Sacred Groves: Myths, Beliefs, and Biodiversity Conservation ...downloads.hindawi.com/journals/ijecol/2017/3828609.pdfSacred Groves: Myths, Beliefs, and Biodiversity Conservation—A

Research ArticleSacred Groves Myths Beliefs and BiodiversityConservationmdashA Case Study from Western Himalaya India

Sushma Singh1 Mudasir Youssouf2 Zubair A Malik3 and RainerW Bussmann4

1Department of Environmental Sciences HNB Garhwal University Srinagar Garhwal Uttarakhand 246174 India2Centre for Environmental Science and Technology Central University of Punjab Bathinda Punjab 151001 India3Department of Botany and Microbiology HNB Garhwal University Srinagar Garhwal Uttarakhand 246174 India4Saving Knowledge Casilla 13092 La Paz Bolivia

Correspondence should be addressed to Zubair A Malik malikmzubair081gmailcom

Received 20 July 2017 Accepted 7 September 2017 Published 31 October 2017

Academic Editor Bela Tothmeresz

Copyright copy 2017 Sushma Singh et al This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution Licensewhich permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properly cited

Religious and traditional beliefs cultural mores and practices play a crucial role in the conservation of environment andbiodiversity The present paper describes a case study of two sacred groves in Western Himalaya Sacred groves (SGs) are patchesof land that are communally protected with religious zeal A preliminary survey was conducted in these SGs to study their role inbiodiversity conservation The data collected included the general information regarding the SGs and the associated deity nearesthuman habitation access to them and their floral and faunal diversity Ethnomedicinal property of plants was collected fromthe indigenous communities Many taboos are associated with both the SGs which help in managing resources well through ritualrepresentation Different festivals are organized where the local communities reaffirm their commitment to the forest and the deitySacred groves in general are a valuable tool of biodiversity conservation But peoplersquos changing attitudes erosion of traditionalbeliefs and human impact have caused degradation of sacred groves over the years Their conservation would not be possiblewithout the active participation of the local people By improving their living standards and by giving benefits of conservation tothem long-term conservation goals in these SGs can be achieved

1 Introduction

Conservation of nature and natural resources has been animportant part of cultural ethos especially in remote ruraland indigenous communities in many parts of the worldincluding India These communities consider themselvesconnected with their biophysical environment in a webof spiritual relationship These rural communities considerspecific plants animals or even rivers andmountains as theirancestors and protect them In India nature worship datesback to the pre-Vedic period (5000 BC) and is based on theproposition that all creations of nature have to be protectedThe forefathers of these communities were fully aware ofthe importance and significance of natural resources and thenecessity of their conservation for the sustenance of futuregenerations They lived in harmony with nature and therebyplayed an important role in conservation of biodiversity [1]One of the important traditions of nature reverence is to

conserve those patches of forest that have been dedicatedto a god or goddess or ancestral spirits as ldquosacred grovesrdquoAccording to Hughes and Chandran [2] sacred groves (SGs)are defined as ldquosegments of landscape containing vegetationlife forms and geographical features delimited and protected byhuman societies under the belief that to keep them in a relativelyundisturbed state is expression of an important relationship ofhumans with the divine or with naturerdquo In short SGs are therelic forest segments preserved in the name of religion andculture These groves are mostly associated with temples andare also culturally important They manifest the spiritual andecological ethos of rural indigenous communities Variouscultural and religious festivals are often arranged by localpeople within these patches which they call ldquoMelardquo As a wayof conservation of nature SGs have proven to be a well-triedand tested method over thousands of years [3]

Mostly found in Africa and Asia SGs also exist in Europeand the Americas Around 100000 to 150000 sacred groves

HindawiInternational Journal of EcologyVolume 2017 Article ID 3828609 12 pageshttpsdoiorg10115520173828609

2 International Journal of Ecology

Table 1 Locations of the studied sacred groves (SGs)

Site Altitude (m asl) Geographic coordinatesHariyali Devi (HD) 1500ndash2800 N30∘191015840481810158401015840 E 79∘001015840247710158401015840

Tungnath (TN) 3000ndash4000 N30∘291015840130710158401015840 E 79∘131015840161610158401015840

have been reported from India [4] In India SGs are especiallypresent in the Himalayan regionWestern and Eastern GhatsCoastal Region Central Indian Plateau and Western Desert

The SGs play an important role in ensuring smoothecosystem services such as clean environment that is airsoil and water conservation flora and fauna conservationcarbon sequestration temperature control and conservationof traditional knowledge They are therefore of centralimportance as far as the ecological conservation and policyregarding conservation and management of forest at stateand national levels are concerned [5] Sacred groves serve asa home for birds and mammals and hence they indirectlyhelp in the conservation of biodiversity [3] There are severalstudies carried out by various researchers on this subjecthighlighting significant role and potential of the SGs [1 56] The present paper presents a case study of two SGs ofWestern (Garhwal) Himalaya and the aim of the study wasto document (i) the floral and faunal diversity of these SGsand (ii) the myths beliefs and taboos related to biodiversityconservation in these SGs

2 Materials and Methods

21 Study Area The present paper describes a case study oftwo sacred groves from theWestern HimalayaThe study wascarried out in Uttarakhand also known asDev Bhumi (abodeor home of gods) Uttarakhand is very rich in biodiversity andthere are many SGs for the conservation of this biodiversitySGs like Chipla Kedar Tarkeshwar Hariyali Devi Binsar KotKalimath Goldev Tapovan Chandrabadani Tungnath andTriyuginarayan are some of the important SGs ofDev BhumiThe present study was carried out in two SGs Hariyali Deviand Tungnath both of which are located in Rudraprayagdistrict (Figure 1 and Table 1)

Hariyali Devi is located above Kodima village at analtitude of 1400m in Rudraprayag The temple containsa bejeweled idol of Ma Hariyali Devi astride a lion Thetemple houses chiefly three idols namely Ma Hariyali DeviKshatrapal and Heet Devi The temple is open throughoutthe year but it is more festive at the time of JanmashtamiNavratri and Deepawali

Tungnath lies in the upper catchment of the AlaknandaRiver and the Mandakini River two major tributaries ofthe Ganges at an altitude of about 2800ndash3300m Tungnathtemple is dedicated to Lord Shiva and is the highest Shivashrine among the Panch Kedar 3 km uphill form Chopta

22 Geology Soil and Climate The rocks of study area aremainly mylonitized gneisses augen gneisses schists andgranites constituting Munsiyari Formation [8] The weather-ing bedrocks which provide the bulk of the loose materialin these mountains are crystalline and metamorphic with

sedimentary deposits of Paleozoic age [9] The soil texture issandy loam light grey to brown in color and acidic in naturewith a pH range between 4 and 5 [10]

Four distinct seasons are observed in the study areashort summer (May-June) Monsoon (Julyndashmid-September)autumn (mid-September-October) and long winter(NovemberndashApril) The snow cover lasts for about 4-5months and melts during AprilndashMay which marks thearrival of favorable conditions for plant growth The growthperiod lasts for about 5ndash7 months only [10]

23 Sampling Procedures (Methodology) To study the role ofthe SGs in biodiversity conservation mentioned in Table 1 apreliminary survey was conducted in these areas Informa-tion about these SGs was collected by consulting the elderlypeople of the villages governmental and nongovernmentalagencies after receiving prior informed consent and litera-ture sources (books and scientific journal articles) The datacollected included the general information regarding the SGsand the associated deity nearest human habitation accessto them and their floral and faunal diversity Informationregarding the ethnomedicinal property of different plants wasalso collected from the surrounding indigenous communi-ties

3 Results and Discussion

31 Biodiversity of Hariyali Devi Sacred Grove Hariyali DeviSG is rich in floral and faunal diversity (Tables 2 3 4 5 and6) A total of 80 12 9 and 7 species of plants mammalsbirds and butterflies respectively were recorded from thisSG (Tables 2 3 4 5 and 6) The 80 plant species represented75 genera and 44 families with different economic valuesRosaceae with the highest number of species (8) was foundto be the dominant family The number of species variedin different life forms like herbs (37) shrubs (23) and trees(20) Most of the plant species in the SG had one or otherethnomedicinal importance (Tables 2 3 and 4) The pre-dominant vegetation is represented byQuercus semecarpifolia(kharsu) Quercus leucotrichophora (banj) Rhododendronarboreum (burans) and Lyonia ovalifolia (anyar)

Hariyali Devi forest harbors many sacred animal andbutterfly species (Tables 5 and 6) Capricornis sumatraensisCervus unicolor and Felis bengalensis are some commonmammalian species In addition to these some reptile specieswere recorded from this SG

32 Biodiversity of Tungnath Sacred Grove Apart from beinga sacred grove Tungnath is also a part of Kedarnath WildlifeSanctuary and hence is an important region as far as theconservation of biodiversity is concerned Tungnath is ahome to many rare threatened and endangered medicinal

International Journal of Ecology 3

30∘45

0N

30∘30

0N

30∘15

0N

30∘45

0N

30∘30

0N

30∘15

0N

78∘45

0E 79

∘00E 79

∘15

0E 79

∘30

0E

78∘45

0E 79

∘00E 79

∘15

0E 79

∘30

0E

Tungnath(79 13 161630 29 1307)

Elevation 3400 m

Hariyali Devi(79 00 247730 19 4818)

Elevation 1500 m

N

Figure 1 Location of the Hariyali Devi and Tungnath sacred groves in Uttarakhand

plants like Picrorhiza kurroa and Nardostachys jatamansi(Tables 7 and 8) A total of 27 plant species were reportedfrom this SG which include 8 trees 10 herbs and 9 shrubsSome endangered animals like musk deer black bear and soforth are also found there in good numbers (Table 9) Many

rare and threatened birds and reptiles are also found there(Table 10)

33 Taboos as a Means of Plant and Animal ConservationTaboos are the unwritten orally transmitted traditional and


Table 2 List of Tree species (with ethnomedicinal properties) found in Hariyali Devi SG

Botanical name Vernacular name Family Ethnomedicinal property

Ilex dipyrenaWall Kandara Aquifoliaceae Agriculture implements fuelfodder

Alnus nepalensis DDon Utees Betulaceae Fuel soil binder

Betula alnoides Buch-Ham ex DDon Bhuja patra Betulaceae Wood fodder medicine(rheumatism)

Benthamidia capitata (Wall) H Hara Bhamora Cornaceae Edible (fruit) woodtiber

Cupressus torulosa DDon ex Lamb Surai Cupressaceae Wood medicine (cough coldand bronchitis)

Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall) Drude Anyar Ericaceae Fuel medicine (wounds andboils)

Rhododendron arboreum Sm Burans EricaceaeFuel edible flowers medicinal

(headache diarrhea anddysentery)

Quercus floribunda Lind ex A Camus Tilonj Fagaceae Timber fodder fuelQuercus leucotrichophora A Camus Banj Fagaceae Timber fodder fuelQuercus semecarpifolia Sm Kharsu Fagaceae Fueltimber and fodder

Aesculus indica (Wall ex Cambess) Hook Pangar Hippocastanaceae Fuel fodder medicine(rheumatism)

Juglans regia L Akhrot Juglandaceae Edible fruit dye medicine(antiseptic astringent)

Lindera pulcherrima (Nees) Hook f Cheri Lauraceae Woodfuel manurePersea gamblei (King ex Hook f) Kosterm Kauwla Lauraceae Agricultural implementsfuel

Myrica esculenta Buch-Ham ex DDon Kaphal Myricaceae Edible fruit medicine (coughfever and asthma)

Abies spectabilis (DDon) Spach Morinda Pinaceae Timberfuel medicine (feverand antiseptic)

Picea smithiana (Wall) Boiss Rai spruce Pinaceae Woodtimber medicine (cutsand sores)

Pinus wallichiana A B Jacks Kail Pinaceae Fuel paint medicine(antiseptic)

Prunus cornuta (Wall ex Royle) Steud Jamma Rosaceae Fuel fodder medicine(antipyretic)

Pyrus pashia Buch-Ham ex DDon Mehal Rosaceae Fuel fodder edible medicine(diabetes)

social rules that regulate human behaviour [11] In rural areasof India like Garhwal (Uttarakhand) there are a number ofplants animals and even lakes and rivers that are consideredsacred and hence no felling or exploitation is being carriedout As a result of this consecration different species of treesand animals that are economically important or threatened inother areas are preserved and can forma genetic reservoir andserve as a guide against extinction of these species [12] Forexample Dodital and Devariya Tal two lakes in Uttarkashiand Rudraprayag district of Uttarakhand are consideredsacred so fishing is completely restricted There is a taboothat if fishing is done in these lakes the fisherman will sufferfrom leprosy [13] Therefore the religious belief serves asan instrument of protection of rare and threatened speciesReligious beliefs tradition and culture are the products oflogical internalization of human experience and learningThese practices help in managing resources well throughreligious or ritual representation

Trees have a very special role in the ethos of thepeople in Uttarakhand Species of trees are worshipped as(1) manifestation of gods (2) representatives of particularstars and planets and (3) symbols of the natural elements(energy water land and air) each of which has its ownindependent and rational meanings [12] For example inGarhwal Himalaya Ficus religiosa is considered to be sacredThere are many instances where communities control theexcess use of resource by confining the approach to resourcesand enforcing compliance through religious belief ritualsand social convention which at last result in biodiversityconservation in such communities The roles of religiousand cultural beliefs in protecting trees have been observedby other researchers also [1 12] Species such as sacred fig(Ficus religiosa) mountain lion (Felis concolor) and southernpocket gopher (Thomomys umbrinus emotus) are protectedby Hindusrsquo taboo all across the Indian subcontinent [13] Inthe present study also we reported some taboos associated


Table 3 List of Shrub species (with ethnomedicinal properties) found in Hariyali Devi SG


Hedera nepalensis (K Koch) Laguli Araliaceae Medicinal (expectorant whoopingcough)

Berberis asiatica Roxb Kilmora Berberidaceae Fuelfodder and medicinal (ophthalmicconjunctivitis and gastritis)

Sarcococca saligna (DDon) Mull Arg Piruli Buxaceae Sticks soil binder medicinal (joint painsand fever)

Abelia triflora R Br Gogti Caprifolaceae Walking sticks fodderLonicera quinquelocularis Hard Taknoi Caprifolaceae Edible walking sticks

Viburnum cordifoliumWall ex DC Bhatnoi guya Caprifolaceae Edible fruits medicinal (againstmenorrhagia-excessive menstruation)

Elaeagnus parvifoliaWall ex Royle Giwain kanal Elaeagnaceae

Medicine (treatment of bloody dysenterycardiac tonic cough treatment of

afflictions of lungs cancer treatment)edible fruits fodder

Indigofera heteranthaWall ex Brandis Sakina Fabaceae Medicinal (burns skin diseases andulcers) fodder edible

Desmodium elegans DC Chamali Fagaceae Medicine (antipyretic vomiting)Deutzia compacta Craib Mhujvar Hydrangeaceae Medicinal (diuretic)Elsholtzia fruticosa (DDon) Rehder Pothi Lamiaceae Medicinal (abdominal pain and nausea)Zanthoxylum armatum DC Timur Rutaceae Medicinal (toothache)

Myrsine africana L Chupra Myricaceae Medicinal (anthelmintic antispasmodicskin infections)

Boenninghausenia albiflora (Hook) Rchb exMeisn Pishumar Rutaceae Medicinal (treatment of malaria

headache treatment of scabies)Rhamnus virgatus Roxb Chentuli Rhamnaceae Fuel medicinal (eczema and ringworms)

Rosa brunonii Lindl Kunja Rosaceae Medicinal (cuts wounds and sprains)soil binder

Rosa sericea Lindl Dhurkunja Rosaceae Fodder edible fruit rich in vitamin C

Rubus foliolosus DDon Kala hisar Rosaceae Edible fruits medicinal (dysentery andwhooping cough)

Spiraea bella Sims Kuji Rosaceae Medicinal (wash sores and wounds)brooms

Leptodermis lanceolataWall Padera Rubiaceae Medicinal (migraines) fodderRandia tetrasperma (Wall ex Roxb) Benthamp Hook f ex Brandis Kamoli Rubiaceae Fuel walking sticks medicinal

(astringent diuretic and diarrhea)

Skimmia anquetilia Tayl amp Airy Shaw Nairpatti Rutaceae Agricultural use sticks medicinal(treatment of headache and smallpox)

Debregeasia longifolia (Burm F)Wedd Tusara Urticaceae Fodder used for making ropes medicine(treatment of scabies)

with Hariyali Devi and Tungnath sacred groves Accordingto villagers these taboos need to be followed by all Theseinclude the following

(a) Women are strictly prohibited from entering thesacred forest due to the belief that they are impure

(b) Fetchingcollection of fodder and fuelwood and themovement of women and Shudras (scheduled castes)have been strictly prohibited in this grove sincethe Mahabharata period A temple of the goddessHariyali Devi is located in this forest patch

(c) Use of tools in any form (knife sickle etc) onthe plants and animals will be a step to hurt the

sentiments ofDevi (goddess)The forest fairies in turnare angered and their wrath can make person mad ordeformed and also can lead to disaster in the familyof offender

(d) For a person who starts his journey if a snake comesacross his way then he has to stop the journey andhas to restart only after worshipping the god after aninterval of a week

(e) One week before pilgrimage the villagers stop eatingonion garlic egg and meat

(f) Anything that is made up of leather is prohibited inthe temple and grove


Table 4 List of Herbaceous species (with ethnomedicinal properties) found in Hariyali Devi SG


Barleria cristata L Kala bansa Acanthaceae Medicinal (anemia toothache) soilbinder

Peristrophe paniculata (Forssk) Brummitt Kaknado Acanthaceae Medicinal (used against TB)

Achyranthes aspera L Latjiri Amaranthaceae Medicinal (malarial fever andmuscular sprains)

Heracleum lanatumMichx Kakriya Apiaceae Medicinal (nervine and tonic) ediblePimpinella diversifolia DC Teroi Apiaceae Medicinal (respiratory diseases)Arisaema intermedium Blume Meenmagmungari Araceae Medicinal (burns)

Arisaema jacquemontii Blume Khaprya AraceaeMedicinal (antidote of poisonousmushrooms and snake bite cough

kidney skin diseases)

Impatiens sulcataWall Chaul Araliaceae Medicinal (antirheumatic and burns)edible

Ageratum conyzoides L Gundrya Asteraceae Medicinal (anti-inflammatoryantibacterial)

Anaphalis triplinervis (Sims) C B Clarke Bugla Asteraceae Medicinal (cuts and woundsantiseptic)

Cynoglossum glochidiatumWall ex Benth Lichkura Boraginaceae Medicinal (dyspepsia and digestivedisorder) vegetable

Silene edgeworthii Bocquet Bakroyla Caryophyllaceae Medicinal (eye infections)

Stellaria media (L) Vill Badyalu Caryophyllaceae Medicinal (antirheumaticanti-inflammatory) vegetable fodder

Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam) Oken Bish-khapura Crassulaceae Medicinal (burns wounds andswellings)

Dipsacus inermisWall Phulee Dipsacaceae Medicinal (leucoderma andcontusions) edible fruits

Lathyrus aphaca L Kurphail Fabaceae FodderSwertia angustifolia Buch-Ham exDDon Chirata Gentianaceae Medicinal (febrifuge)

Geranium nepalense Sweet Phori Geraniaceae Medicinal (diarrhea ulcers andwounds) tennin

Hypericum elodeoides Choisy Basanti Hypericaceae Medicinal (antidepressant sedativerheumatism)

Micromeria biflora (Buch-Ham exDDon) Benth Gorakhopan Lamiaceae Medicinal (carminative)

Origanum vulgare L Ban tulsi Lamiaceae Medicinal (antispasmodiccarminative) vegetable

Prunella vulgaris L Self-heal Lamiaceae Medicinal (wound healingexpectorant antiseptic)

Salvia lanata Roxb Ghanyajhar Lamiaceae Vegetable and bee-forage source

Oxalis corniculata DC Bhilmoro Oxalidaceae Medicinal (headache indigestion anddiarrhea) vegetable

Peperomia tetraphylla Hook amp Arn Tirpirya PiperaceaeMedicinal (treatment of convulsionsskin diseases cough asthma kidney

disorders)Rumex hastatus DDon Almoru Polygonaceae Medicinal (astringent)Rumex nepalensis Spreng Khatura Polygonaceae Medicinal (purgative) vegetableAnemone obtusiloba DDon Kanchphool Ranunculaceae Medicinal (nervine and sedative)

Thalictrum javanicum Blume Mamiri Ranunculaceae Medicinal (febrifuge antirheumaticand antigout)

Fragaria nubicola (Hook f) Lindl exLacaita Gand-kaphal Rosaceae Medicinal (earache)

Potentilla fulgensWall ex Hook Bajardantu Rosaceae Medicinal (antidiarrheal toothache)edible

Galium aparine L Khuskusa Rubiaceae Medicinal (diuretic andanti-inflammatory)


Table 4 Continued


Solanum erietinum DDon Ban-tambakhu Solanaceae Medicinal (vaginal dischargesinflammation) edible fruits

Solanum nigrum L Banbhatuja Solanaceae Medicinal (cough cold diuretic)

Selinum vaginatum C B Clark Butkeshi Spigeliaceae Medicinal (nervine sedative andanalgesic)

Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis Bhainsya Urticaceae Medicinal (fever headache andswollen joints) fibers ropes

Hedychium spicatum Buch-Ham ex Sm Banhaldi Zingiberaceae Medicinal (analgesicanti-inflammatory)

Table 5 List of sacred animal species (with IUCN conservation status) found in Hariyali Devi

Scientific name Common name Family IUCN statuslowast

Aonyx cinerea Asian small-clawed otter Mustelidae VulnerableCapricornis sumatraensis Serow Bovidae VulnerableCervus unicolor Sambar (jado) Cervidae VulnerableFelis bengalensis Leopard cat Felidae Least concernFelis chaus Jungle cat Felidae Least concernHemitragus jemlahicus Himalayan tahr Bovidae Near threatenedMartes flavigula Himalayan marten (khursyala) Mustelidae Least concernPanthera pardus African leopard Felidae VulnerablePanthera uncia Leopard (guldar) Felidae EndangeredRattus nitidus Himalayan field rat Muridae Least concernSus scrofa Wild boar Suidae Least concernUrsus arctos Brown bear Ursidae Least concernlowasthttpwwwiucnredlistorgsearch

Table 6 List of birds and butterflies (with IUCN conservation status) found in Hariyali Devi


BirdsColumba eversmanni Yellow-eyed pigeon Columbidae VulnerableColumba rupestris Hill pigeon Columbidae Least concernDicrurus macrocercus Black drongo Dicruridae Least concernGallus gallus Red junglefowl Phasianidae Least concernStreptopelia orientalis Oriental turtle dove Columbidae Least concernPycnonotus leucogenys Himalayan bulbul Pycnonotidae Least concernTurdoides striata Jungle babbler Leiothrichidae Least concernDendricitta vagabunda Rufous treepie Corvidae Least concernUrocissa flavirostris Yellow-billed blue magpie Corvidae Least concern

ButterfliesAcraea issoria Yellow coster Nymphalidae Least concernArgynnis kamala Common silverstripe Nymphalidae Least concernDelias belladonna horsfieldi Hill jezebel Papilionidae Least concernKallima inachus huegelii Orange oakleaf Lycaenidae Least concernPolyura dolon Stately nawab Lycaenidae Least concernPseudergolis wedah Tabby Nymphalidae Least concernYpthima sakra Himalayan five-ring Lycaenidae Least concernlowasthttpwwwiucnredlistorgsearch


Table 7 List of Tree species (with ethnomedicinal properties) found in Tungnath SG

Botanical name Vernacular name Family Ethnomedicinal propertyAcer caesiumWall ex Brandis Indian maple Aceraceae Fuel medicinal (for muscular swelling)Ilex dipyrenaWall Himalayan holly Aquifoliaceae Fuel fodder agricultural implementsBetula utilis DDon Bhojpatra Betulaceae Medicinal (diuretic skin infections)Euonymus tingensWall Spindle tree (kasuree) Celastraceae Fuel also used as dyesRhododendron arboreum Sm Burans Ericaceae Fuel flowers for squashQuercus semecarpifolia Sm Kharsu Fagaceae Fuel fodder and timberPrunus cornuta (Wall ex Royle) Steud Himalayan bird cherry Rosaceae Fuel and fodderTaxus wallichiana Zucc Himalayan yew Taxaceae Medicinal (anticancerous) fuel timber

Table 8 List of Herbaceous and Shrub species (with ethnomedicinal properties) found in Tungnath SG

Botanical name Vernacular name Family Ethnomedicinal propertyHerbs

Selinum candolle Edgew Muur Apiaceae Medicinal (analgesic cough fever)

Silene conoidea L Chota takla thumriya Caryophyllaceae Medicinal (eye infectionstreatment of ophthalmia)

Morina longifoliaWall Kathi kathoj sakina Caprifoliaceae Medicinal (wounds and incenseburns and boils)

Polygonatum verticillatum (L)All Mitha dudhiya Asparagaceae

Medicinal (used in treatment ofemaciation senility gastric

diseases)

Corydalis govanianaWall Inderajatta Papaveraceae Medicinal (fever liver diseases andeye infections)

Cynodon dactylon (L) Pers Dhub Poaceae Medicinal (cuts wounds pilesinflammation skin diseases)

Rubus nepalensis (Hook f)Kuntze Hisar Rosaceae Medicinal (cuts and wounds)

Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth Kutki Scrophulariaceae Medicinal (fever hepatitis chronicdysentery)

Nardostachys jatamansi (DDon)DC Jattamaansi Valerianaceae

Medicinal (tranquilizer sedativehigh blood pressure used in

dysmenorrhoea for pain relief andsmooth menstrual flow)

Shrubs

Berberis aristata DC Kingor Berberidaceae Medicinal (used in ophthalmiaconjunctivitis ulcers)

Juniperus indica Bertol Guugal Cupressaceae Medicinal (cough cold and fever)Rhododendron anthopogonDDon Taalisri burans Ericaceae Medicinal (against respiratory

diseases)Rhododendron campanulatumDDon Chimalburans Ericaceae Medicinal (chronic rheumatism

and sciatica)Rhododendron lepidotumWallex GDon Burans Ericaceae Medicinal (respiratory and

digestive ailments)

Clematis buchananiana DC Belkangu Ranunculaceae Medicinal (skin ailments sinusinflammation wounds)

Cotoneaster acuminatus Lindl Ruins Rosaceae Medicinal (diarrhea and dysentery)Cotoneaster microphyllusWall exLindl Ruins Rosaceae Anti-inflammatory cuts and

woundsLeptodermis lanceolataWall Koo-basya Rubiaceae Medicinal (migraines)


Table 9 List of animal species (with IUCN conservation status) found in Tungnath SG


Canis aureus Jackal Canidae Least concernCapricornis sumatraensis Serow Bovidae VulnerableHemitragus jemlahicus Himalayan tahr Bovidae Near threatenedMacaca mulatta Rhesus macaque Cercopithecidae Least concernMoschus chrysogaster Alpine musk deer Moschidae EndangeredOchotona roylei Himalayan mouse-hare Ochotonidae Least concernPanthera pardus Common leopard Felidae VulnerablePresbytis entellus Common langur Cercopithecidae Least concernPseudois nayaur Bharal Bovidae Least concernPteropus giganteus Indian flying fox Pteropodidae Least concernUrsus thibetanus Himalayan black bear Ursidae Vulnerablelowasthttpwwwiucnredlistorgsearch

Table 10 List of birds and reptiles (with IUCN conservation status) found in Tungnath SG


BirdsAquila nipalensis Steppe eagle Accipitridae EndangeredGypaetus barbatus Bearded vulture Accipitridae Near threatenedLophophorus impejanus Himalayan monal Phasianidae Least concernMegalaima viridis White-cheeked barbet Megalaimidae Least concernNeophron percnopterus Egyptian Vulture Megalaimidae Least concernPucrasia macrolopha Koklass Phasianidae Least concernTragopan melanocephalus Western tragopan Phasianidae VulnerableZoothera monticola Greater long-billed thrush Turdidae Least concern

ReptilesCalotes versicolor Indian garden lizard Agamidae Not evaluatedHemidactylus brookii Spotted Indian gecko Gekkonidae Least concernNaja naja Spectacled cobra Elapidae Near threatenedOrthriophis hodgsoni Himalayan trinket snake Colubridae Not evaluatedScincella himalayanum Himalayan ground skink Scincidae Least concernlowasthttpwwwiucnredlistorgsearch

(g) Killinghunting of animals and pluckinguprooting ofplants are strictly forbidden in the SGs

34 Myths Associated with the Hariyali Devi and TungnathSGs According to HinduMythology when Devi Mahamayawas conceived in the form of Devakirsquos seventh child the cruelbrother of Devaki Kansa threw Devi Mahamaya aggressivelyon the ground Immediately multiple body parts of Devi gotscattered all over the earth The hand fell at Hariyali DeviSince then it has become a revered place as Siddha PeethThe temple is open for all seasons but it is more celebratoryat the time of Janmashtami Navratri and Deepawali Themyth which prevails according to the Bhagwat Puran is thefollowing Yogmaya was the sister of Lord Krishna and shereplaced him in the cell of his parents during his birth WhenKansa threw her against the wall she turned into lightningand came to Hariyali Parvat to make her abode Since thenthe adjoining forest is known as ldquoHariyalirdquo and is worshippedby people

The Tungnath temple is the highest Hindu shrine andis believed to be 1000 years old It has a rich legend linkedto the Pandavas Heroes of Mahabharata epic According toHinduMythology Vyas Rishi advised the Pandavas that sincethey were culpable of slaying their own relatives (Kauravastheir cousins) during the Mahabharata war their act couldbe pardoned only by Lord Shiva Consequently the Pandavaswent in search of Shiva who was convinced of the guilt ofPandavas In order to keep away from them Shiva took theform of a bull and went into hiding in an underground safehaven of Guptakashi where Pandavas chased him But laterShivarsquos body in the form of bullrsquos body parts rematerializedat five different locations that represent the ldquoPanch Kedarrdquowhere Pandavas built temples of Lord Shiva at each locationto worship and venerate seeking his pardon and blessingsEach location is identified with a part of his body Tungnathis identified as a place where his ldquoBahu (hands)rdquo were seenLegend also states that Lord Ram the chief icon on theRamayana epic meditated at the Chandrashila peak whichis close to Tungnath


Sacred groves(an outcome of religious beliefs traditional values taboos and sociocultural practices)

Ecological values of sacred groves Causes of degradation of sacred groves

Maintenance ofecological balance

Conservation ofbiodiversity

Supply of resources(economic support)

Human impact onsacred groves

Change in peoplersquos attitude and socioculturalpractices

Erosion of religious beliefs and tradition values

Developmental activities Increased population pressure

Habitat degradation Forest fragmentation Encroachment Exploitation of resources

Figure 2 Relationships between ecological values religious beliefs and traditional values and causes of degradation of sacred groves(courtesy [7])

35 Festivals (Melas) Associated with the Sacred GrovesSGs are associated with religious rites festivals and recre-ation The organization and celebration of fairs and festivalshave preserved the traditional and sociocultural heritage ofGarhwal to a great extent InHariyali Devi andTungnath SGsfestivals (locally called as melas) are organized during AprilandOctober every year on the occasion ofNavratri ShivratriHoli and so forth At thesemelas (festivals) the local commu-nities reaffirm their commitment to the forest and the deityThe heads of the communities supervise the utilization andmaintenance of the SGs to ensure that there is no deviationfrom the village-appointed rules Anthwal et al [14] alsoreported several festivals related to SGs inUttarakhandManyplant species have also been associatedwith religious festivalsnamely Azadirachta indica (Sheela Asthami Nimb Saptami)Ficus bengalensis (Vat Savitri) Aegle marmelos (Bilvamengalsawan ke somvaar)Musa paradisiaca (Kadii Vrat) and Ficusreligiosa (Somvati Amavasya) due to popular and commonbeliefs [14]

36 Conservation of Medicinal Plants The traditional medi-cal systems of northern India (such as Ayurveda and Tibetan)are a component of culture developed over long time [15]Medicinally important plants have high importance forreligious activities of north Indian native communities thatworshiped the plants in the form of god goddesses andminor deities [16] Thus SGs are the valuable repositories ofmedicinal and aromatic plants

Most of the denizens residing in the vicinity of groves arevery simple illiterate and poor and are almost without anyaccess to modern medicine systems But they do have con-scientiously nourished their traditional knowledge customsrituals and ceremonies with great potency Local traditionalknowledge and the practice of plant-based medicine are still

widespread in the rural areas of Garhwal and these play animportant role in primary health care [17] Even the localpeople prefer to stick to the traditional herbal remedies andit is due to a situation of having no alternative choices aswell as poverty and belief in the effectiveness of folkloreherbal remedies [17] The denizens living around these SGshave conserved the medicinal plants of these regions foruse in a sustainable way by themselves and by their futuregenerations Religious beliefs and traditional customs haveplayed an important role in this conservationThey have deepfaith that if someone from outside the village uproots themedicinal plants from their village it is treated as an evil actthat may bring misery of great order to the village folks

37 Present Status of the HD and TN SGs Sacred groves ingeneral are good instruments of biodiversity conservationAs already mentioned our ancestors were aware that thenatural resources that sustained them should be conservedfor the future generations But in the course of time scienceand technology developed and industries were establishedand expanded to meet the increasing demands of the peoplePeoplersquos changing attitudes the erosion of traditional beliefsand human impact have caused degradation of sacred grovesover the years (Figure 2) The same is true for the studiedsacred groves Various anthropogenic activities have alteredthe structure and function of different ecosystems all over theworld [18] One of the most noticeable effects of ecosystemperturbation has been the depletion of biodiversity [19] Van-ishing of species due to different anthropogenic disturbanceslike alteration of natural habitats excessive utilization pol-lution universal climate change and invasion of nonnativespecies is so fast that many precious taxa may disappear evenbefore they are documented and identified and their scientificvalue is discovered [7] Many scholars have worked on


conservation of sacred groves through sociocultural practicesin different parts of India [1 12 20ndash26]

Lack of awareness in terms of long-term future benefitshas resulted in the destruction of SGs No legislative protec-tion has been implemented so far in India This has causedconsiderable ecological damage Sacred groves have becomethe victims of deteriorating faith Such religiously protectedareas provide a comprehensive and rich ecological niche asrepositories of genetic diversity [12] The increased threatsto SGs can be related to the lack of an in-built conservationeffort higher demands for NTFPs fuel wood collectionand decrease in the religious faiths along with the reducedcommitment of the present generation toward such naturalsacred places

Encroachments of SGs areas by various governmentdepartments for different developmental projects as well asmigration and immigration of people also have contributedto the extinction of SGs These SGs need to be protected andmanaged wisely as was done a few decades ago For providingnecessary protection to the SGs andmaintaining their naturalidentity and sanctity it is imperative that the surroundingpopulation is taken into confidence The surrounding villagecommunities need to be educated and guided for sustainingthe sanctity of existing groves and strengthening them Con-servation of SGs is impossiblewithout the active participationof the local people Conservation without compensationis only conversation [17 27] By improving their livingstandards and by giving benefits of conservation to themlong-term conservation goals in these SGs can be achieved

4 Conclusion

India has a very high number of scared groves that play animportant role in biodiversity conservation because of vari-ous myths and religious beliefs associated with them TheseSGs have been conserving the biodiversity for many decadesBut nowadays the attitude of people has changed and thisalong with the mistrust of traditional beliefs has causeddegradation of sacred groves all over India For improvingtheir degraded condition it is suggested that the local peopleliving inside and around the SGs need to be taken into confi-dence so that long-term conservation goals can be achieved

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interestregarding the publication of this work

Acknowledgments

The authors are thankful to the local people for their cooper-ation during the study period

References

[1] L S Kandari V K Bisht M Bhardwaj and A K ThakurldquoConservation and management of sacred groves myths andbeliefs of tribal communities a case study from north-IndiardquoEnvironmental Systems Research vol 3 no 1 2014

[2] D J Hughes and S M D Chandran Paper Presented in theWorkshop on the Role of Sacred Groves in Conservation andManagement of Biological Resources KFRI Peechi India 1997Paper presented in the workshop on the role of sacred grovesin conservation and management of biological resources

[3] A K M N Islam M A Islam and A E Hoque ldquoSpecies com-position of sacred groves their diversity and conservation inBangladeshrdquo in Conserving the Sacred for Biodiversity Manage-ment P S Ramakrishnan Ed pp 163ndash165 KG Saxena amp UMChandrashekara (UNESCOandOxford-IBHPublishing) NewDelhi India 1998

[4] K C Malhotra Y Gokhale S Chatterjee and S SrivastavaldquoSacred groves in Indiardquo in Proceedings of the Aryan BooksInternational p 108 New Delhi India 2007

[5] R Ray and T V Ramachandra ldquoSmall sacred groves in locallandscape are they really worthy for conservationrdquo CurrentScience vol 98 no 9 pp 1178ndash1180 2010

[6] H Singh T Husain and P Agnihotri ldquoHaat Kali sacred groveCentral Himalaya Uttarakhandrdquo Current Science vol 98 no 3p 290 2010

[7] M L Khan A D Khumbongmayum and R S Tripathi ldquoThesacred groves and their significance in conserving biodiversityan overviewrdquo International Journal of Ecology and Environmen-tal Sciences vol 34 no 3 pp 277ndash291 2008

[8] N K AgrawalaWorking plan for the Kedarnath Forest Division1972-73 to 1981-82 Working plan circle Nainital Uttar PradeshIndia 1973

[9] R K Gupta ldquoForest types of the Garhwal Himalaya in relationto edaphic and geological formationsrdquo Indian Forestor vol 4no 8 pp 147ndash160 1964

[10] Z A Malik and M C Nautiyal ldquoSpecies richness and diversityalong the altitudinal gradient in Tungnath the Himalayanbenchmark site of HIMADRIrdquo Tropical Plant Research vol 3no 2 pp 396ndash407 2016

[11] AD Banjo GAOtufale O L Abatan andEA Banjo ldquoTabooas a means of plant and animal conservation in South-WesternNigeria a case study of Ogbe river and its basinrdquoWorld AppliedSciences Journal vol 1 pp 39ndash43 2006

[12] A Anthwal N Gupta A Sharma S Anthwal and K-H KimldquoConserving biodiversity through traditional beliefs in sacredgroves in Uttarakhand Himalaya Indiardquo Resources Conserva-tion amp Recycling vol 54 no 11 pp 962ndash971 2010

[13] J Colding and C Folke ldquoThe relations among threatened spe-cies their protection and taboosrdquoEcology and Society vol 1 no1 1997

[14] A Anthwal R C Sharma and A Sharma ldquoSacred groves tra-ditional way of conserving plant diversity inGarhwal HimalayaUttaranchalrdquo Journal of American Science vol 2 no 2 pp 35ndash38 2006

[15] C P Kala P P Dhyani and B S Sajwan ldquoDeveloping themedicinal plants sector in northern India challenges andopportunitiesrdquo Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol2 article 32 2006

[16] C S Silori and R Badola ldquoMedicinal plant cultivation andsustainable development A case study in the buffer zone ofthe Nanda Devi biosphere reserve Western Himalaya IndiardquoMountain Research andDevelopment vol 20 no 3 pp 272ndash2792000

[17] Z A Malik J A Bhat R Ballabha R W Bussmann and A BBhatt ldquoEthnomedicinal plants traditionally used in health carepractices by inhabitants of Western Himalayardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 172 article no 9563 pp 133ndash144 2015


[18] Z AMalik R Pandey andA B Bhatt ldquoAnthropogenic disturb-ances and their impact on vegetation in Western HimalayaIndiardquo Journal of Mountain Science vol 13 no 1 pp 69ndash822016

[19] Z AMalik J A Bhat and A B Bhatt ldquoForest resource use pat-tern in Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary and its fringe areas (a casestudy fromWesternHimalaya India)rdquoEnergy Policy vol 67 pp138ndash145 2014

[20] B Sinha and R K Maikhuri ldquoConservation through socio-cultural-religious practice in Garhwal Himalaya A case studyof Hariyali sacred siterdquo in Conserving the Sacred for BiodiversityManagement P Ramakrishnan K G Saxena and U M Chan-drashekhara Eds 299 p 289 Oxford and IBH Publishing1998

[21] S Sunitha and R P Rao ldquoSacred groves in Kurnool DistrictAndhra Pradeshrdquo in Biodiversity Taxonomy and Conservationof Flowering Plants M Sivadasan and P Mathew Eds pp 367ndash373 Mentor Books 1999

[22] R Basu ldquoStudies on sacred groves and taboos in PuruliaDistrictof West Bengalrdquo Indian Forester vol 126 no 12 pp 1309ndash13182000

[23] C G Kushalapa S A Bhagwat and K A Kushalapa ldquoConser-vation andmanagement of sacred groves ofHodagu KarnatakaSouth India-a unique approach inrdquo in Tropical EcosystemsStructure Diversity and Human Welfare K N Ganeshaiah UR Shaanker and K S Bawa Eds pp 565ndash569 Oxford IBHPublishing 2001

[24] S A Bhagwat C G Kushalappa P H Williams and N DBrown ldquoA landscape approach to biodiversity conservation ofsacred groves in the Western Ghats of Indiardquo ConservationBiology vol 19 no 6 pp 1853ndash1862 2005

[25] V Jaryan S K Uniyal Gopichand et al ldquoRole of traditionalconservation practice Highlighting the importance of Shivbarisacred grove in biodiversity conservationrdquo Environmentalistvol 30 no 2 pp 101ndash110 2010

[26] M Kala and A Sharma ldquoTraditional Indian beliefs A keytoward sustainable livingrdquo Environmentalist vol 30 no 1 pp85ndash89 2010

[27] Z A Malik Phytosociological behavoiur anthropogenic distur-bances and regeneration status along an altitudinal gradient inKedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary (KWLS) and its adjoining areas[PhD thesis] HNB Garhwal University Srinagar UttarakhandUttarakhand India 2014

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

Forestry ResearchInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

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EcologyInternational Journal of


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Environmental Chemistry

Atmospheric SciencesInternational Journal of



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Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 201

International Journal of


Geological ResearchJournal of

EarthquakesJournal of


BiodiversityInternational Journal of


ScientificaHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

OceanographyInternational Journal of


The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of Computational Environmental SciencesHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014


ClimatologyJournal of


Table 1 Locations of the studied sacred groves (SGs)

Site Altitude (m asl) Geographic coordinatesHariyali Devi (HD) 1500ndash2800 N30∘191015840481810158401015840 E 79∘001015840247710158401015840

Tungnath (TN) 3000ndash4000 N30∘291015840130710158401015840 E 79∘131015840161610158401015840

have been reported from India [4] In India SGs are especiallypresent in the Himalayan regionWestern and Eastern GhatsCoastal Region Central Indian Plateau and Western Desert

The SGs play an important role in ensuring smoothecosystem services such as clean environment that is airsoil and water conservation flora and fauna conservationcarbon sequestration temperature control and conservationof traditional knowledge They are therefore of centralimportance as far as the ecological conservation and policyregarding conservation and management of forest at stateand national levels are concerned [5] Sacred groves serve asa home for birds and mammals and hence they indirectlyhelp in the conservation of biodiversity [3] There are severalstudies carried out by various researchers on this subjecthighlighting significant role and potential of the SGs [1 56] The present paper presents a case study of two SGs ofWestern (Garhwal) Himalaya and the aim of the study wasto document (i) the floral and faunal diversity of these SGsand (ii) the myths beliefs and taboos related to biodiversityconservation in these SGs

2 Materials and Methods

21 Study Area The present paper describes a case study oftwo sacred groves from theWestern HimalayaThe study wascarried out in Uttarakhand also known asDev Bhumi (abodeor home of gods) Uttarakhand is very rich in biodiversity andthere are many SGs for the conservation of this biodiversitySGs like Chipla Kedar Tarkeshwar Hariyali Devi Binsar KotKalimath Goldev Tapovan Chandrabadani Tungnath andTriyuginarayan are some of the important SGs ofDev BhumiThe present study was carried out in two SGs Hariyali Deviand Tungnath both of which are located in Rudraprayagdistrict (Figure 1 and Table 1)

Hariyali Devi is located above Kodima village at analtitude of 1400m in Rudraprayag The temple containsa bejeweled idol of Ma Hariyali Devi astride a lion Thetemple houses chiefly three idols namely Ma Hariyali DeviKshatrapal and Heet Devi The temple is open throughoutthe year but it is more festive at the time of JanmashtamiNavratri and Deepawali

Tungnath lies in the upper catchment of the AlaknandaRiver and the Mandakini River two major tributaries ofthe Ganges at an altitude of about 2800ndash3300m Tungnathtemple is dedicated to Lord Shiva and is the highest Shivashrine among the Panch Kedar 3 km uphill form Chopta

22 Geology Soil and Climate The rocks of study area aremainly mylonitized gneisses augen gneisses schists andgranites constituting Munsiyari Formation [8] The weather-ing bedrocks which provide the bulk of the loose materialin these mountains are crystalline and metamorphic with

sedimentary deposits of Paleozoic age [9] The soil texture issandy loam light grey to brown in color and acidic in naturewith a pH range between 4 and 5 [10]

Four distinct seasons are observed in the study areashort summer (May-June) Monsoon (Julyndashmid-September)autumn (mid-September-October) and long winter(NovemberndashApril) The snow cover lasts for about 4-5months and melts during AprilndashMay which marks thearrival of favorable conditions for plant growth The growthperiod lasts for about 5ndash7 months only [10]

23 Sampling Procedures (Methodology) To study the role ofthe SGs in biodiversity conservation mentioned in Table 1 apreliminary survey was conducted in these areas Informa-tion about these SGs was collected by consulting the elderlypeople of the villages governmental and nongovernmentalagencies after receiving prior informed consent and litera-ture sources (books and scientific journal articles) The datacollected included the general information regarding the SGsand the associated deity nearest human habitation accessto them and their floral and faunal diversity Informationregarding the ethnomedicinal property of different plants wasalso collected from the surrounding indigenous communi-ties

3 Results and Discussion

31 Biodiversity of Hariyali Devi Sacred Grove Hariyali DeviSG is rich in floral and faunal diversity (Tables 2 3 4 5 and6) A total of 80 12 9 and 7 species of plants mammalsbirds and butterflies respectively were recorded from thisSG (Tables 2 3 4 5 and 6) The 80 plant species represented75 genera and 44 families with different economic valuesRosaceae with the highest number of species (8) was foundto be the dominant family The number of species variedin different life forms like herbs (37) shrubs (23) and trees(20) Most of the plant species in the SG had one or otherethnomedicinal importance (Tables 2 3 and 4) The pre-dominant vegetation is represented byQuercus semecarpifolia(kharsu) Quercus leucotrichophora (banj) Rhododendronarboreum (burans) and Lyonia ovalifolia (anyar)

Hariyali Devi forest harbors many sacred animal andbutterfly species (Tables 5 and 6) Capricornis sumatraensisCervus unicolor and Felis bengalensis are some commonmammalian species In addition to these some reptile specieswere recorded from this SG

32 Biodiversity of Tungnath Sacred Grove Apart from beinga sacred grove Tungnath is also a part of Kedarnath WildlifeSanctuary and hence is an important region as far as theconservation of biodiversity is concerned Tungnath is ahome to many rare threatened and endangered medicinal


30∘45

0N

30∘30

0N

30∘15

0N

30∘45

0N

30∘30

0N

30∘15

0N

78∘45

0E 79

∘00E 79

∘15

0E 79

∘30

0E

78∘45

0E 79

∘00E 79

∘15

0E 79

∘30

0E

Tungnath(79 13 161630 29 1307)

Elevation 3400 m

Hariyali Devi(79 00 247730 19 4818)

Elevation 1500 m

N




























































































Table 4 Continued
























diseases)








Shrubs





digestive ailments)




































4 Conclusion




Acknowledgments


References

































Journal of










Advances in























30∘45

0N

30∘30

0N

30∘15

0N

30∘45

0N

30∘30

0N

30∘15

0N

78∘45

0E 79

∘00E 79

∘15

0E 79

∘30

0E

78∘45

0E 79

∘00E 79

∘15

0E 79

∘30

0E

Tungnath(79 13 161630 29 1307)

Elevation 3400 m

Hariyali Devi(79 00 247730 19 4818)

Elevation 1500 m

N




























































































Table 4 Continued
























diseases)








Shrubs





digestive ailments)




































4 Conclusion




Acknowledgments


References

































Journal of










Advances in













































































































Table 4 Continued
























diseases)








Shrubs





digestive ailments)




































4 Conclusion




Acknowledgments


References

































Journal of










Advances in






















































































Table 4 Continued
























diseases)








Shrubs





digestive ailments)




































4 Conclusion




Acknowledgments


References

































Journal of










Advances in






















































Table 4 Continued
























diseases)








Shrubs





digestive ailments)




































4 Conclusion




Acknowledgments


References

































Journal of










Advances in























Table 4 Continued
























diseases)








Shrubs





digestive ailments)




































4 Conclusion




Acknowledgments


References

































Journal of










Advances in
































diseases)








Shrubs





digestive ailments)




































4 Conclusion




Acknowledgments


References

































Journal of










Advances in






















































4 Conclusion




Acknowledgments


References

































Journal of










Advances in











































4 Conclusion




Acknowledgments


References

































Journal of










Advances in


























4 Conclusion




Acknowledgments


References

































Journal of










Advances in





































Journal of










Advances in


























Journal of










Advances in






















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