However, Sanders offers
a new perspective on Judaism and Paul according to his study of the Jewish literature from 200 B.C.E. to
200 C.E. The first-century Judaism is a religion of “covenantal nomism” based on God’s grace and election
rather than a religion of legalistic works-righteousness. Actually, the human works are discussed within the
framework of God’s covenant, which is established on the divine election. According to the Jewish
tradition, the human works are regarded as demonstrating the gratitude and faithfulness to God rather than
earning the reward of righteousness. In the Pauline letters, no textual evidence of assumed objection to
Jewish legalism can be found. The center of Pauline theology is “participation in Christ” rather than
“justification by faith”. Many scholars, such as Wright and Dunn, espouse Sanders’ new perspective and
build their works on Sanders’ pioneering research.
See E. P. Sanders, Paul and Palestinian Judaism: A Comparison of Patterns of Religion (Philadelphia:
Fortress Press, 1977), 233, 419-20, 549-50; Sanders, Paul, the Law, and the Jewish People, 156.
6 See Dunn, The Epistle to the Galatians, 130; Dunn, The New Perspective on Paul, 39-40; Sanders, Paul,
the Law, and the Jewish People, 18-19, 29.
7 See Dunn, The Epistle to the Galatians, 134-36; G. W. Hansen, Abraham in Galatians: Epistolary and
Rhetorical Contexts (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1989), 100-2; Sanders, Paul, the Law, and the Jewish People,
19.
5
status as the covenant people. 8 Nevertheless, the Jewish believers, who are “Jews by
birth”, understand that no one will be justified by the works of the law. As a result, they
believe in Christ in order to be justified by faith.
Paul further explains in Galatians 2:17 that the Jewish people have no privileged status
before God in terms of justification by faith in Christ. Jewish identity has no impact on
justification and thus earns no privilege from God. Not only Gentiles but also Jews are
sinners. Both are justified by faith in Christ apart from the works of the law. Faith in
Christ is the only condition of receiving the righteous status and being counted
acceptable to God, without distinction between Jews and Gentiles. Therefore, there is no
need for Gentile Christians to be circumcised or to observe the Jewish law after their
being justified by faith. 9 The statement in the passage of Galatians 2:15-17 reflects the
core of Paul’s gospel, which acts as the fundamental conviction of his position in the
Antioch incident. 10
Galatians 2:15-17 provides the basis for Paul’s main argument made
with Abraham’s model. 11
8 According to the typical Jewish understanding, God gave the law to his covenant people, namely the
Jewish people, for them to live within the covenant.
See Dunn, The Epistle to the Galatians, 134.
9 See Dunn, The Epistle to the Galatians, 141; Hansen, Abraham in Galatians, 104.
10 Dunn, The New Perspective on Paul, 43.
11 The Lutheran perspective scholars assert that Abraham’s faith has been interpreted in terms of his
righteous deeds in the Jewish tradition. As described in the Jewish literature, Abraham is the great father
who kept the oral law of God, received the promise from God, entered into the covenant with God, was
circumcised as the sign of the covenant, and was proved to be faithful in all his temptations. Abraham’s
firm trust in God and his obedience to God are counted as his meritorious work, therefore he was credited
with righteousness by God as a reward.
See Hans Dieter Betz, Galatians: A Commentary on Paul’s Letter to the Churches in Galatia, Hermeneia –
A Critical and Historical Commentary on the Bible (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1979), 139; F. F. Bruce,
The Epistle to the Galatians: A Commentary on the Greek Text, The New International Greek Testament
Commentary (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1982), 153; Ronald Y. K. Fung, The
Epistle to the Galatians, New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: William B.
Eerdmans Publishing, 1988), 135; Richard N. Longenecker, Galatians, Word Biblical Commentary (Dallas:
Word Books, 1990), 110-11; Douglas J. Moo, Galatians, Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New
Testament (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2013), 188.
However, Sanders’ study of the Jewish literature from 200 B.C.E. to 200 C.E indicates that the human
works are discussed within the framework of God’s covenant, which is established on the divine election.
6
1.2 Galatians 3:6
Before introducing Abraham’s model in Galatians 3:6, Paul reminds Galatian Christians
in Galatians 3:1-5 about their own experience of receiving the Spirit. Instead of the
works of the law, Galatian believers received the Spirit by believing the gospel preached
to them by Paul. They have already received the righteous status and been accepted by
God because of their faith in Christ, a fact which can be testified by Abraham’s being
credited with righteousness by faith. However, after beginning by receiving the Spirit
through faith, Galatian Christians are trying to finish by doing the works of the law. Paul
thus appeals to their own experience to confirm the reliability of his instruction and to
embark on the main section of his exposition. 12
Not surprisingly, Paul cites Abraham’s model from Genesis 15:6 in Galatians 3:6 as the
scriptural evidence that Gentile Christians are counted acceptable to God on the
condition of faith in Christ alone. On the one hand, the Judaizers in Galatian churches,
who understand justification by faith but insist on circumcision and the Jewish law,
probably relied on the narrative of Abraham from the Scripture to convince the Galatian
Christians of their teaching. Paul thus adopts the same Scripture to demonstrate the
validity of his gospel in order to win his Gentile converts back. On the other hand,
Abraham, as the first proselyte who converted from idolatry to God worship, is highly
regarded among Jews, Jewish Christians, and Gentile Christians. The conversion of
Abraham is of the same type as the conversion of the Gentile believers in Galatian
Accordingly, Abraham’s righteous deeds are discussed under the premise of rather than as the explanation
of his being credited with righteousness through faith by God. Abraham’s righteous deeds are regarded as
demonstrating his gratitude and faithfulness to God rather than earning him the reward of righteousness.
See Sanders, Paul and Palestinian Judaism, 419-20.
12 See Dunn, The Epistle to the Galatians, 160; Hansen, Abraham in Galatians, 112.
7
Churches, hence Abraham’s being accepted by God through faith serves as the test case
for Paul’s Gentile converts. 13
Paul affirms in Galatians 2:15-17 and 3:1-5 that justification by faith in Christ rather than
by the works of the law is the common knowledge and common experience among both
Jewish Christians and Gentile Christians. On the basis of this common ground, Paul uses
Abraham’s model to argue that Gentile believers receive the righteous status by faith in
Christ alone. 14
The logic of Paul’s argument is: as both Jewish Christians and Gentile
Christians know and experience, God justifies people by faith in Christ, but not by the
works of the law; God accepts people who are justified, thus God accepts people by faith
in Christ without consideration of the works of the law; therefore, the people of God are
always defined by faith in Christ alone.
In Galatians 3:7-9, Paul argues from the positive aspect that the condition for Gentiles to
receive the righteous status is faith in Christ. Those who have faith are children of
Abraham and can be blessed along with Abraham. As it is written in the Scripture, God
13 See Dunn, The Epistle to the Galatians, 160-61; N. T. Wright, Pauline Perspectives: Essays on Paul,
1978-2013 (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2013), 555, 571-72.
14 According to the Lutheran perspective scholars, Paul cites Abraham’s model from Genesis 15:6 in
Galatians 3:6 as the scriptural evidence to prove the fact that Abraham was credited with righteousness by
faith but not by the works of the law so that he can use Abraham’s model to instruct the doctrine of
justification by faith and to argue against the false teaching of the Judaizers.
See Betz, Galatians, 140-41; Bruce, The Epistle to the Galatians, 152; Fung, The Epistle to the Galatians,
135-136; Longenecker, Galatians, 111-13; Moo, Galatians, 187-88.
However, as this paper demonstrates, Paul has no need to prove that Abraham was credited with
righteousness by faith, a fact which has already been acknowledged by both Jewish Christians and Gentile
Christians. Instead of instructing justification by faith itself, Paul adopts the doctrine of justification to
explain the way of being accepted by God. In Galatians, Paul uses Abraham’s model as a test case for
Gentile believers of receiving the righteous status by faith alone and objects to adding the Jewish identity
to Gentile Christians by being circumcised and observing the Jewish law.
See Dunn, The Epistle to the Galatians, 160-62; Dunn, The New Perspective on Paul, 43-44; Hansen,
Abraham in Galatians, 199; Sanders, Paul and Palestinian Judaism, 422-23; Sanders, Paul, the Law, and
the Jewish People, 26-27, 102; Wright, Pauline Perspectives, 561, 569-70, 584; N. T. Wright, “The Paul of
History and the Apostle of Faith,” Tyndale Bulletin 29 (1978): 82.
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“προευηγγελσατο (announced the gospel in advance)” to Abraham that all nations will
be blessed through him. 15
In light of Paul’s reading, the promise of God to Abraham
reveals His will that God intended to justify the Gentiles by faith from the very
beginning. This divine promise is characterized by faith and thus becomes effective
through Abraham by faith alone. Consequently, the Gentiles who have faith like
Abraham are equally acceptable to God according to the promise given to Abraham in
advance. 16
The passage of Galatians 3:7-9 proves the fact that the Gentile Christians in
Galatian churches have already been accepted by God without circumcision and the
Jewish law. They are children of Abraham and can be blessed along with Abraham
because of their faith in Christ.
In Galatians 3:10-12, Paul argues from the negative aspect that the condition for Gentiles
to receive the righteous status is not the works of the law. Those who rely on the works
of the law are under a curse and cannot be justified by God. As it is written in the
Scripture, people who observe the law are required to keep doing everything commanded
by the law. In terms of this requirement of the law, Paul concludes that the law is not
based on faith and thus cannot be the requirement of establishing the right relationship
with God. Obviously, no one who relies on the law can be justified by God because God
justifies people by faith. Paul provides the reason for his Gentile converts that they
should not accept the law. 17
The passage of Galatians 3:10-12 reinforces Paul’s argument
15 The Greek word “προευαγγελζομαι” in Romans 3:8, which means “proclaim good news in advance,” is
its only occurrence in the Pauline letters as well as in the New Testament. Paul uses this word to indicate
that the essentiality of God’s promise given to Abraham is the gospel or the prediction of the gospel,
revealing God’s intention to justify the Gentiles by faith alone.
See Walter Bauer and Frederick William Danker, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and
Other Early Christian Literature. 3rd ed. (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2000), 869.
16 See Dunn, The Epistle to the Galatians, 162-64; Dunn, The New Perspective on Paul, 43; Hansen,
Abraham in Galatians, 113-14; Sanders, Paul, the Law, and the Jewish People, 21.
17 See Dunn, The Epistle to the Galatians, 169; Dunn, The New Perspective on Paul, 43; Hansen,
Abraham in Galatians, 117; N. T. Wright, The Climax of the Covenant: Christ and the Law in Pauline
Theology (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1991), 155; Sanders, Paul, the Law, and the Jewish People, 20-22; Christopher Zoccali, “What’s the Problem with the Law? Jews, Gentiles, and Covenant Identity in
Galatians 3:10-12,” Neotestamentica 49, no. 2 (2015): 411.
9
that Gentile Christians in Galatian churches are counted acceptable to God by faith rather
than by the works of the law. They have no need to add the Jewish identity because they
are justified by faith in Christ.
The same Greek preposition “κ (of)” used in Galatians 3:9 and 3:10 clearly indicates
two groups of contrasts, faith with the works of the law and bless with curse. 18
By these
contrasts, Paul argues that Gentiles receive the righteous status on the condition of faith
in Christ apart from the works of the law from both the positive aspect (Galatians 3:7-9)
and the negative aspect (Galatians 3:10-12). In Galatians 3:13-14, Paul summarizes his
argument by elaborating how the blessing given to Abraham has come to the Gentiles.
Christ has redeemed His people from the curse of the law by His death. Because of
Christ’s redemption, the Gentiles can participate in the blessing given to Abraham and
can receive the promise of the Spirit by faith in Christ. 19
Paul assures his Gentile
converts in Galatian churches that they have been justified and thus accepted by God, the
fact is evidenced by their receiving the Spirit. Faith in Christ alone is sufficient for them
to receive the righteous status and thus enter the people of God, with no need of adding
the Jewish identity.
The section of Galatians 3:15-22 expounds the relationship between the law and the
promise by contrasting these two elements. In Galatians 3:15-18, Paul asserts that neither
18 The Greek word “κ” functions as the preposition and can be rendered as “from,” “away from,” “of,” or
“out of.” In Galatians 3:9 and 3:10, Paul might use the preposition “κ” to denote the origin of the groups
of people, namely the people of faith (Galatians 3:9) and the people of the works of the law (Galatians
3:10). The English Bibles, NIV and NRSV, translate “κ” as “rely on.”
See Bauer and Danker, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian
Literature, 296.
19 See Normand Bonneau, “The Logic of Paul’s Argument on the Curse of the Law in Galatians 3:10-14,”
Novum Testamentum 39, no. 1 (1997): 79; Terence L. Donaldson, “The Curse of the Law and the Inclusion
of the Gentiles: Galatians 3:13-14,” New Testament Studies 32, no. 1 (Jan 1986): 105-6; Dunn, The Epistle
to the Galatians, 169-70; Dunn, The New Perspective on Paul, 43-44; Hansen, Abraham in Galatians, 121-
22; Sanders, Paul, the Law, and the Jewish People, 22; Wright, Pauline Perspectives, 574-75; Wright, The
Climax of the Covenant, 156.
10
the covenant previously established by God nor the divine promise given to Abraham can
be abolished by the law, which is added 430 years later. God bestowed the inheritance
freely to Abraham through a promise, thus the inheritance depends on the promise rather
than on the law. Paul is convinced that God’s will is persistent and is to be actualized.
God has determined the character and effectiveness of the inheritance given to Abraham
as a promise, which cannot be changed by the law. Moreover, Paul emphasizes that it is
because of the divine grace and the divine initiative that God bestowed the inheritance as
a gift. Therefore, the inheritance of Abraham can only be received on the basis of
promise, but not be earned on the basis of the law. 20
If God initially bestowed the inheritance to Abraham through a promise but not through
the law, then there might be no benefit from the law, which was subsequently given by
angels and entrusted to a mediator. In response to this question, Paul then explains the
purpose of the law in Galatians 3:19-20. In the period before the problem of
transgressions could be definitively resolved through the redemption of Christ, the law
was added for the sake of transgressions. It seems that the law played a positive but
interim role in dealing with the problem of transgressions until the coming of Christ, to
whom the promise of God referred. Apparently, the law was not assigned to justify
people but to provide a remedy for transgressions in the salvation plan of God. God is
one, who always justifies people by faith, with no difference between Jews and
Gentiles. 21
Further exposition is presented in Galatians 3:21-22 that the role of the law is consistent
with the role of the promise in terms of preparing for the coming of salvation through
Christ. Instead of being opposed to the promise of God, the law functions differently
from the promise. Paul explicitly excludes righteousness by the works of the law from
20 See Dunn, The Epistle to the Galatians, 185-87; Hansen, Abraham in Galatians, 127-28; Sanders, Paul,
the Law, and the Jewish People, 26; Wright, Pauline Perspectives, 575; Wright, The Climax of the
Covenant, 173-74.
21 See Dunn, The Epistle to the Galatians, 188-90; Hansen, Abraham in Galatians, 130; Sanders, Paul, the
Law, and the Jewish People, 26-27; Wright, Pauline Perspectives, 576.
11
God’s intention. According to the will of God, the designated role for the law is not to
give life so that the law cannot bring righteousness. 22
The law was originally given in
order to regulate the covenant people rather than to establish the right relationship with
God. It is the power of God that is able to give life through Christ and thus righteousness
can only come from God by faith. As it is written in the Scripture, everyone has been
confined under the control of sin and are justified by faith in Christ. Consequently, only
those who believe in Christ can share the promise given to Abraham and can be credited
with righteousness like Abraham. In other words, People of God is always defined by
faith in Christ rather than by the works of the law. 23
1.5 Galatians 3:23-4:7
The section of Galatians 3:23-4:7 expounds the relationship between the law and faith in
Christ, through which the fulfilled promise is given. The contrast between the law and
the promise in the preceding section turns to the contrast between the law and faith. In
Galatians 3:23-25, Paul describes that the law served as a protective guardian in the
period prior to the coming of Christ. 24
People were held in custody under the law until
they might be justified by faith through the redemption of Christ. As he previously
22 The Greek verb “ζοποιω” in Romans 3:21 means “to cause to live,” “to make alive,” or “to give life
to,” especially in a transcendent sense. This is the only occurrence of “ζοποιω” in Galatians. Paul uses
the same verb twice in Romans, 4:17 and 8:11 respectively. In both verses, “ζοποιω” refers to God’s
power of giving life. Obviously, what Paul means in Romans 3:21 is: the law is not opposed to the promise
of God, only that it has no ability to give life, which is the power of God. The law does not bring
righteousness simply because its intended function is not to give life.
Literature, 431-32.
23 See Dunn, The Epistle to the Galatians, 192-93; Hansen, Abraham in Galatians, 130-31; Sanders, Paul,
the Law, and the Jewish People, 26-27; Wright, Pauline Perspectives, 576.
24 Two Greek verbs “φρουρω (to hold in custody or to guard)” and “συγκλεω (to confine or to
imprison)” in Galatians 3:23 are not necessarily the pejorative terms, especially “φρουρω” which also
have the meaning of “to provide security” or “to protect.” Paul’s emphasis in Galatians 3:23 is probably to
indicate law’s function as a protective guardian before the coming of Christ rather than to criticize law’s
imprisoning people. This idea is confirmed in Galatians 4:1-5.
Literature, 952, 1066-67.
12
defines the role of the law as dealing with transgressions, Paul confirms this definition by
further elaborating that the law provided some protection against sin. Now that Christ has
come, in whom the promise of God to Abraham has been actualized. Therefore, people
have no need to be controlled under the guardian because the faith in Christ is possible
and they can be justified by faith. Those who believe are no longer under the law. Paul
expresses his view of the law, which may be regarded as the guide to faith and thus to
salvation through Christ. 25
In Galatians 3:26-29, Paul deliberately addresses to his Gentile converts in Galatian
churches and ensures their status as children of God, Abraham’s seed, and heirs
according to the promise. It is in Christ that all believers are children of God through
faith. They have identified with Christ because of their being baptized into Christ. 26
Whether Jew or Gentile, slave or free, male or female, believers are all one in Christ.
These racial, social and gender differences have been integrated into the common
participation in Christ and are no longer the barriers among believers. Despite these
differences, they receive the righteous status by faith in Christ. Those who have faith
belong to Christ, thus they are Abraham’s seed and heirs according to the promise. All
believers participate in the promise given to Abraham, through which they share the
inheritance bestowed to Abraham. 27
Paul further explains the status of the Gentile Christians as children and thus heirs of God
in Galatians 4:1-7. People were enslaved under the elemental spiritual forces of the world
and had no access to the inheritance of Abraham before the coming of Christ. At the
predestined time, God sent His Son to redeem those under the law. Due to the
25 See Dunn, The Epistle to the Galatians, 197-99; Hansen, Abraham in Galatians, 133; Sanders, Paul, the
Law, and the Jewish People, 26-27.
26 The Greek verb “νδω (to clothe oneself)” in Galatians 3:27 is used as a metaphor, which means “to
take on characteristics, virtues, or intentions.” In the Pauline letters, the expression of clothing oneself with
Christ is always used to describe believers’ identification with Christ.
Literature, 333-34; Dunn, The Epistle to the Galatians, 204.
27 See Dunn, The Epistle to the Galatians, 207-8; Hansen, Abraham in Galatians, 136-39.
13
redemption of Christ, all believers receive adoption to sonship by their faith in Christ. 28
Joining God’s family as sons, believers receive the Spirit of God’s Son and own the
rights of succession. They are no longer slaves but are children and heirs of God. 29
As
for Galatian Christians, their status as children and heirs of God have already been
secured by their faith in Christ and attested by their receiving the Spirit, with no need of
adding the Jewish identity.
Paul’s argument made with Abraham’s model is well established throughout Galatians
3:6-4:7, in light of God’s promise to Abraham. In the passage of Galatians 4:22-31, Paul
provides an additional proof for his argument by presenting a series of contrasts with
reference to Abraham’s two sons. One son, Ishmael, was born by a slave woman
according to the flesh. The other son, Isaac, was born by a free woman as the result of the
divine promise through the power of the Spirit. According to Paul’s exegesis of the
Scripture in Galatians 4:22-27, the two women are the analogy of the two covenants. The
slave woman, Hagar, represents the covenant from Mount Sinai and corresponds to the
present city of Jerusalem. The free woman, Sarah, represents the covenant of promise
and corresponds to the Jerusalem above. 30
In Galatians 4:28-31, Paul reassures Galatian Christians that they are children of promise
born through the power of the Spirit. Following the Jewish tradition, the Judaizers take
for granted that the covenant promise was given to Isaac, Sarah’s son, and his
28 The Greek word “υοθεσα (adoption)” in Galatians 4:5 means the legal procedure to create a parent-
child relation between persons not related by blood, with the adopted child being entitled to all privileges
belonging to a natural child, including the right to inherit. Paul uses “υοθεσα (adoption)” as a metaphor to
describe the relationship between God and believers. Anyone who has faith in Christ is accepted by God as
the adopted child entitled to full rights.
Literature, 1024; Dunn, The Epistle to the Galatians, 217.
29 Dunn, The Epistle to the Galatians, 217-18.
30 Dunn, The Epistle to the Galatians, 243-44.
14
descendants rather than Ishmael, Hagar’s son, and his descendants. The Judaizers regard
the ethnic identity of Isaac’s descendants as the prerequisite for receiving the promise of
God to Abraham. However, by emphasizing Isaac’s status as the child of promise, Paul
claims that it is Isaac’s descendants born through the power of the Spirit, regardless of
their ethnic identities, who will receive the promise given to Abraham. As it is written in
the Scripture, it is the son of the free woman who will receive the inheritance. Paul’s
Gentile converts, who have received the Spirit, are children of the free woman rather than
the slave woman and own the right of inheritance through the promise given to
Abraham. 31
31 See Dunn, The Epistle to the Galatians, 256; Hansen, Abraham in Galatians, 147-50.
15
Chapter 2 Abraham’s Model in Romans
This chapter conducts an exegetical analysis of Romans 4. The text of Romans on its
own terms, Greek as well as English, is examined in order to analyze Paul’s use of
Abraham’s model in supporting his argument.
2.1 Romans 3:27-30
In Romans 3:27-30, Paul stresses that the boasting about the law should be excluded
because the one God justifies both Jews and Gentiles by faith in Christ without regard to
the works of the law. 32
This section prepares for the main argument made with
Abraham’s model. As Paul criticizes in Romans 2:17-23, the Jews rely on the law and
boast that they know the will, the knowledge, and the truth of God because they are
instructed by the law. 33
They are convinced that they can be the guide and teacher of the
Gentiles, who have no law to direct them. This boasting thus can be properly defined as
the Jewish pride in the law due to their election by God. 34
For Jewish people, the
32 Throughout Paul’s argument made with Abraham’s model, the idea of boasting appears seven times and
is expressed by three Greek words (Romans 2:17, 2:23, 3:27, 4:2, 5:2, 5:3, 5:11). In Romans 2:17, 2:23,
5:2, 5:3, and 5:11, Paul uses the verb “καυχομαι,” which means “to take pride in something,” “to boast,”
“to glory,” or “to pride oneself.” In Romans 3:27, Paul uses the noun “καχησις,” which means “act of
taking pride in something,” or “boasting.” In Romans 4:2, Paul uses the noun “καχημα,” which means
“act of taking pride in something,” or “something constituted a source of pride or boast.” It is most likely
that these three Greek words share the same root so as to share the same main meaning. Given the
immediate context of each verse, Paul probably refers to the same kind of boasting in Romans 2:17, 2:23,
3:27, and 4:2, namely the Jewish boasting about their covenant privilege because of the Jewish law. In
Romans 5:2, 5:3 and 5:11, Paul adopts the same Greek word “καυχομαι” as in Romans 2:17 and 2:23, but
discusses a different kind of boasting, which is the boasting in God rather than about the Jewish law.
Literature, 536-37.
33 See note 32 for the Greek word “καυχομαι” used in Romans 2:17 and 2:23.
34 See Dunn, The New Perspective on Paul, 9-10, 45-46; Sanders, Paul, the Law, and the Jewish People,
33; Wright, “The Paul of History and the Apostle of Faith,” 82.
16
observance of the law acts as the boundary marker, which distinguishes and hence
separates the Jewish people from other nations. 35
Paul reverts to the theme of Jewish boasting in Romans 3:27-28, a boasting of covenant
privilege marked by the Jewish law. 36
By denying the basis for such boasting, Paul
blames Jewish pride in their special status over against the Gentiles. 37
It is true that
Jewish people have been entrusted with the law, but their advantage is to know the very
words of God rather than to own the privileged status before God (Romans 3:1-2). The
righteousness of God is credited to believing Jews as well as believing Gentiles with no
requirement of the Jewish identity defined by the law, therefore the Jewish people cannot
be uniquely positioned by doing the works of the law. People are credited with
righteousness by faith in Christ, a faith that give no ground for Jewish boasting. That is
to say, Jewish people have no reason to boast because their possession of the law earns
them no privileged status before God. 38
Paul further elaborates his objection to the Jewish boasting in Romans 3:29-30. There is
only one God, who is not only the God of Jews, but also the God of Gentiles. God
justifies the circumcised as well as the uncircumcised on the same condition, namely the
same faith in Christ. As Paul repeatedly emphasizes throughout the entire letter to the
Romans, salvation is available to everyone who believes by faith in Christ apart from the
35 See Dunn, The New Perspective on Paul, 9; Sanders, Paul, the Law, and the Jewish People, 102; Wright,
Pauline Perspectives, 584.
36 The boasting criticized by Paul is the Jewish boasting of covenant privilege marked by the Jewish law
rather than the human boasting of self-achieved righteousness.
See note 19 for the debate on Judaism and Paul between the Lutheran perspective scholars and the new
perspective scholars.
See also Sanders, Paul and Palestinian Judaism, 233, 419-20, 549-50; Sanders, Paul, the Law, and the
Jewish People, 156.
37 See note 32 for the Greek word “καχησις” used in Romans 3:27.
38 See Michael Cranford, “Abraham in Romans 4: The Father of All Who Believe,” New Testament
Studies 41 no. 1 (Jan 1995): 78-79; James D. G. Dunn, Romans 1-8, Word Biblical Commentary (Dallas:
Word Books, 1988), 191-92; Dunn, The New Perspective on Paul, 46-47; Sanders, Paul, the Law, and the
Jewish People, 30, 33; Wright, Pauline Perspectives, 562, 584.
17
works of the law, without difference between Jews and Gentiles (1:16, 3:22-24, 3:26,
3:29-30, 4:16, 9:24, 10:4, 10:12-13). In effect, the Jews and the Gentiles stand on the
identical position before God. Both have sinned and are under the power of sin, thus both
are to change the status on the identical basis, which is to be justified by faith in Christ. 39
Based on the salvation act of God, Paul argues for the equal status of Gentile Christians
with Jewish Christians and against the Jewish boasting in their assumed privileged
status. 40
Romans 3:27-30 provides the basis for Paul’s main argument made with
Abraham’s model. 41
2.2 Romans 4:3
Before introducing Abraham’s model in Romans 4:3, Paul contends in Romans 4:1-2 that
even Abraham, the highly regarded forefather who is the first proselyte converted from
idolatry to God worship, has nothing to boast before God. 42
From the negative aspect,
even if Abraham was justified by works and appeared to be able to boast about his
works, he was actually unable to boast before God. However, Abraham was in fact
credited with righteousness by faith. Obviously, the theme from the preceding section of
Romans 3:27-30 continues. The Jewish boasting about the law cannot sustain because
39 See Dunn, Romans 1-8, 193; Dunn, The New Perspective on Paul, 47; Sanders, Paul, the Law, and the
Jewish People, 30, 33; Wright, Pauline Perspectives, 562, 576.
40 Paul’s letter to the Romans addresses to Roman Christians consisted of both Jewish Christians and
Gentile Christians. In addition, there seems to be some tensions and thus the potential or real division
between these two groups of believers. Therefore, this paper defines Paul’s argument as the equal status of
Gentile Christians with Jewish Christians rather than of Gentiles with Jews in general.
41 See note 25 for the debate on the interpretation of Abraham’s faith in the Jewish literature between the
Lutheran perspective scholars and the new perspective scholars.
See also Joseph A. Fitzmyer, Romans: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, The Anchor
Yale Bible (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), 370; Robert Jewett, Romans: A Commentary on the
Book of Romans, Hermeneia – A Critical and Historical Commentary on the Bible (Minneapolis: Fortress
Press, 2007), 311; Richard N. Longenecker, The Epistle to the Romans: A Commentary on the Greek Text,
The New International Greek Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing,
2016), 496; Douglas J. Moo, The Epistle to the Romans, New International Commentary on the New
Testament (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1996), 256-57; Thomas R. Schreiner, Romans,
Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1998), 215-17.
42 See note 32 for the Greek word “καχημα” used in Romans 4:2.
18
justification is by faith not by the works of the law. Paul hence appeals to Abraham’s
model to testify the reliability of his instruction and to embark on the main section of his
exposition. 43
Paul might be criticized by some Jewish Christians for the gospel he preached, namely
all believers in Christ receive the righteousness of God with no regard to the works of the
law. In response, Paul claims that the righteousness of God, a righteousness by faith, is
revealed in the gospel apart from the law (Romans 1:17, 3:21). The gospel is promised
beforehand through the prophets in the Holy Scriptures and is testified by the law and the
prophets (Romans 1:2, 3:21). 44
In this regard, it is crucial for Paul to demonstrate the
validity of his gospel from the Scripture. Accordingly, Paul cites Abraham’s model from
Genesis 15:6 in Romans 4:3 as the scriptural evidence that all believers, Jews as well as
Gentiles, are counted as righteous on the condition of faith in Christ alone. The faith of
Abraham is of the same type as the faith of both Jewish Christians and Gentile Christians
in Roman Churches, therefore Abraham’s being credited with righteousness by God
through faith serves as the test case for Roman believers. 45
Paul insists in Romans 3:27-30 and 4:1-2 that there is no ground for the Jewish boasting
about the law before God because both Jews and Gentiles are justified by faith in Christ
rather than by the works of the law. On the basis of this established conviction, Paul
adopts Abraham’s model to argue that both Jewish believers and Gentile believers
43 See Cranford, “Abraham in Romans 4: The Father of All Who Believe,” 76-77; Dunn, Romans 1-8, 196,
226-27; Dunn, The New Perspective on Paul, 46; Sanders, Paul, the Law, and the Jewish People, 43.
44 In Romans 3:21, it is the only time that Paul uses the phrase “το νμου κα τν προφητν (the law and
the prophets)” in his letters. In light of this same phrase used by other New Testament authors, which
always refers to the Jewish Scriptures as a whole (Matt 5:17, 7:12, 11:13, 22:40; Luke 16:16, 24:44; John
1:45; Acts 13:15, 24:14, 28:23), Paul might use “το νμου κα τν προφητν (the law and the prophets)”
in the same way. Therefore, what Paul claims in Romans might be: The gospel is promised beforehand
through the prophets in the Holy Scriptures and continues to be testified by these Holy Scriptures (Romans
1:2, 3:21).
See Dunn, Romans 1-8, 165.
45 See Dunn, Romans 1-8, 196, 225-26; Dunn, The New Perspective on Paul, 9-10, 46; Sanders, Paul, the
Law, and the Jewish People, 33; Wright, Pauline Perspectives, 591.
19
.
Abraham’s initial being credited with righteousness, which indicates the way of God’s
salvation act, is by faith without the works of the law. Apparently, it is the covenant
purpose of God from the very beginning that not only Jews but also Gentiles are justified
by faith alone. Jewish Christians have the same status as Gentile Christians before God
and cannot achieve any privileged status by observing the law. 47
2.3 Romans 4:4-8
The passage of Romans 4:4-8 interprets the key text “Abraham believed God, and it was
credited to him as righteousness” in Romans 4:3 by elaborating the meaning of the word
“credited.” 48
In Romans 4:4-5, Paul adopts an analogy of the payment-earning work in
the daily life to demonstrate that it is faith which is credited to believers as righteousness.
With regard to the payment-earning work, wages are obligated to those who work for
46 According to the Lutheran perspective scholars, Paul cites Abraham’s model from Genesis 15:6 in
Romans 4:3 as the scriptural evidence to prove the fact that Abraham was credited with righteousness by
faith but not by the works of the law so that he can use Abraham’s model to instruct the doctrine of
justification by faith and to argue against the human boasting of self-achieved righteousness.
See Fitzmyer, Romans, 369-71, 373; Jewett, Romans, 310-11; Longenecker, The Epistle to the Romans,
493-96; Moo, The Epistle to the Romans, 255-57, 261-62; Schreiner, Romans, 214-17.
However, as this paper demonstrates, Paul has no need to prove that Abraham was credited with
righteousness by faith, a fact which has already been acknowledged by both Jewish Christians and Gentile
Christians. Instead of instructing justification by faith itself, Paul adopts the doctrine of justification to
explain the way of being accepted by God. In Romans, Paul uses Abraham’s model as a test case for both
Jewish believers and Gentile believers of receiving the righteous status by faith alone and objects to the
Jewish bosting of privileged status before God because of the Jewish law.
See Cranford, “Abraham in Romans 4: The Father of All Who Believe,” 76-83; Dunn, Romans 1-8, 196-
205; Dunn, The New Perspective on Paul, 9-10, 46-48; Sanders, Paul and Palestinian Judaism, 422-23;
Sanders, Paul, the Law, and the Jewish People, 33-35, 102; Wright, Pauline Perspectives, 561, 569-70,
584; Wright, “The Paul of History and the Apostle of Faith,” 82.
47 See Cranford, “Abraham in Romans 4: The Father of All Who Believe,” 79; Dunn, Romans 1-8, 228;
Sanders, Paul, the Law, and the Jewish People, 33-34; Wright, Pauline Perspectives, 591.
48 Paul uses the Greek verb “λογζομαι” throughout his argument made with Abraham’s model to express
the meaning of “to credit,” “to reckon,” “to calculate,” or “to count” (Romans 3:28, 4:3, 4:4, 4:5, 4:6, 4:8,
4:9, 4:10, 4:11, 4:22, 4:23, 4:24).
Literature, 597.
20
their works. However, righteousness was credited to Abraham for free out of God’s
grace, hence it must be Abraham’s faith rather than his works which was credited to him
as righteousness. Abraham’s model attests that God justifies the ungodly by faith without
requiring the works of the law. Therefore, anyone who believes in God is credited with
righteousness by faith alone. 49
It is noteworthy that Paul’s exposition is not necessarily understood as his objection to
works-righteousness or his accusation of Jewish people for their trying to earn the reward
of righteousness from God by the works of the law. Instead of equating the works of the
law with the payment-earning work, Paul uses the payment-earning work as a metaphor
to prove that righteousness was credited to Abraham as a gift rather than as an obligation.
This metaphor is adopted to explain the word “credited”, but not the word “work”. In the
Jewish tradition, godliness is associated with covenant loyalty. In other words, the people
of God are to express their faithfulness and obedience to God by observing the Jewish
law. Paul, however, claims that God justifies the ungodly by faith with no reference to
covenant loyalty. As a result, the people of God are defined by faith rather than by the
observance of the Jewish law. Righteousness of God is available to all who have faith in
Christ. 50
To further elaborate the meaning of the word “credited,” Paul appeals to another
scriptural evidence from Psalm 32:1-2 in Romans 4:6-8. By citing David’s words, Paul
demonstrates that God credits righteousness to believers apart from the works of the
law. 51
As the parallelism of words in David’s description indicates, the non-crediting of
49 See Cranford, “Abraham in Romans 4: The Father of All Who Believe,” 79-81; Dunn, Romans 1-8,
228-29; Dunn, The New Perspective on Paul, 47-48; Wright, Pauline Perspectives, 562-63.
228-29; Dunn, The New Perspective on Paul, 44, 47-48; Wright, Pauline Perspectives, 562-63.
51 It is David’s words rather than David’s model that Paul cites. Instead of dealing with David’s
justification, Paul actually uses his words to explain the meaning of the word “credited”. In addition, the
cited text itself is not to testify Paul’s argument made with Abraham’s model, but is to assist the
interpretation of Abraham’s being credited with righteousness.
See Dunn, Romans 1-8, 230.
21
sin means the forgiving of transgressions. From the negative aspect, Paul proves that God
does not credit sin against people because He forgives their transgressions. If out of His
grace, God forgives sin freely without calculation of the transgressions against the law,
then God also credits righteousness freely without consideration of the works of the law.
Based on this logic, Paul affirms from the positive aspect that believers are credited with
righteousness by faith alone. 52
Therefore, both Jewish Christians and Gentile Christians
in Roman churches receive the righteous status by faith in Christ without regard to the
works of the law.
2.4 Romans 4:9-21
The passage of Romans 4:9-21 interprets the key text “Abraham believed God, and it
was credited to him as righteousness” in Romans 4:3 by expounding the meaning of the
word “believed.” 53
Examining the relationship between Abraham’s justification and his
circumcision in Romans 4:9-12, Paul distinguishes and separates Abraham’s faith from
his works of the law. According to the Scripture, Abraham was credited with
righteousness under the circumstances that he was still uncircumcised. He subsequently
received circumcision as the sign and the seal of righteousness which was already
credited to him by his faith. This fact of Abraham’s being credited with righteousness
before his being circumcised enables him to be the father of all believers, with or without
circumcision. It is Abraham’s faith rather than his circumcision that determines and
defines his fatherhood. 54
229-30; Dunn, The New Perspective on Paul, 49-50; Wright, Pauline Perspectives, 588.
53 Paul uses the Greek verb “πιστεω” throughout his argument made with Abraham’s model to express
the meaning of “to believe (in)” or “to trust” (Romans 4:3, 4:5, 4:11, 4:17, 4:18, 4:24).
Literature, 816-18.
231-33; Joshua W. Jipp, “Rereading the Story of Abraham, Isaac, and ‘Us’ in Romans 4,” Study of the New
Testament 32 no. 2 (Dec 2009): 225; Wright, Pauline Perspectives, 561, 569-70.
22
The chronological order of Abraham’s justification and his circumcision indicates that
Abraham was initially credited with righteousness by faith without circumcision. This is
the exact case of the uncircumcised Gentiles, who converted from idolatry to God
worship. Abraham’s justification acts as an exemplification for both Jews and Gentiles of
the way that people can be counted acceptable to God. From the model of Abraham, Paul
infers that God justifies both the circumcised and the uncircumcised by faith alone
because circumcision is not the condition of justification. Now that God treats the
circumcised and the uncircumcised on the same ground, His blessedness is not only for
the circumcised but also for the uncircumcised. Accordingly, the Gentile believers, who
have the equal status with the Jewish believers before God, are to be regarded equally as
the people of God. 55
In Romans 4:13-17a, Paul explicates Abraham’s faith by focusing on the inheritance of
Abraham’s covenant promise. On the one hand, it is through faith rather than through the
law that God gave the promise to Abraham and his descendants. Those who have the
faith of Abraham are his descendants and inherits his covenant promise by grace. On the
other hand, faith loses its effect if those who depend on the law, instead of the divine
grace, are Abraham’s heirs. Consequently, the promise given to Abraham through faith
has no value at all. As Paul affirms, the will of God is to guarantee the promise to all who
have faith, whether those who are of the law or those who are not of the law. God has
made Abraham the father of all believers so that by faith all the people who believes are
the descendants of Abraham and thus the heirs of his covenant promise, including both
Jewish Christians and Gentile Christians. 56
Paul finally illustrates in Romans 4:17b-21 the nature of Abrahams’s faith, a faith of firm
trust in God. In this respect, the nature of Abraham’s faith is to be understood in terms of
the character of the God in whom he believed. Paul describes the character of God, a
55 See Dunn, Romans 1-8, 231-32; Dunn, The New Perspective on Paul, 47-48, 50; Sanders, Paul, the Law,
and the Jewish People, 30, 33-34; Wright, Pauline Perspectives, 561, 569-70.
56 See Dunn, Romans 1-8, 233-34; Dunn, The New Perspective on Paul, 50-51; Sanders, Paul, the Law,
and the Jewish People, 34; Wright, Pauline Perspectives, 561.
23
description of God as the creator who gives life and sustains life. It is God the creator
who gave the covenant promise to Abraham. Abraham the creature who received the
divine promise, believed that God has the power to fulfill His promise. Abraham
recognized that the fulfillment of the promise relied on God rather than on himself.
Despite of his hopeless human condition, Abraham was strengthened in his faith because
he put his hope in the promise of God. Just as God had promised to him, Abraham
became the father of many nations. With this exposition of Abraham’s faith, Paul
demonstrates that it is his belief in the promise of God which was credited to him by God
as righteousness. 57
2.5 Romans 4:22-25
Based on the above interpretation of the key text in Romans 4:3, Paul provides the
conclusion and application of Abraham’s model in Romans 4:22-25. In the preceding
passages, Paul defines Abraham’s faith to be independent of the works of the law, to be
the basis of receiving the divine promise, and to be the trust in God who has the power to
fulfill His promise. It is because of this faith, which is counted as acceptable to God, that
Abraham was credited with righteousness. As Paul immediately affirms, this model of
Abraham, which provides a pattern for all believers, can also be applied to his fellow
Christians in the Roman Churches. God’s crediting faith as righteousness is not only to
Abraham but also to anyone who has the same faith as Abraham. 58
Jesus has been
delivered over to death and has been raised to life, therefore those who believe in God
who raised Jesus the Lord from the dead are forgiven for their sins and are justified by
their faith.
It can be inferred from Paul’s descriptions that Abraham’s faith is of the same type and
thus acts as the archetype of Christian faith. In Romans 3:17 and Romans 3:24, Paul
57 See Cranford, “Abraham in Romans 4: The Father of All Who Believe,” 87; Dunn, Romans 1-8, 236-37;
Jipp, “Rereading the Story of Abraham, Isaac, and ‘Us’ in Romans 4,” 235.
58 See Dunn, Romans 1-8, 239; Sanders, Paul, the Law, and the Jewish People, 34.
24
deliberately adopts the same Greek word “νεκρς (dead)” to evoke the parallel. 59
Abraham believes in God who gives life to the dead, while Christians believe in God
who raised Jesus from the dead. Both faiths are expressed as the belief in God who has
the power to give life. Evidently, Christian faith in Jesus’ death and resurrection, the
belief in God’s life-giving power, is the faith that is acceptable to God. In both cases,
God indeed exercises this life-giving power to fulfill His promises. Actually, it is the
same life-giving power of God that created life out of Abraham’s dead body and raised
Jesus to life, hence the faiths generated in both cases are of the same type. As Paul
proves, the will of God has never changed, namely God always justifies people on the
condition of faith apart from the works of the law. 60
Roman Christians are justified
through the same faith in Christ by God and thus have the same status before God, with
no distinction between Jews and Gentiles.
Paul’s argument made with Abraham’s model is well established in Romans 4:1-25 by
interpreting the key text in Romans 4:3. In the verses of Romans 5:2, 5:3 and 5:11, Paul
brings up again the idea of boasting, which is different from the Jewish boasting
previously criticized by Paul. 61
In Romans 3:27-30 and 4:1-2, Paul claims that there is no
ground for the boasting about the law before God because both Jews and Gentiles are
justified by faith apart from the works of the law. After his exposition of Abraham’s faith
throughout Romans 4:1-25, Paul affirms in Romans 5:2, 5:3 and 5:11 that all believers
are to boast in the hope of the glory of God, in their sufferings, and in God through
Christ the Lord. It is through Christ that Roman Christians by faith have been justified,
have peace with God, have gained access into God’s grace, and have been reconciled to
God. Consequently, the only appropriate boasting is in God rather than about the law. 62
59 Bauer and Danker, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian
Literature, 667-68.
60 See Dunn, Romans 1-8, 239-41; Sanders, Paul, the Law, and the Jewish People, 34.
61 See note 32 for the Greek word “καυχομαι” used in Romans 5:2, 5:3 and 5:11.
62 See Dunn, The New Perspective on Paul, 264, 269; Sanders, Paul, the Law, and the Jewish People, 34-
35; Wright, Pauline Perspectives, 584.
25
Paul’s instruction of the boasting confirms and reinforces his argument that both Jewish
Christians and Gentile Christians in Roman churches receive the righteous status through
faith in Christ.
26
Chapter 3 Comparison of Abraham’s Model in Galatians and Romans
The previous two chapters have analyzed Paul’s uses of Abraham’s model in supporting
his arguments by examining the texts of Galatians and Romans, Greek as well as English,
on their own terms. Based on the study conducted in Chapter 2 and Chapter 3, this
chapter compares the similarities and the differences of Abraham’s model used in the
Galatians and Romans. In sum, there could be four groups of the similarities and the
differences.
First, in both Galatians and Romans, Paul establishes his argument on a discernible
common ground, namely justification by faith apart from the works of the law (Galatians
2:15-16, 3:1-5; Romans 3:28). It is on the basis of this common conviction that Paul
introduces Abraham’s model for his argument in both letters. Abraham’s being credited
with righteousness explicitly discloses that anyone who believes is justified by faith in
Christ alone. This is the salvation plan of God from the beginning, which is precisely
testified by the Scripture. 63
The difference is that Paul claims justification by faith in
Christ as both the common knowledge and the common experience among his addressees
in Galatians but appeals to justification by faith in Christ as the common knowledge
among his addressees in Romans.
Second, despite the same model of Abraham used in Galatians and Romans, Paul is to
construct a different argument in each letter. In Galatians, Paul argues that Gentile
Christians receive the righteous status by faith in Christ without the requirement of
Jewish identity. Because they share in Abraham’s faith, Gentile believers are already
children of Abraham (Galatians 3:7), blessed along with Abraham (Galatians 3:9),
children of God (Galatians 3:26), and heirs according to the promise (Galatians 3:29). In
Romans, Paul argues that both Jewish Christians and Gentile Christians receive the
righteous status by the same faith. Abraham’s initial being credited with righteousness is
63 Sanders, Paul, the Law, and the Jewish People, 26.
27
by faith without the works of the law. In the same way, both Jews and Gentiles will be
justified by faith alone because of their equal status before God. God is the God of both
Jews and Gentiles (Romans 3:29), with His blessing for both the circumcised and the
uncircumcised (Romans 4:9). It is the will of God that salvation is always available by
faith in Christ without difference between Jews and Gentiles (Romans 1:16, 3:22-24,
3:26, 3:29-30, 4:16, 9:24, 10:4, 10:12-13). 64
Third, it is same in both Galatians and Romans that Paul adopts Abraham’s model as the
scriptural evidence for his argument. Abraham’s faith is under discussion in both letters
in order to demonstrate faith as the only condition of being acceptable to God. However,
Abraham’s being credit with righteousness is used to develop the main argument of
Galatians but is to form a part of the main argument of Romans. As for his letter to the
Galatians, Paul’s effort is to correct the false teaching of the Judaizes, thus he expounds
the relevant part of the gospel. Gentiles’ justification by faith in Christ alone, supported
by Abraham’s model, develops the main argument of Galatians. As for his letter to the
Romans, Paul presents the truth of the gospel in a full account, including humanity’s
justification by faith in Christ alone, God’s salvation plan, and believers’ participation in
Christ. Humanity’s justification by the same faith, supported by Abraham’s model, forms
a part of the main argument of Romans.
Fourth, Paul appeals to Abraham’s model by citing the same text “Abraham believed
God, and it was credited to him as righteousness” from Genesis 15:6 in both Galatians
3:6 and Romans 4:3. 65
However, Paul uses the same text in a different way to support his
argument of each letter. The argument of Galatians is established in light of Abraham’s
promise. It is God’s promise to Abraham, namely “All nations will be blessed through
you,” that ensures the Gentiles’ being justified by faith (Galatians 3:7-9). Abraham’s
promise serves as the theme throughout Paul’s argument in Galatians (Galatians 3:7-8,
64 See Sanders, Paul, the Law, and the Jewish People, 18-20, 29-30; Wright, Pauline Perspectives, 569-72,
576, 591.
65 Paul cites the text from the Septuagint almost word for word.
28
3:13-14, 3:16-22, 3:29). The argument of Romans is constructed based on Abraham’s
faith. Paul interprets the cited text “Abraham believed God, and it was credited to him as
righteousness” by expounding the meaning of two keywords, “credited” and “believed”
(Romans 4:4-8, 4:9-21). Abraham’s faith acts as the motif throughout Paul’s argument in
Romans (Romans 4:5, 4:9-12, 4:13-14, 4:16, 4:19-21).
29
Chapter 4 The Historical Contexts of Galatians and Romans
As indicated in Chapter 1, this paper proposes that Paul uses the same model of Abraham
differently in supporting his arguments of Galatians 3 and Romans 4 because he presents
the truth of the same gospel from different angles due to the similarities and the
differences of the historical contexts, namely the addressees and the purposes, of the two
letters. This chapter investigates the historical contexts of Galatians and Romans, then
compares their similarities and differences.
4.1 The Historical Context of Galatians
The Addressees of Galatians
Paul indicates the addressees of Galatians as the churches in Galatia in his letter
(Galatians 1:2). Scholars debate on whether these Galatian churches mentioned by Paul
are located in Ancyra, Pessinus, and Tavium of northern Asia Minor with Gentile
Christians from the Celtic origin or in Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe of
southern Asia Minor with Gentile Christians from different ethnic origins. Given the fact
that Galatia normally referred to an entire Roman province with residents of the various
ethnic group in Paul’s time and that Paul probably did not found any church in North
Galatia, the south Galatian view seems to be more reliable. Despite the disputation with
regard to both the geographical location of the Galatian churches and the ethnic origin of
the Galatian Christians, scholars generally accept that the addressees of Galatians are
Gentile Christians. 66
In the letter to the Galatians, Paul’s description of the addressees implies their identity as
Gentile Christians. They are proselytes who formerly did not know God and converted
66 See G. W. Hansen, “Galatians, Letter to the” in Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, edited by Gerald F.
Hawthorne and Ralph P. Martin (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1993), 323, 326; J. M. Scott, “Galatia,
Galatians” in Dictionary of New Testament Background, edited by Craig A. Evans and Stanley E. Porter
(Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2000), 389-90.
30
from idolatry to God worship by believing the gospel (Galatians 4:8-9). They have no
law originally but want to be under the Jewish law and are observing special days
currently (Galatians 4:10, 4:21). Apparently, Paul addresses his letter to Gentile
Christians. The uncertainty about the geographical location of the Galatian churches and
the ethnic origin of the Galatian Christians does not change the conclusion that the
addressees of Galatians are Gentile Christians. 67
As far as the research of this paper, it is
sufficient to define the addressees of Galatians as Gentile Christians.
These Gentiles converted to Christ and received the Holy Spirit because of the gospel
that Paul preached to them during his first visit to Galatia (Galatians 3:1-2, 4:13-14). As
Paul recalls in Galatians 4:12-15, he had an affectionate relationship in Christ with the
Galatian Christians when he was with them. Despite Paul’s illness, his gospel found an
enthusiastic reception among the Galatian Christians, and he himself was warmly
welcomed and genuinely loved by them. 68
However, the situation has been greatly
changed after Paul left Galatia. Galatian Christians have been drawn to the Judaizers and
hence been alienated from Paul (Galatians 4:16-17).
Nevertheless, Paul’s affection for Galatian Christians remains the same, which can be
perceived from his letter. Paul regards them as his “dear children”, for whom he went
through “the pains of childbirth” and is willing to endure such severe pains all over again
until Christ is formed in them (Galatians 4:19). It is because of his love and anxiety of
Galatian believers that Paul criticizes them sternly for their turning away from the gospel
of Christ (Galatians 1:6-7, 3:1-5, 4:8-10, 4:21, 5:7). Paul wishes that he could be with
Galatian believers and could speak gently to them (Galatians 4:20). However, Paul can
only write the letter to them at the moment, therefore he has to warn Galatian Christians
that they have been led astray. In the letter, Paul expresses his concern and worry about
Galatian believers out of his deep affection for them (Galatians 4:11, 4:20).
67 Dunn, The Epistle to the Galatians, 6.
68 Hansen, “Galatians, Letter to the” in Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, 326.
31
The Purposes of Galatians
After Paul left the Galatian churches, some Judaizers came and demanded circumcision
and the Jewish law on Gentile Christians. Although the exact identification of these
Judaizers is still under discussion among scholars, they are normally recognized as the
Jewish Christians who regarded Jewish identity as a prerequisite of being accepted by
God. They were not satisfied with justification by faith alone but taught Gentile believers
to add Jewish identity by being circumcised and observing the Jewish law. To support
their teaching, which was different from Paul’s gospel, they probably adopted the
narrative of Abraham as the scriptural evidence and challenged the apostleship of Paul
with the authority from Jerusalem church. 69
Galatian Christians were persuaded by the Judaizers and followed their instruction. They
desired to keep the Jewish law and started to observe special days (Galatians 4:10,
4:21). 70
In Paul’s view, however, the message of the Judaizers is indeed not gospel at all
and Galatian Christians are misled by their false teaching. Confronting with this
particular circumstance in Galatian churches, Paul wrote the letter to defend himself
against the criticism of the Judaizers (Galatians 1:1, 1:10-24, 2:1-14, 5:11, 6:14), to
reiterate the truth of the gospel (Galatians 2:15-21, 3:6-4:7, 4:22-31), and to request
Galatian Christians to persist in the truth of the gospel (Galatians 1:6-9, 3:1-5, 4:8-10,
4:17-18, 4:21, 5:1-10, 5:12-6:10, 6:12-13).
First, Paul writes Galatians to defend himself against the criticism of the Judaizers. In
response to the challenge from the Judaizers, Paul emphasizes that he owns the authority
from God rather than from human origin to preach the gospel among Gentiles. Paul’s
apostleship is bestowed by God because of His grace and Paul’s gospel is received by
revelation from Christ (Galatians 1:1, 1:11-12, 1:15-16), which can be testified by his
69 See Dunn, The Epistle to the Galatians, 162; Hansen, “Galatians, Letter to the” in Dictionary of Paul
and His Letters, 326-27; Sanders, Paul, the Law, and the Jewish People, 18.
70 See Hansen, “Galatians, Letter to the” in Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, 327; Sanders, Paul, the
Law, and the Jewish People, 18.
32
own experience (Galatians 1:13-14, 1:17-24). For God’s work in him, Paul’s apostleship
and gospel are recognized by the leaders of Jerusalem church (Galatians 2:6-10). As the
servant of Christ, Paul works to win the approval of God and to please God, but not to
win the approval of human beings or to please people (Galatians 1:10). Paul provides
several examples to prove that he always persists in the truth of the gospel (Galatians
2:1-5, 2:11-14, 2:18-21, 5:11, 6:14). 71
Second, Paul writes Galatians to reiterate the truth of the gospel. Due to the false
teaching of the Judaizers, Paul has to further expound the gospel of Christ, which he has
already preached to Galatian Christians during his first visit (Galatians 3:1-2, 4:13-14).
As the Jewish Christians agree, one is justified by faith in Christ rather than by the works
of the law (Galatians 2:15-17). 72
Abraham was credited with righteousness by faith
(Galatians 3:6). In the same way, Gentiles are justified by faith alone, according to the
promise given to Abraham in advance (Galatians 3:7-14). The covenant previously
established by God cannot be abolished by the law, which was added later because of
transgressions (Galatians 3:15-22). It is through faith in Christ that all believers are
children of God, seed of Abraham, and heirs according to the promise (Galatians 3:23-
4:7). Just as Abraham’s two sons, the one born as the result of the divine promise owns
the right of inheritance (Galatians 4:22-31).
Third, Paul writes Galatians to request Galatian Christians to persist in the truth of the
gospel. Paul blames Galatian believers for their being infiltrated by the Judaizers and
71 Galatians 2:15-21 is generally regarded as Paul’s explanation of his position in the Antioch incident, but
not his conversation with Peter following Galatians 2:14. The section of Galatians 2:15-17 is Paul’s
instruction about the truth of the gospel, and thus is classified into “Second, Paul writes Galatians to
reiterate the truth of the gospel.”
72 In Galatians 2:15, “we” might refer more specifically to Paul and Peter.
However, Paul mentions in Galatians 12:13 that the other Jewish believers in the church of Antioch,
including Barnabas, joined Peter in his hypocrisy. It is possible that Paul refers to Jewish Christians in
general in his restatement of the Antioch incident.
33
their turning away from the truth of the gospel (Galatians 1:6-7, 5:7). Galatian Christians
received the Spirit by faith in Christ in the beginning but are trying to live by the works
of the law at the present (Galatians 3:1-5, 4:8-10, 4:21). As Paul criticizes harshly, the
instruction of the Judaizers perverts the gospel of Christ rather than comes from God
(Galatians 1:7-9, 5:8-10, 5:12). The Judaizers try to convince Galatian believers to be
circumcised so that these Judaizers themselves can avoid being persecuted for the cross
of Christ and can impress people by means of the flesh (Galatians 4:17-18, 6:12-13).
Paul exhorts Galatian Christians to hold fast to the freedom in Christ and to walk by the
Spirit, but not to be alienated from Christ and not to fall away from grace (Galatians 5:1-
6, 5:13-6:10).
The Addressees of Romans
Paul addresses his letter to all Christians in Rome (Romans 1:7). In principle, scholars
agree that Christianity was probably brought to Rome by Jewish Christians from
Jerusalem and took root in the Jewish community of Rome. Even the Gentile believers,
many of them were God-fearers previously attached to the Diaspora synagogues in Rome.
Not surprisingly, most Christians in Roman churches, Jews as well as Gentiles, has been
deeply influenced by the Jewish Christianity. On the one hand, Roman believers held the
centrality of belief in Christ and were considered to be the genuine believers by Paul. On
the other hand, they might regard the Jerusalem church as the mother church of
Christianity, hence continued to accept certain Jewish customs and followed the Jewish
way of life. 73
73 See James D. G. Dunn, “Romans, Letter to the” in Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, edited by Gerald
F. Hawthorne and Ralph P. Martin (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1993), 838-39; R. B. Edwards and
M. Reasoner, “Rome: Overview” in Dictionary of New Testament Background, edited by Craig A. Evans
and Stanley E. Porter (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2000), 1014-16; Thomas H. Tobin, Paul’s
Rhetoric in its Contexts: The Argument of Romans (Peabody: Hendrickson Publishers, 2004), 36-46.
34
According to the Jewish tradition, God initially established the covenant with Abraham,
and it is his physical descendants who inherit the covenant promise. Many Jewish
Christians insist that the Gentiles can become Abraham’s children and thus participate in
the covenant promise given to him only through incorporation into the Jewish nation by
adding Jewish identity. Moreover, many Gentiles in the Roman society were indeed
attracted to Judaism because of its comprehensive interpretation of life and its high moral
standard. Gentile believers were generally convinced that the ethical precepts of the
Jewish law were much superior over the ethical practices of the Greco-Roman world.
They were willing to follow the Jewish law, especially the ethical regulations. As a result,
it was probably the normal practice for Roman Christians to believe in Christ and
meanwhile to retain some Jewish observances without demanding circumcision on
Gentile converts. 74
The composition of members in the Roman churches, especially whether Jewish
believers or Gentile believers are dominant, is still disputed among scholars. Given the
focus of this study, it is sufficient to define the addressees of Romans as the mixed
groups of Jewish Christians and Gentile Christians, with different proportions in different
churches. Although Paul has never been to the churches in Rome (Romans 1:10-13,
15:22-24), he keeps contact with many members of various Roman churches (Romans
16:3-15). It is most likely that Paul is aware of the circumstance in Roman churches,
which can be inferred from the textual evidence in the letter (Romans 14:1-15:13). This
might be the reason that the letter to the Romans is constructed of the general teachings
on the truth of the gospel and the specific exhortations in respect to different problems
among the different congregations. 75
The Purposes of Romans
74 Tobin, Paul’s Rhetoric in its Contexts, 36-46.
75 Dunn, “Romans, Letter to the” in Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, 838-39.
35
Scholars understand the purposes of Romans from different perspectives. Three
viewpoints are prevalent among current scholarly discussion. First, Paul writes the letter
to request the support from the Roman churches for his intended missionary trip to Spain
(Romans 15:24, 15:28). Second, Paul writes the letter to defend himself against criticism
by explaining his gospel (Romans 1:1-6, 1:16, 9:1-2). Third, Paul writes the letter to
mend the potential or real division between Jewish Christians and Gentile Christians in
the Roman churches (Romans 14:1-15:13, 16:17-20). However, these three viewpoints
do not contradict with one another and Paul might have all three purposes in view. 76
In
fact, the three purposes seem to be interrelated. In order to seek the assistance from
Roman Christians, most of whom have never met with Paul in person, Paul needs to
introduce himself and to clarify his gospel. At the same time, having a fair knowledge of
the particular circumstance and problems in Roman churches, Paul may provide specific
exhortations on the basis of his gospel.
First, Paul writes Romans to request the support from the Roman churches for his
intended missionary trip to Spain. As he explicitly states in Romans 15:24 and 15:28,
Paul plans to visit the churches in Rome on his way to Spain and expects Roman
Christians to assist him on his forthcoming mission to the western regions of the Roman
Empire. Although Paul does not specify the assistance that he is anticipating, it might
include the prayers, the financial support, and even the co-work of Roman believers.
Roman churches might serve as a base for the extension of Paul’s Gentile mission to
Spain. Therefore, Paul writes the letter to Roman Christians to introduce his missionary
plan and to seek their support. 77
Second, Paul writes Romans to defend himself against criticism by explaining his gospel.
The dialogue character of the letter, which is recognized by most scholars, implies Paul’s
reflection and clarification on his own position in the letter. Paul might be under attack
due to the gospel he preached. This fact can be inferred from Romans 1:16 and 9:1-2, in
36
which Paul declares that he is not ashamed of his gospel because he proclaims the
salvation brought from the power of God and he speaks the truth in Christ. As Paul
affirms in Romans 1:1-6, he is called by God to be the apostle of Christ to the Gentiles
and to preach the gospel promised through the prophets in the Holy Scriptures. In the
letter to the Romans, Paul presents and interprets the truth of the gospel with the intent to
defend against certain criticisms. Consequently, Roman Christians might be ready to
support Paul’s Gentile mission by better understanding his person, his gospel, and his
ministry. 78
Third, Paul writes Romans to mend the potential or real division between Jewish
Christians and Gentile Christians in the Roman churches. There seem to be some
tensions within these two ethnical groups of believers, which are evidenced by Paul&rsqu

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Same Model Different Uses: Similarities and Differences of